Review Article

Conceptualizing Digital Divide and Identifying Factors of

Digital Exclusion in Higher Education through
Systematic Literature Review
Vijay Shree Jaiswal1 & Dharmendra K. Sarraf2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Education, Doctor Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya,
Sagar, (M.P.) Email- [Link]@[Link]
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Doctor Harisingh Gour
Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, (M.P.)

Abstract

Our civilization is being transformed by information and communication technology.

Over the last two decades, technology has permeated every element of our social and
cultural life. The use of internet-enabled devices is fast rising, making online surfing,
access to social media and cross-border communication easier. These new technologies
are making educational resources more accessible to individuals all across the world.
ICTs have long been recognized as an important and critical condition for overcoming
social exclusion since they contribute to improved education, governance, and health
care, and hence may function as a facilitator for social inclusion. However, the rise of
ICTs has not benefitted everyone equally. Digital exclusion occurs when some digital
technologies contribute to constraints and exclusion from community engagement.
This research attempts to demonstrate how the variables responsible for social
exclusion contribute to digital exclusion, which in turn contributes to the extension of
socioeconomic supremacy in education. The purpose of this study is to highlight the basic
issues surrounding digital exclusion, which is currently in its early phases of research.

Keywords: Digital Divide, Digital & Social Exclusion, and Higher Education.

Introduction powerful tool for social transformation

(Justice Watch Foundation, n.a.; Mohan,
Education is regarded as the foundation 2012). Education has the potential
of any country, and every citizen has to transform society by providing
a full (fundamental) right to receive a opportunities and experiences that
quality education. It can change the life prepare individuals to adapt to the
of an individual by reducing poverty changing needs of society. Education is
and improving health, gender equality, also seen as a tool for bridging the gap
peace, and stability in their life (World between rich and poor. It is thought to
Bank, 2022). When we look at education bring equality; more precisely can bring
beyond its traditional confines, we find it equity to everyone and provide a fair
at the centre of all our actions. Whatever playing field. As a result, every country’s
we do, we know and whatever we know first priority has been education. It
has been learned either by instruction or serves as a tool for achieving equality
observation and assimilation. Education among the country’s citizens (Walker et.
is important and cohesive in society, all, 2019). As a result, the constitution
which is why society and knowledge can of India mandates free and compulsory
never be separated. A proper education primary education for all. Education
aids in our empowerment. It is the most is a constantly changing and evolving

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process. To remain relevant in today’s When we see ICT in the higher education
society, educational methods and context, it is embedded in the form of
formats must evolve alongside it. virtual learning environment (Sims,
Vidgen & Powell, 2008). The Massive
We are living in the 21st century, which
Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and
is known as the ‘Digital Era’, which is an
other video conferencing technologies
example of educational evolution and
are used by/in several universities
the people who live in it (particularly the
to provide multimodal instruction
educational personnel) are known as
that transcends time and space
‘Digital Natives’. As we know, the method
(KHALIET l., 2016). ICTs have for long
and techniques of education are evolving
been regarded as a “necessary and
over time, and the emergence of ICT and
key condition for overcoming social
e-learning is the most significant change
exclusion (since they contribute
of this era. In the last two decades,
towards) improved education,
technology has infiltrated virtually every
government, and health care, too, and
aspect of society and our social and
thus can be a multiplying factor for
cultural lives. We are living in a high-
social inclusion” (Warschauer, 2003, p.
tech worldwide culture, and ICT may be
30). ICTs have not, however, benefited
found almost everywhere (Warschauer,
everyone. There is an existence of
2003). The usage of internet-enabled
digital exclusion in the society. It was
devices, which facilitate web browsing
addressed in the European Union’s
and give access to social media and
research and innovation programme
cross-border communication, is rapidly
named “Platform for ICT for Learning
increasing (Baranghi & Sheth, 2014).
and Inclusion” as an notion. For
These new technologies enable more
certain persons, digital technologies
people around the world to gain access
result in limits and exclusion from
to educational learning resources.
community engagement; this
In the past few decades, ICT has affected process is known as digital exclusion
the educational environment at all (European Commission, 2014). There
levels to enable learners to achieve the are two terms, ‘barriers’ and ‘divide’,
set educational goals. Higher education which are used to describe digitally
is comparatively more affected one excluded persons and it also refers to
among these. Higher education of the same set of variables that cause
high quality and relevance can provide social exclusion. However, there is a
students with the knowledge, skills, and scarcity of facts and expertise when it
competencies they need to succeed in comes to digital exclusion in education
life. In India, it is improving over time, (Khalid, 2014).
and technology is playing a significant
role. The government and private Conceptual Discussion
sectors of India have taken a number of
important steps to promote e-learning E-learning
in higher education. EDUSAT satellite,
With the introduction of the computer
National Mission on Education through
and internet in the late 20th century,
Information and Communication
e-learning tools and delivery methods
Technology, National Program on
expanded. The first MAC in the 1980s
Technology Enhanced Learning, Virtual
enabled individuals to have computers
Labs, E-yantra, E-Shodh Sindhu, E-PG
in their homes (The Evolution and
Pathshala, [Link], and others are
History of E-Learning, n.a.). According to
among these measures (Kaushal, N.,
Dr. Nandita Kaushal “A learning system
n.a.).
based on formalized teaching but with

