The Reproductive Systems

The capacity of organism to reproduce offspring like themselves is called reproduction.

Humans produce offspring by a process called sexual reproduction in which haploid sperm
cells produced by the testes of males fertilize the haploid secondary oocytes produced by the
ovaries of females. As a result of fertilization, the resulting diploid cell is called a zygote and
contains one set of chromosomes from each parent.

Male Reproductive System

The organs of the male reproductive system include

 Testes
 Epididymis
 Ductus deferens
 Ejaculatory ducts
 Urethra
 Accessory sex glands:
Seminal vesicles
Prostate
Bulbourethral glands
 supporting structures:
Scrotum
Penis

Function of male reproductive System

The testes (male gonads) produce sperm and secrete hormones.

The duct system transports and stores sperm, assists in their maturation, and conveys them to
the exterior.

The accessory sex glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen.
The penis delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract

The scrotum supports the testes.

Semen contains sperm plus the secretions provided by the accessory sex glands.

Scrotum

The scrotum is a pouch of pigmented skin, fibrous and connective tissue and smooth muscle.

It is divided into two compartments, each of which contains one testis, one epididymis and the
testicular end of a spermatic cord.

It lies:

 below the symphysis pubis

 in front of the upper parts of the thighs
 and behind the penis.
 Testis

The testes or testicles are paired oval glands in the scrotum.

Size:
about 5 cm (2 in.) long
2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter
Mass: 10–15 grams each

They are surrounded by three layers of tissue:-

A. Tunica vaginalis (Outer covering)
Double membrane
Derived from the peritoneum and partially covers the testes.
A collection of serous fluid in the tunica vaginalis is called a hydrocele. It may be caused
by injury to the testes or inflammation of the epididymis.
B. Tunica albuginea
A white fibrous capsule composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
It extends inward, forming septa that divide the testis into a series of internal compartments
called lobules.
 Each of the 200–300 lobules contains 1-3 tightly coiled tubules of germinal epithelial cells
called the seminiferous tubules, where sperm are produced.
Between the tubules are groups of interstitial cells (of Leydig) that secrete the hormone
testosterone the most prevalent androgen. An androgen is a hormone that promotes the
development of masculine characteristics.
Testosterone also promotes a man’s libido (sexual drive).
C. Tunica vasculosa
This consists of a network of capillaries supported by delicate connective tissue.
 Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the formation and development of haploid gametes (sperm in males and
ova/eggs in females) from diploid germ cells.
Types of Gametogenesis
1. Spermatogenesis (in males)
2. Oogenesis (in females)
1. Spermatogenesis (in males)
The process by which the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce sperm is called
spermatogenesis.
It involves the transformation of diploid spermatogonia into haploid sperm through the
process of meiosis.
In humans, this process takes approximately 65–75 days
Occurs in the testes
Produces sperm cells
Starts at puberty and continues throughout life
One germ cell produces 4 sperm cells
Stages of Spermatogenesis-
1. Multiplication Phase (Mitosis)
Spermatogenesis begins with spermatogonia, which are diploid (2n = 46 chromosomes)
stem cells.
These cells divide by mitosis.
Some remain undifferentiated to serve as a reservoir, while others differentiate into
primary spermatocytes.
2. Growth Phase
Primary spermatocytes are still diploid and undergo DNA replication before entering
meiosis.
3. Maturation Phase (Meiosis)
i. Meiosis I: Each primary spermatocyte divides to form two secondary
spermatocytes, which are haploid (n = 23 chromosomes). During this stage,
homologous chromosomes separate and crossing over occurs, leading to genetic
variation.
ii. Meiosis II: Each secondary spermatocyte divides again to produce two
spermatids, resulting in a total of four haploid spermatids from one primary
spermatocyte.
4. Spermiogenesis
This is the final where spermatids transform into mature spermatozoa without further cell
division.
 During this process:
 The nucleus condenses and elongates
 An acrosome forms over the nucleus
 A flagellum develops for motility
 Mitochondria increase to provide energy
 Excess cytoplasm is removed
5. Spermiation
Mature sperm are released from sustentacular (Sertoli) cells into the lumen of
seminiferous tubules.
At this stage, sperm are non-motile and gain motility later in the epididymis.

