Polluted-Water

Diving 13
SECTION PAGE
13.0 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 1
13.1 HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 1
13.1.1 Biological Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 1
13.1.2 Toxic Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 2
13.1.3 Radioactive Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 3
13.1.4 Thermal Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 3
13.2 TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 4
13.3 EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 5
13.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 5
13.3.2 Full-Face Masks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 5
13.3.3 Diving Helmets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 6
13.3.4 Umbilicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 6
13.3.5 Dry Suits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 6
13.4 POLLUTED-WATER DIVING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . 13- 8
13.5 DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
13.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
13.6.1 Resources for Consultation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-13
Polluted-Water Diving
13
13.0 GENERAL materials that present only a minor concern on the surface
During the last three decades, as the number of scien- create a major exposure hazard under water. This is why
tific diving operations in polluted water has increased, the even full coverage diving helmets must be specially rigged
spectrum of materials to which divers are exposed has for dives of this nature.
grown as well. At first, little consideration was given to the Toxins that float on top of the water, such as gasoline,
possible effects of these materials on the divers themselves. also present a serious hazard to the diver. The diver must
In the early 1970s, for example, diver services were used in pass through them to enter or exit the water. Substances
studies that examined the fate and effect of sewage and that sink in water are those most likely to collect as pockets
chemicals introduced into the sea. Immunizations against of pure chemical substance on the bottom. Concentrated
certain pathogenic microorganisms were given in some chemicals are obviously very hazardous.
cases, but illness was still reported in some divers who Diving supervisors should attempt to identify the
were exposed to sewage. As the list of dangerous sub- nature and severity of contaminants in waters at proposed
stances to which divers were being exposed increased and dive sites by contacting local, state, and federal water
as the substances became more hazardous, attention was quality agencies.
focused on the potential threat to diving and support per-
sonnel and on the effectiveness of available diving appara- 13.1 HAZARDS
tus in protecting divers. 13.1.1 Biological Pollutants
Many divers are unaware of the dangers of diving in Biological pollutants are probably the most common
polluted water. While some bodies of water do not appear form of hazardous materials encountered by divers. Three
polluted, they may have high levels of biological or chemi- main classes of biological contaminants are of concern to
cal contamination. Additionally, divers may mistakenly divers. Bacteria are single-celled creatures that exhibit charac-
believe that the water itself will dilute the hazard to a low teristics common to both plants and animals. Protozoans are
level while ignoring the possible cumulative effect of multi- single-celled animals. Viruses are organisms that take over
ple exposures. the chemistry of a host cell in living creatures to reproduce
The same hazardous materials that would concern a themselves.
person topside must concern divers under water. These haz- Fecal coliforms are a disease-producing bacteria found in
ards include biohazards, toxic chemicals, and radiation. human and animal feces. They are universally present in
However, the situations in which divers encounter these the water wherever there is raw sewage, or inadequate
underwater hazards are very different from those on the sewage treatment. Swallowing water that contains fecal
surface. The main difference in dealing with a hazardous coliforms can produce severe, disabling diarrhea. It might
material under water is that, in most cases, the hazardous not kill the diver, but it will result in lost time from work.
material is suspended or dissolved in the water around the In the Hudson River, New York, fecal coliform counts
diver. This means that unless the diver equips himself prop- as high as 100 times the maximum level considered safe for
erly, the material may enter the diver’s mouth through the human contact have been recorded. In the New River,
regulator or mask. For this reason, ordinary scuba equip- along the California–Mexico border, fecal coliform counts
ment is not considered acceptable for this type of diving. as high as 700,000 per 100 milliliters have been registered.
Contaminants may also get into a diver’s eyes, even if he The Hudson and New Rivers are sites that one would
wears a full-face mask or helmet, and they can touch his suspect as polluted just from the appearance and smell of
skin through his wet suit. Compare this situation to a liquid the water. Yet, even rivers and streams that appear to be
spill topside, where the chemical puddles in the street, and clear and clean may contain high levels of coliforms and
it’s easy to appreciate the increased risks. In addition, some other organisms.