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the help of electronic resources is known 2020). If we broadly define it, digital
as E-learning”. She also stated that exclusion occurs when a segment of the
e-learning is facilitated and supported population continues to have unequal
by ICT to enable people to learn from access to and capacity to use ICT, which
anywhere and anytime. That means is necessary for full participation in
learning based out of class with the help society (Schejter, 2015; Warren, 2007,
of electronic devices, i.e. computers, cited in Sanders, 2020).
mobile phones & internet, is known as
e-learning (The Economic Times, 2022). Social Exclusion
It has different meanings in different
contexts. Here, the researchers see According to Collins Dictionary, “Social
it in the higher education context; it exclusion is the act of making certain
relates to the internet-based flexible groups of people within a society
distribution of information and feel isolated and unimportant”.
educational programming (Campbell, Despite the fact that there is no
2004). It also characterized by active universally agreed-upon definition or
learner-centered pedagogies (Harel, benchmark for social exclusion, lack of
1991; McDougall & Betts, 1997 in involvement in society lies at the heart
Nicholson, 2007). of practically every definition proposed
by academics. Overall, social exclusion
Digital Divide refers to a situation in which people
are unable to fully engage in economic,
The term ‘Digital Divide’ is defined social, political, or cultural life, as well as
as the distinction between those the process that leads to and maintains
who have access to new information that position (United Nations, 2016,
technologies and those who do not p. 18).In developing countries, social
have it. Those who have the access exclusion is widespread, paradoxical,
known as “haves” and those who do and harsh. When ICT is introduced
not are known as “have-nots”. There is into the picture, it tends to “exacerbate
a digital divide, but it is not as simple social exclusion” (Phipps, 2000, in
as haves and not haves. The distinction Tambulasi, 2009, p. 120) by recreating
between high, medium, low, and non- “existing social networks of inclusion
users will always exist (Clark, 2003, p. and exclusion” (David, 2003, p. 236
663; Sims et al., 2008, p. 431). That is cited in Tambulasi, 2009, p. 120). In
why this term is a debatable or can developing nations, “unequal access to
say disputed concept that nowadays ICTs adds a new dimension to the social
is based on the simple question of exclusion debate” (Durieux, 2003, p. 22
owning or not owning. In other words cited in Tambulasi, 2009, p. 120). The
a divide between those who can and growing divides between the “haves and
cannot afford a computer over time have nots”; the “information rich and
(Liebenberg et al., 2012). information poor,” and the “knowledge
rich/poor” are causes for concern
Digital Exclusion (Phipps, 2000, p. 40-1).

Over the period of time, the definition of The central argument of this paper is
digital exclusion has evolved. Earlier, it that most developing countries already
was limited to only the “user / non-user” have high levels of social exclusion due
distinction. Now a more comprehensive to a variety of factors such as poverty,
examination of various levels of internet gender discrimination, low education,
use and skill divisions exists (Carnegie rural residence, and government
UK Trust, 2016b cited in Sanders, policies and institutions, and in this