Sperm (Structure & Function)

About 300 million sperm are produced daily
Length ≈ 60 μm
Specialized for reaching and fertilizing the ovum
Parts of Sperm
1. Head
Size: 4–5 μm, flattened and pointed
Contains:
Nucleus → 23 highly condensed chromosomes (haploid)
Acrosome → cap-like structure
Acrosome Functions:
 Contains enzymes:
Hyaluronidase
Proteases
 Helps sperm penetrate the secondary oocyte during fertilization
2. Tail
Divided into four parts:
a) Neck
Short, constricted region
Contains centrioles
 Forms microtubules of tail
b) Middle Piece
Contains spirally arranged mitochondria
Produces ATP (energy)
Helps in sperm movement
c) Principal Piece
Longest part of the tail
Responsible for propulsion (movement)
d) End Piece
Terminal, tapering part
Final segment of tail
Function of Tail
Enables motility of sperm
Helps sperm travel to site of fertilization
 Epididymis
A comma-shaped organ located on the superior and posterior surface of each testis
Length ≈ 4 cm (but highly coiled)
Composed mainly of the ductus epididymis
Structure of Epididymis
1. Parts
Head
Upper, wider part
Receives sperm from efferent ducts
Body
Middle, narrow portion
Tail
Lower part
Continues as ductus (vas) deferens
2. Ductus Epididymis
Highly coiled tube (~ 6 meters long if uncoiled)
Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Surrounded by smooth muscle
3. Stereocilia
Long, branching microvilli (not true cilia)
Function:
Increase surface area
Help in reabsorption of degenerated sperm

Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)

Continuation of epididymis (tail region)
Length ≈ 45 cm (18 inches)
Thick, muscular tube for sperm transport
Starts from tail of epididymis
Ascends along posterior border of epididymis
Travels through spermatic cord
Enters pelvic cavity
Loops over ureter
Passes behind urinary bladder
Ends in a dilated region called ampulla
Ampulla
Dilated terminal portion of ductus deferens
Acts as a temporary storage site for sperm
Structure
1. Mucosa
Lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Contains lamina propria (areolar connective tissue)
2. Muscularis (Muscle Layer)
Three layers of smooth muscle:
Inner longitudinal
Middle circular
Outer longitudinal
Functions
1. Transport of Sperm
Moves sperm from epididymis to urethra
Uses peristaltic contractions
2. Storage of Sperm
Stores sperm for several months
Unused sperm are reabsorbed

Spermatic Cord
A supporting structure of the male reproductive system
Extends from scrotum to abdominal cavity
Passes through the inguinal canal
Each spermatic cord contains:
Ductus (vas) deferens → transports sperm
Testicular artery → supplies blood to testis
 Pampiniform plexus (veins) → drains blood & carries testosterone
Autonomic nerves
Lymphatic vessels
Cremaster muscle → helps regulate testicular temperature

Ejaculatory Ducts
Short ducts of the male reproductive system
Length ≈ 2 cm (1 inch)
Formed by union of:
Duct of seminal vesicle
Ampulla of ductus (vas) deferens
Course (Pathway)
Formed above the prostate gland
Pass downward and forward (inferiorly & anteriorly)
Travel through the prostate
Open into the prostatic urethra
Function
 Transport:
Sperm (from vas deferens)
Seminal fluid (from seminal vesicles)
 Release contents into urethra just before ejaculation

Urethra (Male)
Common terminal duct of:
Urinary system
Reproductive system
Carries:
Urine
Semen
Length ≈ 20 cm (8 inches)
Course (Pathway)
Passes through:
Prostate gland
Deep perineal muscles
Penis
Parts of Urethra
1. Prostatic Urethra
Length: 2–3 cm
Passes through prostate gland
2. Intermediate (Membranous) Urethra
Length: ~1 cm
Passes through deep perineal muscles
Shortest and narrowest part
3. Spongy (Penile) Urethra
Length: 15–20 cm
Passes through corpus spongiosum of penis
Longest part
Ends at external urethral orifice
Functions
Passage for:
Urine (during urination)
Semen (during ejaculation)
 Accessory Sex Glands (Male)
Do not produce sperm
Secrete fluids that form semen
Work along with reproductive ducts
The accessory sex glands include the seminal vesicles, the prostate, and the bulbourethral glands.

