Extraction of Metals from Ores

Presentation by Hariprasad
Transforming Minerals into Metals
 What is metal extraction?
Metal extraction is the process of separating metals from their naturally occurring ores,
which are minerals containing the desired metal mixed with impurities called gangue.

This involves several steps, including concentrating the ore, converting it into a more
easily reducible form like a metal oxide, reducing the oxide to an impure metal, and
finally refining the metal to achieve purity.

The specific methods used depend on the metal's reactivity and the impurities present.
 Knowing metal extraction tells us:

Why some metals are

Where metals actually Why we need recycling
expensive (difficult
come from (not from (saves energy, reduces
extraction → more cost,
shop… from earth!) mining)
more energy)

Why chemistry
Which metals can be
knowledge is used in
extracted by simple or
industries, engineering,
complex methods
economics and
(determined by reactivity)
sustainability

This is one of the MOST REAL-WORLD chemistry topics

 Difference between mineral and ore
Mineral Ore

• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance • An ore is a type of mineral from which a

found in the Earth’s crust. metal can be extracted economically and
• It can contain one or more elements or profitably.
compounds. • Not all minerals can be ores. Only those
• Minerals may or may not contain a metal in a from which extraction is feasible and cost-
form that is profitable to extract. effective are called ores.
• Example: • Example:
• Halite (NaCl), Quartz (SiO₂), Calcite • Bauxite (ore of Aluminium), Haematite
(CaCO₃) (ore of Iron), Cuprite (ore of Copper)

All ores are minerals, but not all minerals are ores
• Quartz is a mineral, but not an ore of silicon. Because
extracting silicon from SiO₂ is not economical directly by
typical metallurgical methods.
• Bauxite is an ore of aluminium. Because aluminium can
be extracted economically from it by the Hall-Héroult
process.
 How this knowledge links to future concepts

• Metal extraction connects directly to:

• Reactivity Series
• Redox reactions
• Electrochemical cells
• Environmental chemistry (pollution, sustainability, CO₂ emissions)
• Industrial chemistry (Blast furnace, electrolysis industry,
metallurgy)
Steps in Metal Extraction
 Extraction of Metal from Concentrated Ore

This depends on metal reactivity:

Metal Reactivity Extraction Method
Electrolysis (because they form strong
Very reactive (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al)
stable compounds, hard to reduce)
Reduction by carbon / CO / using coke
Medium reactive (Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu)
(Blast furnace)
Found native / extracted by simple
Low reactive (Ag, Au, Pt)
chemical reactions
Examples:
• Iron extracted from haematite using carbon (coke) in a blast furnace
• Aluminium extracted from bauxite using electrolysis because carbon reduction is not
enough to reduce aluminium oxide
 Refining of Metal
After extraction → metal is still Finally → we get pure commercial
impure → needs refining (purification) metal
 Metals and their common ores
Metal Common ore of the metal Main metallic compound in the ore

Aluminium bauxite hydrated aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃·2H₂O)

Copper copper pyrite copper(II) iron(II) sulphide (CuFeS₂)

Gold as free element free element of gold

Iron haematite iron(III) oxide (Fe₂O₃)
Lead galena lead(II) sulphide (PbS)
Magnesium magnesite magnesium carbonate (MgCO₃)
Mercury cinnabar mercury(II) sulphide (HgS)

Silver argentite or as free element silver sulphide (Ag₂S) or free element of silver

Sodium rock salt sodium chloride (NaCl)

Zinc zinc blende zinc sulphide (ZnS)
Extraction of Copper from its ore
 Copper ore (Chalcopyrite – CuFeS2)

• Chalcopyrite is a copper-iron sulphide mineral and the most

abundant copper ore mineral. It has the chemical formula CuFeS2 and
crystallises in the tetragonal system.
• It has a brassy to golden yellow colour and a hardness of 3.5 to 4 on
the Mohs scale.
 Copper ore (Chalcopyrite – CuFeS2)
• On exposure to air, chalcopyrite tarnishes to a variety of oxides, hydroxides, and
sulphates.
• Associated copper minerals include:
• sulphides bornite (Cu5FeS4),
• chalcocite (Cu2S),
• covellite (CuS),
• digenite (Cu9S5);
• carbonates such as malachite and azurite, and rarely oxides such as cuprite (Cu2O).
• It is rarely found in association with native copper.
• Chalcopyrite is a conductor of electricity.
• Copper can be extracted from chalcopyrite ore using various methods.
• The two predominant methods are pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, the
former being the most commercially viable.
 The Three Main Stages of Copper Extraction