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sense, ICTs only widen and perpetuate mentioned concerns about digital and
this exclusion by highlighting the socio- social marginalization. A total of thirty
economic elitism that already exists in related research papers, dissertations,
society (Tambulasi, 2009, p. 119). and a thesis were chosen for this study,
with 10 research papers and theses
This research aims to identify the
being chosen based on their relevance
factors that lead to digital exclusion
to the goal of this work. These studies
and, as a result, social exclusion for
were specifically chosen to look at
particular members of society. The
the evolution of arguments about
following research question guides this
the digital divide and digital exclusion
paper’s investigation of these issues:
over the last two decades. Second,
What factors play a role in social and
studies were chosen that would aid the
digital exclusion in education? How
author in a better understanding of the
these factors are reinforcing the current
concept in developing countries, with a
social classes? The paper contains
special emphasis on India.
two main sections. In the first section,
selected articles are categorized and The papers were chosen using
analyzed according to different time the ‘Preferred Reporting Items for
periods; this is followed by arguments Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
and conclusions based on analysis in (PRISMA) flow diagram’ (Moher et al.,
the first section. 2009), which consists of four steps:
identification, screening, eligibility, and
Methodology inclusion (See Figure 1). This approach
identified three databases: Google
Digital exclusion is a relatively new Scholar, Research Gate, and Sodhganga.
idea, dating back only a decade or so. Different combinations of the keywords
Digital divide, internet access, material “higher education”, “digital exclusion”,
access, and other studies relating to “digital divide”, “e-learning” and “social
this subject are limited. Thorough exclusion” were used to search both
literature research has been conducted abstracts and complete papers.
in order to investigate the above-

Figure-1: PRISMA flow diagram of selected reviews based on identified key words

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During the search, approximately 100 locate the other ten papers. Finally,
papers were discovered, including both eight research papers were chosen,
full-text and abstracts. In this study, 30 one of which is an [Link]. Thesis.
papers from the years 2000 to 2017 The publications were chosen for
were chosen. Other sources yielded a analysis based on their relevance to the
total of ten articles. After the duplicate research.
article was removed, 35 articles
remained. Ten articles were chosen for Qualitative Analysis and Interpretation
screening based on their relevance to of the Articles
the study, such as the presence of more
than two keywords, time period, and Overview of the Articles
nation. Articles from both developing, The articles cover both developing and
i.e. Indonesia, India, China, South Africa developed country’s experiences &
etc. and developed countries, i.e. UK, evidence of digital exclusion and the
England, Australia, America, Britain, etc digital divide, which in turn leads to social
were picked. The Education Resources exclusion and socio-economic elitism in
Information Center (ERIC) and Emerald the Higher Education context/education.
were also used as other sources to

Figure-2: Source-wise distribution of research papers selected for the study

The distribution of papers is as follows: one other paper published in British

two research papers derived from ERIC, Educational Research Journal, other
one other from Google Scholar, three journal are Information Research:
research papers taken from Research An International Electronic Journal,
Gate, and one from Science Direct and Telecommunication Policy & Journal
one [Link]. The thesis is also included of Information, Communication and
for analysis, which is published on Ethics in Society. This is a complex
Sodhganga. All the research papers and and interdisciplinary research subject,
the thesis are published in different as evidenced by the mix of different
journals as follows: one paper published research fields. Most of the research
in Procedia - Social and Behavioral papers collected primary quantitative
Sciences, one paper published in the data with the support of qualitative
South African Journal of Libraries and data one research paper is a systematic
Information Sciences, one more paper literature review to understand the
published in Communication of the change in the concept of digital divide
Association for Information System, and digital exclusion. The list of articles/