1. Seminal Vesicles (Seminal Glands)

Major contributor to seminal fluid
Provides nutrition + protection to sperm
Paired glands of male reproductive system
Length ≈ 5 cm (2 inches)
Shape: Convoluted, pouch-like
Location
Posterior to urinary bladder
Anterior to rectum
Secretion (Seminal Fluid)
Alkaline and viscous fluid
Released through seminal vesicle ducts
Forms about 60% of total semen volume
Components of Secretion
1. Fructose
Monosaccharide sugar
Provides energy (ATP) to sperm
2. Prostaglandins
Increase sperm motility
Improve sperm viability
Stimulate smooth muscle contractions in female tract
→ Helps sperm reach ovum
3. Clotting Proteins
Cause semen coagulation after ejaculation
Function: Prevent sperm leakage
 Keep sperm inside vagina)
Functions
1. Provides Energy
Fructose used for ATP production by sperm
2. Neutralizes Acidity
Neutralizes acidic male urethra
Neutralizes female reproductive tract
Protects sperm from damage
3. Supports Fertilization
Prostaglandins help in sperm movement
Clotting proteins help semen coagulate after ejaculation

2. Prostate Gland
Single, doughnut-shaped gland
Makes up about 25% of semen volume
Enhances:
Sperm motility
Sperm viability
Size ≈ golf ball
4 cm (side to side)
3 cm (top to bottom)
2 cm (front to back)
Increases slowly from birth to puberty
Rapid growth until ~30 years
Stable till ~45 years
May enlarge after 45 → can compress urethra and affect urine flow
Location
Below (inferior to) urinary bladder
Surrounds the prostatic urethra
Secretion
Milky, slightly acidic fluid (pH ~6.5)
 Released into prostatic urethra via prostatic ducts
Components & Functions
1. Citric Acid
Used by sperm for ATP production (energy)
2. Proteolytic Enzymes
Examples:
PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen)
Pepsinogen
Lysozyme
Amylase
Hyaluronidase
Function:
Break down clotting proteins of semen
Help semen become liquid after ejaculation
3. Acid Phosphatase
Function not clearly known
4. Seminalplasmin
Acts as an antibiotic
Reduces bacteria in:
Semen
Female reproductive tract

3. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands)

Paired glands
Size ≈ pea-sized
Also called Cowper’s glands
Secretion may appear as pre-ejaculate (few drops)
Does NOT contain sperm (normally)
Location
Below (inferior to) prostate
On either side of membranous urethra
 Located in deep perineal muscles
Ducts open into spongy urethra
Secretion
Released during sexual arousal
Fluid is:
Alkaline
Mucus-like
Functions
1. Neutralization
Neutralizes acidic urine residues in urethra
Protects sperm from damage
2. Lubrication
Lubricates:
Urethra lining
Tip of penis
Reduces friction during ejaculation
3. Protection of Sperm
Decreases sperm damage during ejaculation

Semen
Semen is a mixture of sperm and seminal fluid, a liquid that consists of the secretions of the
seminiferous tubules, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands.
Volume & Sperm Count
Volume per ejaculation: 2.5–5 mL
Sperm count: 50–150 million/mL
Below 20 million/mL → infertility likely
pH and Nature
Slightly alkaline (pH 7.2–7.7)
Reason: High alkaline fluid from seminal vesicles
Appearance & Consistency
Milky color → due to prostate secretion
Sticky nature → due to seminal vesicle & bulbourethral fluids
 Penis
Male copulatory organ
Contains urethra
Functions:
Ejaculation of semen
Excretion of urine
Shape: cylindrical
Parts of Penis
1. Body (Shaft)
Main cylindrical portion
Made of 3 erectile tissue masses:
 2 Corpora cavernosa (dorsal, larger)
 1 Corpus spongiosum (ventral,
smaller)
Surrounded by tunica albuginea
 Covered by skin
2. Glans Penis
Distal, enlarged (acorn-shaped) part
Contains: External urethral opening
Margin called corona
Covered by prepuce (foreskin) in uncircumcised males
3. Root
Attached (proximal) part
Consists of:
Bulb of penis (from corpus spongiosum)
Crura (from corpora cavernosa)
Erectile Tissue
Made of:
Blood sinuses (vascular spaces)
Smooth muscle & elastic tissue
Helps in erection