• Concentration (Beneficiation): Physically separating the valuable

mineral from the worthless gangue.
• Pyrometallurgy (Smelting): Using heat and chemical reactions to
produce impure copper.
• Electrorefining: Using electricity to purify the copper to over 99.99%
purity.
 Key Chemical Reactions Involved in Copper Extraction
• Roasting:
• 2 CuFeS₂ + 3 O₂ → 2 CuS + 2 FeO + 2 SO₂
• Smelting (Matte Formation):
• CuFeS₂ → Cu₂S·FeS (simplified)
• Conversion (Iron Removal):
• 2 FeS + 3 O₂ → 2 FeO + 2 SO₂
• 2 FeO + 2 SiO₂ → 2 FeSiO₃ (slag)
• Conversion (Copper Production):
• 2 Cu₂S + 3 O₂ → 2 Cu₂O + 2 SO₂
• 2 Cu₂O + Cu₂S → 6 Cu + SO₂
• Electrorefining:
• Anode: Cu → Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻
• Cathode: Cu²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Cu
Extraction of Aluminium
• 8% of the Earth’s crust is made up of Aluminium.
• Bauxite is mainly found in tropical & subtropical regions, but aluminium is
separated from the ore in an area with cheap electricity using the Hall-
Héroult method.
• The first bauxite mine was in Les Baux village in France. The name is
derived from it.
Top 8 Abundant Elements in Earth’s Crust (by Weight)
Potassium
Percentage by Weight
3% Magnesium Others
2% 2%
Calcium Sodium
4% 3%

Iron
5%

Aluminium
8% Oxygen
46%

Silicon
28%

Oxygen Silicon Aluminium Iron Calcium Sodium Potassium Magnesium Others

• As of 2010, approximately 70% to 80% of the world's dry bauxite
production is processed first into alumina and then into aluminium
by electrolysis.
• Bauxite rocks are typically classified according to their intended
commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical, and
refractory.
 Bauxite ore is usually
heated in a pressure vessel At these temperatures,
along with a sodium the aluminium is dissolved
hydroxide solution at a as sodium aluminate-
temperature of 150 to NaAlO2 (the Bayer process)
200°C.
Bauxite mainly contains Al₂O₃·2H₂O (hydrated aluminium oxide) along with
impurities like:

Impurity Type

Fe₂O₃ (Iron(III) oxide) Red impurity (gives red colour to bauxite)

SiO₂ (Silica) Non-metallic

TiO₂ (Titanium dioxide) minor impurity
 Electrolytic Reduction of Alumina – Hall-Héroult
Process
• Alumina does NOT dissolve in water → used as molten electrolyte
• But Al₂O₃ has a melting point of 2040°C
• So, it is dissolved in molten cryolite (Na₃AlF₆) to lower the melting point
to 950°C and increase conductivity.
Cell construction:

Part Function
Cathode Carbon lining of steel cell
Anode Blocks of graphite
 Electrolytic Reduction of Alumina – Hall-Héroult
Process

• Electrolytic reactions:
• Molten alumina dissociates into ions: 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝟑+ + 𝟑𝑶𝟐−
• At Cathode (reduction)
• 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝟑+ + 𝟔𝒆− → 𝟐𝑨𝒍 𝒍
• Liquid Al deposits at the bottom and is tapped out.
• At Anode (oxidation)
• 3𝑶𝟐− → 𝟑𝑶𝟐 + 𝟔𝒆−
• The oxygen formed reacts with carbon anode: 𝑪 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐
• → which is why anodes get consumed and must be replaced.

Overall Equation: 2Al₂O₃(l) + 3C(s) → 4Al(l) + 3CO₂(g)

 Energy and Environmental Aspects

• Requires large amounts of electricity → performed near hydroelectric

power stations.
• CO₂ emitted from anode → greenhouse gas.
• Anode replacement adds to operational cost.
• Research continues into inert anodes to reduce CO₂ emissions.
Why does Aluminium extraction need
electrolysis?
Extraction of Iron from its ore
 • Abundant, makes up 5% of Earth’s crust
• It is not found in a ‘free state’; it must be found in rocks
and oxides, hence iron ore.
Iron Ore • After mining, the ore is crushed, and the iron is
separated, then made into pellets, balls or briquettes
using binders, such as water.
• The pellets are typically 65% iron and about 1” in
diameter.
 Iron ores • Haematite — Fe₂O₃ (most important commercially)
• Magnetite — Fe₃O₄ (magnetic, high Fe content)