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papers is given in the appendix section is why they faced issues in attending
of the paper on the basis of qualitative that program. This study also revealed
analysis of the articles. that “… inequitable computer access
impacts on students’ abilities to function
Systematic Literature Review effectively in an online environment…
students with diverse digital expertise
The papers chosen span a wide in the same classroom poses a problem
spectrum of experiences and evidence to teaching IL, especially when the
connected to digital exclusion and its link lesson includes online lessons”(Naidoo
to the growth of new social exclusion in and Raju, 2012, p.38). According to them
developing and industrialized countries below three factors are the features of
like South Africa, England, India, the UK, digital exclusion: 1. Crisis of funds to
Australia, etc. provide computer hardware and pay
In a study, Khalid & Pedersen (2016) for Internet accessibility; 2. A lack of
attempt to identify the fundamental interaction (including psychopathic
causes that lead to digital exclusion in inability), self-belief, understanding,
higher education. They observed the and/or motivation (and lack of
reasons that lead to social exclusion opportunity to remedy this); and 3. Lack
also lead to digital exclusion, and these of public internet access due to distance
causes, in turn, result in social exclusion coupled with a lack of transportation or
of those who are already marginalized, physical mobility.
describing it as a ‘Vicious Cycle’. The The same factors are found in the study of
observed factors are classified into Sims et al. (2008), which clearly indicates
three categories: Digital exclusion that the reasons for digital exclusion
which resulted from a lack of hardware can be generalized or at the very least
devices & internet services, Social classified. They note two significant
exclusion which includes low income, objections to e-learning as a means of
lack of inspiration and commitment, ICT increasing higher education enrollment.
– escaping as the norm, and mental and The first one is access to technology and
physical disability, and the third one is the second one is learning’s applicability
Accessibility which includes differences as a means of including a population
in ICT literacy and information literacy, that has previously been excluded
as well as the divide between rural and from higher education. They concluded
urban locations. As per the analysis of that “without particular measures to
their paper, these factors are layered overcome the digital divide, current
and intertwined. The studies on the practices in higher education can only
digital exclusion, digital divide and reinforce socioeconomic, cultural,
hurdles in the adoption of ICT have ethnic and gender divides in access to
found similar factors and reasons in higher education”. They also argued
higher education, despite similarities that lowering time and place barriers
these factors perceived differently is a key part of including nontraditional
in different circumstances and social students in higher education, and if
contexts (Khalid & Pedersen, 2016). students need to go to campus to use
In another study, Naidoo and Raju computer facilities, place barriers are
(2012) found that African students at not lowered, and time barriers are not
Durban University of Technology in lowered if facilities are not open 24/7
information literacy courses varied (Sims et al. 2005, p.440).
in their ICT competencies and owing In contrast to the study of Sims et al.
differences in access and familiarity (2008) in the study of Gorard et al. (2000),
with computers and the internet. That the authors challenge the pre-argument

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that time and space obstacles decreased or addressed by categorizing pupils
by the use of learning technologies, and based on gender, age, ethnicity, region,
the researchers also investigate whether socioeconomic level, or educational
learning technologies and ICT are background. Age has little bearing on
being utilized to increase the number digital exclusion. However, younger
of “non-traditional students” in higher and older students saw this exclusion
education. Gorard et al. (2000) defined differently; younger students perceived
a “non-traditional student” as a student difficulty utilizing unfamiliar technology,
from a vulnerable group, who is exposed but older students perceived it as a
to a biased, elitist class attending higher great learning experience. The findings
education in their study. According of this research also suggested that
to them, for pupils who are digitally “there is no typical attribute that is more
and socially excluded, the usage of ICT closely associated with digital exclusion
and its benefits (for example, access or inclusion of some form or other”
independent of time and geography) is (Clarida et al., 2015, p.99).
not that beneficial. Technology may also
Smeaton et al. (2017) in their study,
cause or exacerbate existing inequities
explore the online information
to participate in lifelong learning. They
experiences of individuals who
also argued that the culture of ICT is
are experiencing socioeconomic
often youthful, white, middle-class, and
disadvantage. The study tries to capture
male rather than the working-class,
the lived experiences of digitally
elderly, female, or ethnic minority. This
excluded personnel. They found that
leads to the conclusion that, in the short
from having technological skills to
to medium term, access to the Internet
being willing to move into various
will be divided along socioeconomic,
information realms, there are numerous
gender, and ethnic lines, with old
issues to solve in order to enable
patterns of exclusion remaining. Low-
socioeconomically disadvantaged folks
income groups are unable to use the
to make use of online information. In this
Internet due to a lack of skills and
research paper, four themes emerged
access to technology, and the cost of
from analyzing the experiences of
equipment and internet connectivity is
socioeconomic disadvantaged groups,
unlikely to attract poorer populations.
which are: endless information
Furthermore, as access patterns and the
journey, uncontrolled information
technology necessary for access evolve,
space, inadequate information space &
individuals who are currently excluded
essential information space.
will be forced to play catch-up (Godard
et al., 2000). An [Link]. thesis done by Swalehin,
M. (2010) based in India, discussed
These findings are corroborated by
about four digital divides which are
Clarida (2015) findings, which show that
emerging in this new IT environment.
organizational factors, such as course
The first is an internal conflict between
content or virtual learning environment
the technologically enabled rich and
navigation, have a greater influence
poor. The second linguistic cultural
on digital exclusion than intrinsic
divide primarily exists between English
characteristics, such as individual
and other languages. The third is the
technological skills. It demonstrates that
disparity in access to information
the component of digital delivery in the
technology between affluent and poor
university structure was more likely to
countries. “Finally, there is the emergent
induce exclusion than features of diverse
intra-national phenomenon of the
students. According to the findings,
‘digerati’, an affluent elite characterized
digital exclusion cannot be anticipated
by skills appropriate to information-