Supporting Structures
Ligaments:
Fundiform ligament
Suspensory ligament
Muscles:
Bulbospongiosus → aids ejaculation
Ischiocavernosus → maintains erection
Erection
The enlargement and stiffening of the penis
Controlled by parasympathetic nerves
Occurs due Release of nitric oxide (NO)
Causes:
Dilation of blood vessels
Increased blood flow
 Expansion of blood sinuses
Veins compressed → maintains erection
Stimuli for Erection
Mechanical stimulation
Psychological factors: Visual, auditory, thoughts
Negative factors (stress, anxiety) can inhibit erection
Ejaculation
The powerful release of semen from the urethra to the exterior
Controlled by sympathetic reflex
Steps:
Emission → discharge of a small volume of semen before ejaculation
Ejaculation → semen expelled
During ejaculation:
Bladder sphincter closes
Prevents mixing of urine and semen
Return to Flaccid State
Arterioles constrict
Blood drains out
Penis becomes relaxed (flaccid)
Clinical Condition
Priapism
Persistent, painful erection
Not related to sexual desire
Causes:
Blood vessel/nerve problems
Certain medications
Diseases (e.g., sickle-cell, leukemia)
 Female Reproductive System

The organs of the female reproductive system include the ovaries (female gonads); the uterine
(fallopian) tubes, or oviducts; the uterus; the vagina; and external organs, which are collectively
called the vulva, or pudendum.
The mammary glands are considered part of both the integumentary system and the female
reproductive system.
Gynecology is the specialized branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of
diseases of the female reproductive system.
Functions of the Female Reproductive System
 Formation of ova
 Reception of spermatozoa
 Provision of suitable environments for fertilization and fetal development
 Parturition (childbirth)
 Lactation, the production of breast milk, which
 Provides complete nourishment for the baby in its early life.

Ovaries
Female gonads (reproductive glands)
Paired organs (one on each side of uterus)
Shape: almond-like (unshelled almond)
Homologous to testes (same embryonic origin)
Location
Located in pelvic cavity
One on each side of the uterus
Descend to pelvic cavity during 3rd month of development
Functions of Ovaries
1. Gamete Production
Produce secondary oocytes (eggs)
2. Hormone Secretion
Estrogens → female secondary sexual characters
Progesterone → maintains pregnancy
Inhibin → regulates hormone secretion
Relaxin → helps in childbirth
Histology of Ovary
Each ovary consists of the following layers and structures:
1. Ovarian Mesothelium (Surface Epithelium)
Outer covering of ovary
Made of simple epithelium
Low cuboidal or squamous
 Protects the ovary
2. Tunica Albuginea
Located just below surface epithelium
Dense irregular connective tissue
Appears whitish
Provides structural support
3. Ovarian Cortex
Located beneath tunica albuginea
Contains:
Ovarian follicles
Dense connective tissue
Stromal cells (fibroblast-like)
Site of oocyte development
4. Ovarian Medulla
Inner region of ovary
Contains:
Blood vessels
Lymphatic vessels
Nerves
Made of loosely arranged connective tissue
Boundary with cortex is not distinct
5. Ovarian Follicles
Located in cortex
Consist of:
Oocyte (developing egg)
Surrounding cells
Types of Surrounding Cells:
Follicular cells → single layer (early stage)
Granulosa cells → multiple layers (later stage)
Functions:
Nourish oocyte
 Secrete estrogen
6. Mature (Graafian) Follicle
Large, fluid-filled follicle
Ready for ovulation
Releases secondary oocyte
7. Corpus Luteum
Formed after ovulation
Secretes:
Progesterone
Estrogens
Relaxin
Inhibin
8. Corpus Albicans
Degenerated corpus luteum
Forms fibrous scar tissue
 Oogenesis
The formation of gametes in the ovaries is termed oogenesis
Formation of ova (eggs) in ovaries
Begins before birth (fetal life)
Involves meiosis and maturation
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries.
Oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell
undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to two million
cells in the embryo
Mechanism:
Oogenesis is formed of three phases:
1. Multiplicative Phase (Mitosis)
Primordial germ cells → form oogonia (2n)
Oogonia undergo mitotic divisions
Produce 1–2 million cells in embryo
2. Growth Phase
One oogonium enlarges → becomes primary oocyte (2n)
Other cells form follicular (nutritive) epithelium
Forms primary follicle
Follicle Development:
Primary follicle → more granulosa layers
Forms secondary follicle
Develops antrum (fluid cavity) → becomes tertiary follicle
Finally forms Graafian follicle (mature follicle)
Growth phase is very long (years in humans)
3. Maturation Phase (Meiosis)
➤ Meiosis I
Primary oocyte (2n) divides into:
Secondary oocyte (n) → large, nutrient-rich
First polar body (n) → small
➤ Meiosis II
Secondary oocyte divides into:
Ootid (n) → develops into ovum
Second polar body (n)
First polar body may also divide → total 2–3 polar
bodies
Ovulation
Occurs at secondary oocyte stage
Meiosis I completed
Meiosis II arrested (metaphase II)
Completion of Meiosis II
Occurs only if sperm enters
Secondary oocyte completes meiosis II
Forms: Ovum (n)
Polar body

Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes / Oviducts)

Paired tubes extending from uterus
Length ≈ 10 cm
Located in broad ligament
Functions:
Transport oocyte/ovum to uterus
Provide pathway for sperm
Site of fertilization
 Essential for successful reproduction
Parts of Uterine Tube
1. Infundibulum
Funnel-shaped, near ovary
Opens into pelvic cavity
Have finger-like projections → fimbriae
Fimbriae help capture ovulated oocyte
2. Ampulla
Longest and widest part
Site where fertilization usually occurs
3. Isthmus
Short, narrow, thick-walled part
Connects tube to uterus
Histology (Layers)
1. Mucosa
Contains:
 Ciliated columnar cells → move oocyte
Peg cells → secrete nutritive fluid
2. Muscularis
Smooth muscle layers:
Inner circular
Outer longitudinal
Produces peristalsis
3. Serosa
Outer protective membrane
Movement of Oocyte
After ovulation:
Fimbriae create currents → sweep oocyte into tube
Movement toward uterus by:
Ciliary action
Peristaltic contractions
Site of Fertilization
Usually occurs in ampulla
Can occur up to 24 hours after ovulation
Sperm + ovum → zygote (2n)

Uterus (Womb)
Hollow, muscular organ in female reproductive system
Central organ for pregnancy and development of fetus
Supported by multiple ligaments
Functions of Uterus
1. Pathway for Sperm
Allows sperm to move from vagina → uterine tubes
2. Site of Implantation
Fertilized ovum (zygote) attaches to uterine wall
3. Fetal Development
Supports growth and nourishment of fetus during pregnancy
 4. Labor (Childbirth)
Muscular contractions help in delivery of baby
5. Menstruation
If fertilization/implantation does not occur:
Inner lining sheds → menstrual flow
Anatomy of Uterus
Located between urinary bladder and rectum
Shape: inverted pear
Size (nulliparous female):
Length: 7.5 cm
Width: 5 cm
Thickness: 2.5 cm
Size increases after pregnancy and decreases after menopause
Parts of Uterus
1. Fundus
Dome-shaped upper portion
Lies above entry of uterine tubes
2. Body
Central, major portion
Contains uterine cavity
3. Cervix
Lower, narrow portion
Opens into vagina
Contains cervical canal
4. Isthmus
Narrow region between body and cervix
About 1 cm long
Internal Openings
Internal os → cervix to uterine cavity
External os → cervix to vagina
Layers of Uterus
The uterus has three layers:
Perimetrium (outer)
Myometrium (middle)
Endometrium (inner)

1. Perimetrium (Serosa)
Outermost layer
Part of visceral peritoneum
Made of:
Simple squamous epithelium
Areolar connective tissue
2. Myometrium
Middle muscular layer
Thickest layer of uterus
Made of smooth muscle fibers:
Inner → longitudinal/oblique
Middle → circular (thickest)
Outer → longitudinal
Function:
Strong contractions during labor (childbirth)
Controlled by hormone oxytocin
3. Endometrium
Innermost layer
Highly vascular (rich blood supply)
Components:
Epithelium
Simple columnar (ciliated & secretory cells)
Stroma
Thick connective tissue layer
Uterine glands
 Secrete substances for nourishment
Layers of Endometrium
1. Stratum Functionalis
Upper layer
Sheds during menstruation
2. Stratum Basalis
Deeper layer
Permanent
Regenerates new functional layer

