CHAPTER 8: MEMORY

8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it

to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and
retrieve information over different periods of time
 8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• ENCODING
• We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input
of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the
environment, our brains label or code it.
• If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall
this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the
encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words.
• Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling
the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing.
• But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of
work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is
known as effortful processing
8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• There are three types of encoding. The encoding of words and their meaning
is known as semantic encoding.
• Visual encoding is the encoding of images
• acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular.
• Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information best through
semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference
effect. The self-reference effect is the tendency for an individual to have
better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to
material that has less personal relevance
8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• STORAGE
• Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow have to retain
it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is
the creation of a permanent record of information.
• In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to
pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and
finally Long-Term Memory.
8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed

first in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights,
sounds, and tastes.
8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes
incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory.
• Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes
connects that memory to something already in long-term memory.
• Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds.
• George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that
most people can retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so
he called the capacity of STM 7 plus or minus 2.
 8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• Long-term Memory
• Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term
memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can
remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can
remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago.
• Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit.
• Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if
you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your
explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and
declarative memory are used interchangeably.)
• Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are
memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.
8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS
 8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about

how to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your
teeth, how to drive a car, how to swim.
• Declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we
personally experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic
memory and episodic memory. Semantic means having to do with language and
knowledge about language. An example would be the question “what does
argumentative mean?” Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about
words, concepts, and language- based knowledge and facts.
• Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced.
Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about happenings in
particular places at particular times, the what, where, and when of an event
 8.1 HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

• So you have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store some
important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get that
information back out of storage when you need it?
• The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious
awareness is known as retrieval.
• There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory
storage system: recall, recognition, and relearning.
• Recall is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it
means you can access information without cues. For example, you would use recall
for an easy test
• Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously
learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison.
• The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it’s just what it sounds like. It involves
learning information that you previously learned.
8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED
WITH MEMORY

• Are memories stored in just one part of the brain, or are they stored in many
different parts of the brain? Karl Lashley began exploring this problem, about
100 years ago, by making lesions in the brains of animals such as rats and
monkeys
• He was searching for evidence of the engram: the group of neurons that
serve as the “physical representation of memory”
• if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of
the same area can take over that memory function
8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED
WITH MEMORY

• memory is located in specific parts of the brain, and specific neurons can be
recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of the
brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the
cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex
8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED
WITH MEMORY

• THE AMYGDALA
• First, let’s look at the role of the amygdala in memory formation. The main job
of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The
amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is
influenced by stress hormones.
• the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of
transferring new learning into long-term memory. The amygdala seems to
facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally
arousing.
8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED
WITH MEMORY

• THE HIPPOCAMPUS
• the hippocampus is involved in memory, specifically normal recognition
memory as well as spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall
tests)
• Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions
that give memories meaning and connect them with other connected
memories. It also plays a part in memory consolidation: the process of
transferring new learning into long-term memory.
• Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories
 8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN INVOLVED
WITH MEMORY

• THE CEREBELLUM AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX

• Although the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for explicit
memories, you could still lose it and be able to create implicit memories
(procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning), thanks to your
cerebellum
• encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information
was associated with the right frontal region
 8.2 PARTS OF THE BRAIN
INVOLVED WITH MEMORY

• NEUROTRANSMITTERS
• There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such
as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine.
• the communication among neurons via neurotransmitters is critical for developing new
memories. Repeated activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses
and more efficient and more synaptic connections. This is how memory consolidation occurs.
• It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker
emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called arousal theory
• When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter
glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event. This is clearly evidenced by what is
known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon.
• A flashbulb memory is an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• AMNESIA
• Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease,
physical trauma, or psychological trauma.
• There are two common types of amnesia: anterograde amnesia and retrograde
amnesia
 8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Anterograde Amnesia
• With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information,
although you can remember information and events that happened prior to
your injury. The hippocampus is usually affected
• This suggests that damage to the brain has resulted in the inability to transfer
information from short-term to long-term memory; that is, the inability to
consolidate memories.
• Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or
semantic memories, but are still able to form new procedural memories
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Retrograde Amnesia
• Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for events that occurred prior to
the trauma.
• People with retrograde amnesia cannot remember some or even all of their
past.
• They have difficulty remembering episodic memories.
 8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• MEMORY CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

• The formulation of new memories is sometimes called construction, and the
process of bringing up old memories is called reconstruction.
• as we retrieve our memories, we also tend to alter and modify them.
• A memory pulled from long-term storage into short-term memory is flexible.
New events can be added and we can change what we think we remember
about past events, resulting in inaccuracies and distortions.
• people may not intend to distort facts, but it can happen in the process of
retrieving old memories and combining them with new memories
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Suggestibility
• Suggestibility describes the effects of misinformation from external sources
that leads to the creation of false memories.
• When someone witnesses a crime, that person’s memory of the details of the
crime is very important in catching the suspect. Because memory is so fragile,
witnesses can be easily (and often accidentally) misled due to the problem of
suggestibility
• Eg, sniper in the DC
 8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Eyewitness Misidentification
• Even though memory and the process of reconstruction can be fragile, police
officers, prosecutors, and the courts often rely on eyewitness identification and
testimony in the prosecution of criminals. However, faulty eyewitness
identification and testimony can lead to wrongful convictions
• Eg: Jennifer Thompson
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• misinformation effect paradigm, which holds that after exposure to

incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event.
• an eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible due to the misinformation
effect.
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories

• Recall of false autobiographical memories is called false memory syndrome.
This syndrome has received a lot of publicity, particularly as it relates to
memories of events that do not have independent witnesses—often the only
witnesses to the abuse are the perpetrator and the victim (e.g., sexual abuse).
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

FORGETTING
• Forgetting refers to loss of information from long-term memory. We all
forget things, like a loved one’s birthday, someone’s name, or where we put
our car keys. As you’ve come to see, memory is fragile, and forgetting can be
frustrating and even embarrassing. But why do we forget? To answer this
question, we will look at several perspectives on forgetting.
• Encoding Failure
• Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins,
which is encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never stored it
in our memory in the first place
• Memory Errors
• Psychologist Daniel Schacter (2001), a well-known memory researcher, offers
seven ways our memories fail us. He calls them the seven sins of memory and
categorizes them into three groups: forgetting, distortion, and intrusion
(Table 8.1).
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY
8.3 PROBLEMS WITH MEMORY

• Interference
• Sometimes information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is
inaccessible. This is known as interference,
• there are two types: proactive interference and retroactive interference
• proactive interference: when old information hinders the recall of newly
learned information. [Link] 2020 instead of 2021
• Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently
hinders the recall of older information.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• What are some everyday ways we can improve our memory, including recall?
• To help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term
memory, you can use memory-enhancing strategies.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be

remembered
• Think about how you learned your multiplication tables as a child. You may recall
that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts is rehearsal.

• Another strategy is chunking: you organize information into manageable bits

or chunks
• Chunking is useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone
numbers. Instead of trying to remember 5205550467, you remember the number as
520-555-0467.
 8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• You could also enhance memory by using elaborative rehearsal: a technique in which you
think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored
in your memory
• For example, in this case, you could remember that 520 is an area code for Arizona and the
person you met is from Arizona. This would help you better remember the 520 prefix.
• Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help us organize information for encoding,They
are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information such as steps, stages,
phases, and parts of a system.
• Kelly tells Brian to simply remember the name Mr. VEM J. SUN, and he can easily recall the correct
order of the planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
• It seems the more vivid or unusual the mnemonic, the easier it is to remember. The key to using
any mnemonic successfully is to find a strategy that works for you.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• Mnemonic devices
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• Some other strategies that are used to improve memory include expressive
writing and saying words aloud.
• Expressive writing helps boost your short-term memory, particularly if you
write about a traumatic experience in your life.
• Masao Yogo and Shuji Fujihara (2008) had participants write for 20-minute intervals
several times per month. The participants were instructed to write about a traumatic
experience, their best possible future selves, or a trivial topic. The researchers found
that this simple writing task increased short-term memory capacity after five weeks,
but only for the participants who wrote about traumatic experiences. Psychologists
can’t explain why this writing task works, but it does.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• What if you want to remember items you need to pick up at the store? Simply
say them out loud to yourself.
• A series of studies found that saying a word out loud improves your memory
for the word because it increases the word’s distinctiveness.
• Feel silly, saying random grocery items aloud? This technique works equally
well if you just mouth the words. Using these techniques increased
participants’ memory for the words by more than 10%. These techniques can
also be used to help you study.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• HOW TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY

• • Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, Craik and Lockhart (1972) discussed
their belief that information we process more deeply goes into long-term memory. Their
theory is called levels of processing. If we want to remember a piece of information, we
should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it
more meaningful.
• Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal,
it would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorize
personally meaningful to you. In other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write
notes in your own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your
own words. Relate the material to something you have already learned for another class, or
think how you can apply the concepts to your own life.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information you learn drops off
rapidly with time. Even if you think you know the material, study it again right before test
time to increase the likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning
can help prevent storage decay.
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and organized
study sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the
new information to other information you already know well.
• Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of interference, study during a quiet
time without interruptions or distractions (like television or music).
• Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did
you also know it’s also good for your mind? Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise
(anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008).
Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus,
an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning.
8.4 WAYS TO ENHANCE MEMORY

• Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain
organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013).
• Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this chapter, mnemonic devices
often help us to remember and recall information. There are different types of mnemonic devices,
such as the acronym. An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you
want to remember. For example, even if you live near one, you might have difficulty recalling the
names of all five Great Lakes. What if I told you to think of the word Homes? HOMES is an
acronym that represents Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior: the five Great Lakes.
Another type of mnemonic device is an acrostic: you make a phrase of all the first letters of the
words. For example, if you are taking a math test and you are having difficulty remembering the
order of operations, recalling the following sentence will help you: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt
Sally,” because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication,
Division, Addition, Subtraction. There also are jingles, which are rhyming tunes that contain key
words related to the concept, such as i before e, except after c.