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based industries and technologies, social deprivation including poor
by growing affluence and influence education or health, disengagement
unrelated to the traditional sources and marginalization (i.e. withdrawal and
of elite status, and by obsessive focus, rejection), and local services: public and
especially among young people, on private, infrastructure” (Warren, 2007,
cutting edge technologies, disregard p. 378), low income, low motivation,
for convention and authority, and and an accepted norm that ICT is not
indifference to the values of traditional necessary (Sims et al., 2008). This is true
hierarchies” (Swalehin, M., 2010, p. 177). within both developed and developing
countries, including South Africa (Brown
Tambulasi, R.I.C. (2009) is the last study
& Czerniewicz, 2010; Naidoo & Raju,
that was examined in order to meet
2012), ‘India’ (Swalehin, 2010) and the
the goal of this work. He attempted to
‘USA’ (Madigan & Goodfellow, 2005).
determine the extent to which ICTs serve
as a tool to perpetuate social exclusion There are various perspectives on the
in developing nations and discovered digital divide. Political scientists define
that developing countries are already the digital divide in terms of who rules
experiencing social exclusion, and ICTs and who is dominated. Geographers
exacerbate this social marginalisation examine the digital divide in terms of
and exclusion. He argued that “there is both geography and location. The digital
apathy in the use of ICT facilities in most divide is viewed as a technological issue
developing countries thereby making by engineers. The digital divide is viewed
ICTs fail to perform as an instrument by economists in terms of income,
of integration”. People, despite the wealth, and poverty. Sociologists define
existence of ICT infrastructure, prefer the digital divide as unequal access
conventional modes of communication based on socioeconomic level, social
and information gathering in the class, ethnicity and race, caste, and
majority of cases. He concluded that gender. Educators regard this as a
due to a lack of suitable ICT networked difficulty that must be overcome in order
infrastructure, indifference to the use to market courses globally through
of ICT, and sustainability issues, ICT distance education agreements.
infrastructure does not operate as a tool Feminists claim that internet access is
of social integration (Tambulasi, 2009). gendered (Swalehin, M., 2010).
E-learning, contrary to popular opinion,
Discussion and Suggestion
allows the inclusion of a bigger audience
Researchers found that people who are and mass education, but the reality
socially disadvantaged are also digitally is quite different. According to the
excluded regardless of the nation of arguments, people are encountering
origin (Brown & Czerniewicz, 2010; difficulties as a result of e-learning.
Lane, 2009; Warren, 2007). “There is a According to Walker et al., “Inequalities
“vicious cycle” between social exclusion of income are compounded with
and digital exclusion, social exclusion other inequalities of gender, ethnicity,
leads to digital exclusion, which in turn disability, and geography to form
perpetuates and exacerbates that social a suffocating web of exclusion… In
exclusion” (Warren, 2007, p. 379). One India, the median number of years
measure of social exclusion is that the of education girls from the poorest
most disadvantaged social groups use families receive is zero, compared to 9.1
ICTs the least (Sims et al., 2008). The years for girls from the richest families”
underlying causes of social exclusion (Walker et al., 2019).
can include “income deprivation, India is a developing country, and