Cervical Mucus
Secretion produced by cervical mucosal cells
Composition:
Water
Glycoproteins
Lipids
Enzymes
Inorganic salts
Quantity: Secreted 20–60 mL/day during reproductive years

Appearance
At Ovulation
Less viscous (thin)
More alkaline (pH ~8.5)
Becomes favorable for sperm
At Other Times
More viscous (thick)
Forms cervical plug
Prevents sperm entry
Functions
1. Facilitates Sperm Movement
Thin mucus helps sperm pass through cervix
2. Nutrition
Provides energy to sperm
3. Protection
Protects sperm from:
Phagocytes
Acidic environment of vagina & uterus
4. Barrier Function
Thick mucus blocks sperm when fertilization is not favorable
5. Role in Capacitation
Helps in Capacitation
Capacitation:
Functional changes in sperm inside female tract
Leads to:
Increased tail movement
Ability to fuse with oocyte

Vagina
Fibromuscular tubular canal
Length: ~10 cm
Extends from exterior → cervix of uterus
Located between: Urinary bladder (anterior) and Rectum (posterior)
Functions
Receptacle for penis during intercourse
Passage for menstrual flow
Birth canal during childbirth
Structure & Position
Directed upward and backward (superior & posterior)
Surrounds cervix forming fornix (recess)
Fornix helps in placement of contraceptive diaphragm
Acidic Environment
Glycogen → broken down → organic acids
 Maintains acidic pH
Prevents microbial growth
May be harmful to sperm
Role of Semen
Semen is alkaline
Neutralizes vaginal acidity
Increases sperm survival
Hymen
Thin fold of vascularized mucous membrane at vaginal opening
Partially covers vaginal orifice
Conditions:
Normal rupture → during first intercourse or activity
Imperforate hymen → fully closed (requires surgery)
Layers of Vagina
1. Mucosa
Lined by:
Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Contains:
Rugae (folds) → allow stretching
Glycogen stores
Functions:
Protection
Allows expansion
2. Muscularis
Smooth muscle layers:
Inner circular
Outer longitudinal
Function: Stretching during intercourse & childbirth
3. Adventitia
Outer connective tissue layer
Anchors vagina to:
Urethra & bladder (front)
Rectum (back)
Functions of the vagina
The vagina acts as the receptacle for the penis during sexual intercourse (coitus),
and provides an elastic passageway through which the baby passes during
childbirth.

External genitalia (vulva)

Collective term: Vulva
Includes:
Labia majora
Labia minora
Clitoris
 Vaginal orifice
Vestibule
Hymen
Vestibular (Bartholin’s) glands
Labia Majora
Two large folds forming outer boundary of vulva
Composed of:
Skin
Fibrous tissue
Fat
Contain:
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands
Features:
Anteriorly join near symphysis pubis
Posteriorly merge with perineum
At puberty- Hair grows on mons pubis and lateral surfaces

Labia Minora
Two smaller folds inside labia majora
Contain:
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands
Feature: Space between them forms vestibule

Vestibule
Cleft between labia minora
Contains Openings of:
Vagina
Urethra
Ducts of vestibular glands
Clitoris
Small erectile organ of female external genitalia
Homologous to male penis
Structure Contains:
Erectile tissue
Rich sensory nerve endings
Function
Highly sensitive organ
Plays key role in sexual arousal

Vestibular Glands (Bartholin’s Glands)

Paired glands (one on each side)
Located near vaginal opening
Features:
Size: pea-sized
Ducts open into vestibule (near hymen)
Function:
Secrete mucus
Keep vulva moist and lubricated
 Mammary Glands (Breasts)

The breasts or mammary glands are accessory glands of the female reproductive system.
They exist also in the male, but in only a rudimentary form.
Each breast is a hemispheric projection of variable size.
Located anterior to:
Pectoralis major muscle
Serratus anterior muscle
Attached by connective tissue fascia