(common • Limonite — FeO·nH₂O (hydrated oxide)

• Siderite — FeCO₃ (carbonate)

types) • Pyrite (FeS₂) is a sulphide—usually not used directly

for iron extraction but may be roasted/processed.
Magnetite Limonite

Haematite
 Haematite

• Iron content: 60–70%

• Colour: Reddish-brown
• Properties: High iron content, widely used for iron and steelmaking
• Sources: Australia, Brazil, India, China, Russia
 Formation and Occurrence of Haematite

Haematite forms in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous environments.

Major deposits are found in:
• Banded Iron Formations (BIFs): Ancient sedimentary rocks (e.g., Hamersley Basin,
Australia).
• Lateritic deposits: Weathering of iron-rich rocks (e.g., Brazil, India – mainly in the regions
Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Karnataka).
• Hydrothermal veins: Associated with volcanic activity.
 Preparation of Raw Materials for the Blast Furnace
Three essential raw materials are prepared before being charged into the blast furnace:

Concentrated Iron Ore (Sinter/Pellets): The fine ore powder from beneficiation cannot be
used directly as it would choke the furnace. It is agglomerated into larger, porous lumps.
• Sintering: The fine ore is mixed with coke breeze (fine coke) and limestone flux and then ignited. The coke burns,
generating enough heat to fuse the ore particles into a hard, porous mass called sinter.
• Pelletizing: The fine ore is mixed with a binder and rolled in a drum to form green pellets. These are then hardened
by firing in a furnace, producing iron ore pellets.

Coke (C): Coke, a porous, high-carbon fuel, is produced by heating coal in the absence of air
(destructive distillation). It serves three critical functions:
• Fuel: It provides the heat required for the endothermic reactions.
• Reducing Agent: It provides carbon monoxide (CO) for reduction.
• Support: The solid coke column supports the burden in the furnace.

Limestone (CaCO₃): This is the flux. Its purpose is to remove the acidic gangue (mainly
silica) as a slag.
• In iron extraction, coke acts as both
a fuel and a reducing agent,
providing the necessary heat and
carbon to reduce iron oxides (like
Haematite) to metallic iron within a
blast furnace.

Coke is formed by heating coal to 1150oC, then

cooling it in quenching towers.
 Functions of coke in iron extraction
Fuel:
• Burning coke (carbon) with oxygen from hot air generates heat, which is crucial for the high
temperatures required to melt the iron ore and other materials in the blast furnace.
Reducing Agent:
• The coke reacts with the oxygen in the hot air to form carbon monoxide (CO), which then acts as
the primary reducing agent, reacting with iron oxides (Fe2O3) to produce iron (Fe) and carbon
dioxide (CO2).
Carbon Source:
• The carbon from the coke also contributes to the formation of pig iron, a type of iron with a
relatively high carbon content.
Other Roles:

• Coke also helps support the iron ore burden and provides thermal energy.
 Functions of
Limestone in Iron
Extraction
In iron extraction, limestone acts as
a flux, reacting with impurities (like
silicon dioxide) in the ore to form a
molten slag that floats on top of the
molten iron and can be easily
removed.
 Functions of Limestone in Iron extraction
What is a flux?

• In metallurgy, a flux is a substance added to an ore to promote fluidity and remove unwanted
impurities in the form of slag.
• The main function of limestone in the extraction of iron from haematite is as a flux. Limestone is
used as a flux to remove the impurities and dirt from haematite.

Limestone's Role:

• Limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) decomposes at high temperatures in the blast furnace into
calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• The calcium oxide (lime) reacts with silicon dioxide (SiO2), a common impurity in iron ore, to form
calcium silicate (CaSiO3), which is the slag.
• The molten slag, being less dense than the molten iron, floats on top and can be easily tapped off
and removed.