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findings show that developing countries exclusivity gap? I want to give some
are already facing the issue of social suggestions which can be used to
exclusion. As per the recommendations overcome these issues:
of the New Education Policy, 2020, the
y The Government should focus
Indian education system is introducing
on the development of network
digital technology at all levels of
infrastructure in educational
education. And the condition of India
institutions, i.e. universities, colleges,
in terms of access to digital technology
etc., in public places with special
is very critical. According to a survey
reference to rural areas.
by the Telecom Regulatory Authority
of India (TRAI), total internet density y Education and training should be
in India was 49 per cent in 2018. Rural given to students to search and find
area users accounted for 25 per cent, the needed information.
while urban area accounted for 98
y Appropriate action to ensure the
per cent (TRAI, 2018). Here, we see the
sustainable integration of the socially
vast gap in the data between rural and
excluded groups.
urban populations. One more latest
data published by TRAI reflects that the y Charitable organizations can work
country had over 1,160 million wireless in this field. They can provide
customers in February 2020, which recycled computers in minimal
was up from 1,010 million in February amounts or free to low-income
2016. According to the figures, urban households. This can be combined
customers increased by 74 million, with Wifi too. Because the barrier
while rural subscribers increased by of time and place is an essential
86 million (TRAI, 2020). This suggested factor in including nontraditional
an increase in basic telecom facilities students in higher education.
rather than digital progression. Etc.
India has one of the world’s largest
Conclusion
gender discrepancies too. According to
the GSMA’s (Global System for Mobile Social inequality is a worldwide
Communication) 2020 Mobile Gender phenomenon, and it is necessary to
Gap Report, only 21 per cent of women in comprehend and challenge the digital
India utilize mobile internet, compared inequities that exist among students,
to 42 per cent of men. According to the affluent and poor, rural and urban, and
survey, in India, 79 per cent of men own in private and public schools. The widely
a cell phone while only 63 per cent of held notion that digital technology
women do (GSMA, 2020 in BYJU’S, n.a.). would erase all injustices is based on an
Having internet facilities or access does unrealistic vision. It is critical to recognize
not guarantee that one can use it. In that social and digital inequalities
this reference data shows that only 40 cannot be eliminated only through
per cent of the Indian pupils in the age the Internet. This paper focuses on
group of 15 to 29 years had basic digital finding the factors that result in digital
literacy (NSO report; The Hindu, 2020, exclusion and, in turn, social exclusion
08 Sep.). Without a concerted effort of some people of the society. This
to bridge the digital divide, the socio- extensive literature results indicate that
economic, cultural, ethnic, and gender there exist digital disparities in society.
divides will only widen (Sims et al., 2005). These discrepancies are created by the
After having looked at the above same factors that cause socioeconomic
analysis, as a researcher, my measure inequality, i.e. low income, vulnerability,
concern is how we can fill this digital rural location etc. Some other common

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factors are also identified in the present findings are critical for policy purposes;
study, i.e. lack of hardware devices, policymakers may utilize the findings
digital literacy, accessibility, motivation, to implement suitable interventions to
internet access etc. This study also assure the socially excluded groups’
confirms that there is a ‘Digital Vicious long-term integration.
Cycle’ and access to ICTs is not enough
or is not the only concern to delineate (Acknowledgement: I am very thankful to
the Vicious Cycle. In this regard, my Ph.D. coursework mentor Dr. Dhar-
poverty is prominent, or can say, crucial mendra K. Sarraf, who guided and in-
dimension to any kind/form of exclusion. spired me to work on the present topic.)
These comprehensive literature review

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Appendix

Table-1: List of Papers Selected in Present Systematic Literature Review

S . Researcher Name Title of the paper/ Database Journal

No. thesis

1. Clarida, B. H. “Strategies for digital ERIC Journal of Education

inclusion: Towards a
pedagogy for embracing
and sustaining
students’ diversity and
engagement with inline
learning”

2. Kathleen Smeaton, “The online life of ERIC Information Research:

Christine S. Bruce, individual experiencing An International
Hilary Hughes & socio economic Electronic Journal
Kate Devis disadvantage: how
do they experience
information?”

3. Stephen Gorard, “Must Try Harder! G o o g l e British Educational

Neil Selwyn & Sara Problems Facing Scholar Research Journal
Williams Technological Solution
to Non-participation in
Adult Learning”

294 Indian Journal of Educational Technology

Volume 6, Issue 1, January 2024
4. Julian Sims, Philip ‘E-learning and the Digital R e s e a r c h Communication of
Powell & Richard Divide: Perpetuating Gate the Association for
Vidgen Cultural and Socio- Information System
Economic Elitism in
Higher Education’

5. Md. Saifuddin ‘Digital Exclusion in R e s e a r c h Procedia - Social and

Khalid & Mette Higher Education Gate Behavioral Sciences
Jun Lykkegaard Context: A Systematic
Pederson Literature Review’

6. Segarani Naidoo & ‘Impact of the digital R e s e a r c h South African

Jaya Raju divide on information Gate Journal of Libraries
literacy training in higher and Information
education context’ Sciences

7. Richard I. C. Tambulai “Pushed to the abyss of Academia/ Journal of Information,

exclusion: ICT and social S c i e n c e Communication and
exclusion in developing Direct Ethics in Society
countries”

8. Md. Swalehin ‘Digital divide: A Sodhganga Sodhganga

Sociological Analysis’

Indian Journal of Educational Technology 295

Volume 6, Issue 1, January 2024