External Structure
1. Nipple
Central pigmented projection
Contains openings of lactiferous ducts (milk exits here)
2. Areola
Pigmented circular area around nipple
Contains modified sebaceous glands
Appears rough
3. Suspensory Ligaments (Cooper’s Ligaments)
Connect skin to deeper fascia
 Provide support to breast
May loosen with:
Age
Physical strain
Internal Structure
➤ Lobes
Each breast has 15–20 lobes
Separated by adipose tissue
➤ Lobules
Smaller divisions within lobes
➤ Alveoli
Milk-secreting units
Arranged like grape clusters
Surrounded by:
Myoepithelial cells (help milk flow)
Milk Flow Pathway
Alveoli
→ Secondary tubules
→ Mammary ducts
→ Lactiferous sinuses (storage)
→ Lactiferous ducts
→ Nipple
Functions
Milk synthesis
Milk secretion
Milk ejection
➡ together called lactation
Hormonal Control
1. Prolactin
From anterior pituitary
Stimulates milk production
2. Estrogen & Progesterone
Support development and function
3. Oxytocin
From posterior pituitary
Causes milk ejection (let-down reflex)
Triggered by infant suckling
 Reproductive Cycle (Menstrual Cycle)
Regular cycle in females: 26–30 days (avg. 28 days)
Occurs from menarche (first occurrence of menstrual cycle) → menopause
Involves ovarian + uterine changes
Controlled by hormones via feedback mechanisms
Phases of Reproductive Cycle

1. Menstrual Phase (Day 1–4)

Occurs if fertilization does not happen
Corpus luteum degenerates
↓ Estrogen & progesterone
Effects:
Shedding of endometrium
Menstrual flow contains:
 Blood
Endometrial cells
Glandular secretions
Unfertilized ovum
Hormonal status:
Hormones low
FSH begins to rise → new cycle starts
2. Proliferative Phase (Day 5–14)
Controlled by FSH
Follicle develops → secretes estrogen
Effects:
Endometrium:
Thicken
Becomes vascular
Glands increase
Key event:
Rising estrogen → LH surge
Leads to ovulation (mid-cycle)
3. Secretory Phase (Day 15–28)
Controlled by LH
Formation of corpus luteum
Hormones:
Progesterone ↑
Estrogen & inhibin also secreted
Effects:
Endometrium becomes:
Thick
Edematous
Highly secretory
Increased mucus in:
Uterus
 Cervix
Uterine tubes
Ovulation (Mid-cycle Event)
Triggered by LH surge
Release of ovum
Additional changes:
Cervical mucus: Thin, watery, elastic
Body temperature: Increases by ~1°C
Mild abdominal pain (in some females)
➤ If NOT fertilized:
Corpus luteum degenerates
↓ Progesterone & estrogen
Endometrium breaks → menstruation
➤ If fertilized:
Zygote forms → implants in uterus
Secretes hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Effects of hCG:
Maintains corpus luteum
Continued secretion of:
Progesterone
Estrogen
Prevents menstruation
Placenta later takes over hormone production
Fertile Period
Ovum survives: ~8 hours
Sperm survives: ~24–72 hours
Fertile window: short (around ovulation)

Hormonal Regulation
➤ Hypothalamus
Secretes LHRH (GnRH)
➤ Anterior Pituitary
FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
Stimulates follicle growth
Promotes estrogen secretion
Active in first half of cycle
LH (Luteinizing Hormone)
Triggers ovulation
Forms corpus luteum
Stimulates progesterone secretion
Fertilization
Fertilization is the process of fusion of a male gamete (sperm) with a female gamete
(ovum) to form a diploid zygote (2n).
Site: Occurs in the ampulla of the uterine (fallopian) tube
Steps of Fertilization
1. Sperm Transport
Sperm deposited in vagina during intercourse
Travel through:
Cervix → Uterus → Uterine tube
Only a few hundred reach the ovum
2. Capacitation
Functional maturation of sperm in female reproductive tract
Sperm becomes:
Highly motile
Capable of penetrating the ovum
4. Penetration & Fusion
One sperm enters the ovum
Plasma membranes of sperm and oocyte fuse
5. Block to Polyspermy
Chemical changes prevent entry of additional sperm
6. Completion of Meiosis II
Secondary oocyte completes meiosis II
Forms:
Mature ovum
Second polar body
7. Formation of Zygote
Fusion of male and female pronuclei
Restores diploid chromosome number (46 chromosomes)
Initiation of embryonic development
 Sperm Deposition (Vagina)
↓
Sperm Transport
(Cervix → Uterus → Uterine Tube)
↓
Capacitation
(Sperm becomes active & fertile)
↓
Acrosomal Reaction
(Release of enzymes)
↓
Penetration of:
Corona Radiata
↓
Zona Pellucida
↓
Fusion of Sperm & Oocyte Membrane
↓
Block to Polyspermy
(Prevents entry of other sperms)
↓
Completion of Meiosis II
(Secondary oocyte → Ovum + Polar body)
↓
Fusion of Nuclei (Syngamy)
↓
Formation of Zygote (2n)
↓
Start of Embryonic Development
 Pregnancy

Pregnancy is the period from fertilization to birth during which the embryo/fetus develops in
the uterus.
Pregnancy is the condition in which a fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a fetus within the
uterus.