Chemical Reaction:

• CaCO3 (limestone) → CaO (lime) + CO2 (carbon dioxide)

• CaO (lime) + SiO2 (silicon dioxide) → CaSiO3 (calcium silicate, slag)
 Blast Furnace
• Used to reduce the iron oxides into iron.
• Its height is about 30 m and its interior diameter is 8 m.
• It is so named as a very high temperature is developed inside it by
means of forcing a blast of heated air.
• To permit the proper flow of materials, it is made narrow at the
top and bottom.
• The outside of the furnace is constructed of steel plates, and
these are lined on the inside with fire bricks.
• The molten metal is collected at the bottom (hearth).
• The widest part of the furnace is called the ‘bosh. ’
• The area above the bosh is called ‘stack’.
• Through the ‘tuyeres, ’ hot blast is introduced (usually 8-10
tuyeres are used)
• The actual melting down and removal of the
iron from the ores takes place in blast furnaces,
which project about 30 m in height and have a
diameter of about 10 m.
• Some blast furnaces even reach heights of over
70 m and diameters of 15m.
• Temperatures of up to 2000°C in the blast
furnace require an extremely heat-resistant
lining.
• For this purpose, artificially produced fireclay
bricks made of corundum (Al2O3) are used,
which must also have a very high carbon
monoxide resistance.
Pre-heating zone:
The combustion of coke produces hot gases consisting mainly of carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and (gaseous) water. These hot gases
rise up in the blast furnace and cool down. From a maximum of 2000°C
at the level of the hot-blast nozzles (tuyere), the temperature decreases
to around 200°C up to the throat. At this temperature, the filled charge is
first dried and preheated.

Indirect reduction zone

A further lowering of the iron ores in the blast furnace
leads to the temperature zone of 400°C to 800°C. In this
region, the so-called indirect reduction of iron ores to iron
by carbon monoxide takes place.
The carbon monoxide gas (CO) is oxidised to carbon
dioxide (CO2) by absorbing the oxygen contained in the
iron oxide (O). The indirect reduction can be divided into
several intermediate reactions, whereby the iron content
in the ores continuously increases and ultimately pure
iron is produced.
Direct reduction zone
• If the iron ores, which have not yet been reduced, move further down in the blast furnace, then the
carbon can also directly reduce the iron oxides contained in the ore due to the high temperatures.
• The carbon (C) is oxidised to carbon monoxide (CO) by the absorption of oxygen (O).
• Due to the direct reduction of iron oxides by carbon, one also speaks of a direct reduction.

Carburising zone
• Although the carbon reduces the iron oxides and produces iron, the iron formed is partially enriched
with carbon itself.
• This is done either by the carbon monoxide gas or, at higher temperatures, directly by the carbon.
• This produces iron carbide Fe3C, also known as cementite.
• The enrichment of solid iron with carbon in a temperature range between 900°C and 1200°C is also
referred to as carburisation.
• The corresponding chemical reactions are as follows:
• 3Fe+ 2CO → Fe3C + CO2
• 3Fe + C→ Fe3C
• By absorbing the carbon, the solidification point of the iron is reduced from 1536°C to approximately
1200°C.
Melting zone:
• Due to the reduction of the solidification point by diffused carbon into the reduced iron, it begins to melt in the hotter zones
of the blast furnace.
• Now the inner ore layers also come into contact with the carbon or the carbon monoxide gas and can be reduced to iron and
then carburised.
• Gradually, all the iron ore is reduced, carburised and melted.
• The absorbed carbon remains dissolved in the molten iron. This is the reason why pig iron has a relatively high carbon
content.
• In the melting zone, the iron begins to melt and forms strongly carbon-containing pig iron!
Tapping zone:
• The molten pig iron finally collects in the hearth of the blast furnace together with the slag, which is also liquid.
• Due to the higher density of the pig iron, the pig iron can be cut off at the lowest point of the blast furnace (called tapping).
• It has a high carbon content of about 4.5 %.
• Further accompanying elements are listed below, although the composition may vary considerably depending on the type of
pig iron.
4.5 % carbon
2.5 % silicon
1.5% manganese
0.5 % phosphorus
0.1 % sulphur
• Other elements, such as titanium, copper, etc., are also contained in small quantities in the pig iron.
• When the liquid pig iron solidifies, the silicon content, in particular, determines whether the dissolved carbon precipitates in
its pure form as graphite (C) in the microstructure or as iron carbide (Fe3C, cementite).
 What happens in the Blast Furnace?
• The coke burns in the blast of hot air to form carbon dioxide - a
strongly exothermic reaction. This reaction is the main source of
heat in the furnace.
• Iron ores consist of oxygen and iron atoms bonded together into
molecules.
• To convert it to metallic iron, it must be smelted or sent through a
direct reduction process to remove the oxygen.
• Oxygen-iron bonds are strong, and to remove the iron from the
oxygen, a stronger elemental bond must be presented to attach to
the oxygen.
• Carbon is used because the strength of a carbon-oxygen bond is
greater than that of an iron-oxygen bond at high temperatures.
• Thus, the iron ore must be powdered and mixed with coke to be
burnt in the smelting process.
• However, it is not entirely as simple as that.
• Carbon monoxide is the primary ingredient of chemically stripping oxygen from iron.
• Thus, the iron and carbon smelting must be kept at an oxygen-deficient (reducing) state to promote the burning of
carbon to produce CO, not CO2
Air blast and charcoal (coke): 2C + O2 → 2CO (this is the heat source)

Carbon monoxide (CO) is the principal reduction agent.