Duration:
About 38 weeks (266 days) from fertilization
(≈ 40 weeks from last menstrual period
Division of Pregnancy
Pregnancy is divided into 3 trimesters, each lasting about 3 months.
1. First Trimester (0–12 weeks)
Major Events:
Fertilization → zygote formation
Implantation in uterus (day 6–7)
Formation of placenta
Development of embryo (organogenesis)
Fetal Development
Heart starts beating (~4th week)
Formation of:
Brain
Spinal cord
Limbs
Hormones
hCG maintains corpus luteum
Progesterone & estrogen increase
Maternal Changes
Missed periods
Nausea (morning sickness)
Fatigue
2. Second Trimester (13–26 weeks)
Major Events
Rapid growth of fetus
Placenta fully functional
Fetal Development
Movements felt (quickening)
Development of:
Hair, eyebrows
External genitalia
Maternal Changes
Abdomen enlarges
Reduced nausea
Increased appetite
3. Third Trimester (27–40 weeks)
Major Events
Maximum growth and maturation
Preparation for birth
Fetal Development
Organs fully developed
Weight gain and fat deposition
Maternal Changes
Back pain
Frequent urination
Strong uterine contractions
Changes in Mother
Enlargement of uterus
Increased blood volume
Breast development
Hormonal changes
Hormonal Changes
hCG: maintains early pregnancy)
 Progesterone:
Maintains uterine lining
Prevents uterine contractions
Estrogen: Promotes growth of uterus & breasts
Oxytocin: labor contractions
Placenta
Temporary organ connecting mother and fetus
Functions:
Exchange of:
Oxygen & nutrients
Carbon dioxide & wastes
Secretes hormones:
hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Progesterone
Estrogen

Parturition

Parturition is the process of expulsion of the fully developed fetus from the uterus at the end of
pregnancy (childbirth).
Initiated by a complex interaction of:
Hormones
Fetal signals
Increased estrogen and decreased progesterone effect
Release of oxytocin from posterior pituitary
Production of prostaglandins
Stretching of uterine wall by fetus
Mechanism (Positive Feedback)
Uterine contractions → stretch cervix
Stretch signals → more oxytocin release
 Oxytocin → stronger contractions
Continues until delivery (positive feedback loop)
Stages of Parturition
1. Dilation Stage
Duration: 6–12 hours (first pregnancy)
Cervix dilates up to 10 cm
Regular uterine contractions
Rupture of amniotic sac (“water breaks”)
2. Expulsion Stage
Duration: 10 minutes to few hours
Delivery of baby
Strong contractions
Fetus passes through:
Cervix
Vagina
3. Placental Stage (Afterbirth)
Occurs within 15–30 minutes after delivery
Expulsion of:
Placenta
Fetal membranes
Hormonal Control
Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions
Prostaglandins: Enhance contractions
Estrogen: Increases uterine sensitivity
Relaxin: Softens cervix and pelvic ligaments

Marks end of pregnancy

Ensures delivery of fetus and placenta
Initiates lactation (milk secretion)
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ STAGE 1: DILATION │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
Uterus contracts repeatedly
↓
Cervix dilates (0 → 10 cm)
↓
Amniotic sac ruptures ("water breaks")

[Uterus]
│
(Fetus inside)
│
↓ Cervix opening ↑

↓↓↓
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ STAGE 2: EXPULSION │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
Strong uterine contractions
↓
Baby moves through:
Uterus → Cervix → Vagina
↓
DELIVERY OF BABY

[Head emerges first]

↓
Full body out
↓↓↓
┌──────────────────────────────┐
│ STAGE 3: PLACENTAL STAGE │
└──────────────────────────────┘
↓
Uterus continues contracting
↓
Placenta separates & expelled

[Placenta]
↓
Out through vagina