• Stage One: 3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 + CO2

• Stage Two: Fe3O4 + CO → 3FeO + CO2
• Stage Three: FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
• Limestone calcining: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
• Lime acting as flux: CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

The tapped molten metal is run into channels and branches formed
in the sandy bed.

The solidified iron after cooling is cut into pieces of small lengths.

These are called sows and pigs.

 Key chemical
reactions in the blast
furnace
 The Top (Pre-heating Zone) - Temperature: 200°C - 700°C

• As the burden (ore, coke, limestone) descends, it is preheated by the

rising hot gases. The limestone begins to decompose.
• Drying: Moisture is driven off.
• Calcination of Limestone:
• CaCO₃(s) → CaO(s) + CO₂(g) (This occurs more extensively in lower, hotter zones)
The Bottom (Combustion and Melting Zone) - Temperature: 1200°C -
1900°C

• Combustion and Heat Generation:

• The pre-heated air blast reacts with the descending coke at the tuyeres. This is the main exothermic reaction
that provides the heat for the entire process.
• C(s) + O₂(g) → CO₂(g) + Heat
• The CO₂ produced immediately reacts with more hot coke to form the primary reducing agent, carbon
monoxide.
• CO₂(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
• The overall reaction at the tuyeres is:
• 2C(s) + O₂(g) → 2CO(g)
• Formation of Slag:
• The lime (CaO) produced from the calcined limestone reacts with the acidic silica gangue to form a fused,
molten calcium silicate slag, which is less dense than iron and floats on top of it.
• CaO(s) + SiO₂(s) → CaSiO₃(l) (Molten Slag)
 Combustion and formation of CO (hot zone)

• Combustion of coke (provides heat):

C + O𝟐 → CO𝟐 𝜟𝑯 large, exothermic
• Partial reduction of CO₂ by coke to form CO (endothermic but
supplies reducing gas):
CO𝟐 + C → 𝟐CO
• CO is the main reducing agent in the furnace gases.
 Indirect (gaseous) reduction of iron oxides by CO

• Iron oxides are reduced stepwise by CO (this is the principal route):

• Magnetite → wüstite (FeO) → iron (overall sequence):
• Fe2 O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2
• FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
• Combined commonly written as (for Haematite):
• Fe2 O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
 Outputs of the Blast Furnace
Molten Pig Iron (Cast Iron):
• This collects at the bottom of the hearth. It is not pure iron; it is an alloy of iron
containing about 92-94% Iron, 3-4% Carbon, and other impurities like Si, Mn, S, and P.
It is brittle and used for casting (e.g., engine blocks), but most is sent for steelmaking.

Molten Slag:
• This floats on the molten iron. It is primarily Calcium Silicate (CaSiO₃). It is tapped off
separately and used in cement manufacturing, road construction, and as a fertiliser.

Blast Furnace Gas (Top Gas):

• This gas exits from the top of the furnace. It is a mixture of CO (20-25%), CO₂, N₂, and
H₂. It is a valuable fuel gas.
• After cleaning, it is used to pre-heat the air blast (in "Cowper stoves") and to generate
power for the plant.
 Blast Furnace slag has the following composition

Silica (SiO2) 28-38%

Lime (CaO) 30-50%

Magnesia (MgO) 2-14%

Alumina (Al2O3) 8-24%

Iron oxide 1-2%

Sulphur 2-2.5%
Schematic overview of an ironworks
 CO and CO₂ SO₂ from roasting
emissions — sulphide ores
greenhouse gas causes acid rain —
and toxic CO risk — must be scrubbed,
need gas cleaning and SO₂ is often
and capture where converted to
possible. sulphuric acid.
Environmental & safety
considerations
Slag
disposal/reuse:
slag can be used in Dust, particulates
road construction, and effluents must
cement be controlled.
manufacture (helps
reduce waste).