13-1
 Other examples of sites where unacceptable levels of spread through contact with raw sewage, hepatitis can be
fecal coliforms have been identified include waterways found in fecal matter.
located near cattle ranching or feed lot operations. Most Another recently identified hazard is the dinoflagelate,
bodies of water near agricultural areas face similar prob- Pfiesteria piscicida, which has been found in the coastal
lems. waters of Florida and as far north as Chesapeake Bay
Santa Monica Bay, off Los Angeles, is sometimes (Barker 1998). Pfiesteria causes skin lesions on fish and
closed to water sports due to spills of untreated sewage. humans. Other documented human effects include vertigo
This occurs whenever heavy rains fill the storm drains and and disorientation which occurs after exposure, as well as
cause the waste treatment plants to exceed their capacity. neurological problems and extreme mood swings.
In February of 1990, eight million gallons of raw sewage
spilled into Santa Monica Bay, closing beaches there for 13.1.2 Toxic Chemicals
several weeks. Similar occurrences are common through- When most people think of hazardous materials emer-
out the United States. gencies, they usually think about accidental spills of toxic
A diver who dives in a waterway that contains high chemicals. However, in many situations, divers also face
numbers of fecal coliforms must be equipped with the right serious threats from low-level, long-term pollution of
equipment. Ordinary surface-supplied diving gear is usual- waterways. This long-term pollution continues to occur in
ly not enough. In New York City and in Imperial County, waterways as diverse as the harbors of the East coast, the
California, even the public safety divers (fire, sheriff, Mississippi River, and the waters of San Diego’s Mission
police) now wear special dry suits and full-face masks or Bay.
diving helmets (Hackett 1988). A dramatic example of a toxic “spill” occurred on
If fecal coliforms are present, there are probably sever- Earth Day, 1980, when a chemical waste storage site in
al other forms of biological pollution as well. Other dan- Elizabeth, New Jersey, exploded. More than 20,000 drums
gerous bacteria include Cholera, Vibrio vulnificus, and of acids, solvents, pesticides, explosives, and carcinogens
Aeromonas hydrophilla. were involved in the fire. Water used to fight this fire
Vibrio vulnificus is an extremely potent marine bacteria drained from the storage yard and carried many of the con-
that can cause death. It enters the body through the mouth taminants into Bayonne Bay. A third of the firefighters
or raw wounds. who fought the blaze reported symptoms of illness for up
Aeromonas hydrophilla infects open cuts in the body and to ten days after the incident. They complained of skin
is commonly found in harbor waters. For example, rashes, nausea, throat irritation, and tingling sensations in
Aeromonas was isolated from the nose and throat of scuba the limbs. Consequently, the New Jersey Department of
diving scientists after dives in the harbor at Norfolk, Vir- Environmental Protection banned commercial fishing
ginia. Aeromonas infections have been fatal if not properly downstream of the incident. Three months after the New
treated. Jersey spill, NOAA divers were conducting underwater
Like bacteria, many protozoans occur as a result of pol- experiments 22 miles from the site of the explosion.
lution. For example, eight different species of Acanthamoe- Equipped with full-face masks and vulcanized rubber dry
ba occur in polluted waters. This dangerous single-celled suits, their dives were made with no apparent ill effects.
organism causes inflammation of the spinal chord, with Yet at the same time, only a few miles away, two sport
death as the end result. divers surfaced, reporting burning sensations around their
Giardia lamblia, another protozoan, causes intestinal necks and mouths. Both divers were hospitalized.
pain, diarrhea, and high fever. Giardia has been positively San Diego’s Mission Bay is a popular water sports
identified in stool samples taken from the New York City location on the west coast of the United States. In 1987, an
Fire Department dive team members. Today, there are electronics firm was cited by the Environmental Protection
almost no streams in the Sierra Nevada mountains that do Agency (EPA) for dumping PCBs (polychlorinated
not contain Giardia. This comes as a result of the high biphenyls) into the bay (LaRue 1986). PCBs are used in the
number of animals, including humans, in these areas. In manufacture of electronics components. A level of 50 parts
general, it is unwise to drink water from lakes or streams per million (ppm) of PCBs results in a hazardous classifica-
unless it is treated. tion for solid wastes. Levels as high as 3,000 ppm were
In Florida, levels of protozoans in the inland waterways found in a culvert which emptied from the violator’s storm
may create dangerous conditions for divers. For heavily drain into the bay. Divers from the San Diego Port District
contaminated waters, public safety divers have been conducted training dives in a lagoon where the drain emp-
banned from entering the water there unless they are total- tied into the bay. Levels of PCBs as high as 34 (ppm) were
ly encapsulated. detected in the area where the divers trained. PCBs, which
One of the most commonly known viruses, Hepatitis tend to accumulate in the mud on the bottom, do not break
type A, survives outside the body in both fresh and salt down for many years. Three of the San Diego divers devel-
water. In Hepatitis A, the subject's liver becomes oped lymphoma, a form of cancer. One diver died from the
inflamed. Like other disease-producing organisms that disease and another developed anemia. While it has not

13-2 NOAA Diving Manual

been possible to establish a direct link between the divers’ (Connecticut), and Mayport, Florida. All of these ports see
conditions and the PCBs, the divers filed law suits against traffic from Navy ships, a prime user of TBT anti-fouling
the electronic firm in question. paints.
PCBs released in accidental spills in other parts of the Although tributyltin breaks down in clear waters, it
country also pose serious potential threats to divers. In Jan- persists much longer in murky harbor waters. The by-prod-
uary 1990, a manufacturing plant in Virginia spilled ucts of TBT’s decay are also harmful. It may be years after
approximately one million gallons of PCB-contaminated TBT is banned worldwide before it can no longer be detect-
water into the Shenandoah River. ed in the marine environment.
In Puget Sound, Washington, three different marine Divers who work around wooden piers and wharves
regions were declared toxic hazard sites by the EPA in must also beware of the dangers of creosote. Most wooden
1988. The two most dramatic were Commencement Bay pilings are treated with creosote to prevent wood decay.
and Eagle Harbor; both were listed on the EPA Super- Creosote also discourages marine worms from boring holes
fund cleanup list. Commencement Bay is bordered by in the pilings. Unprotected divers can get chemical burns
refineries, chemical plants, pulp mills, and a defunct cop- from brushing against pilings that are coated with creosote.
per smelting plant. Samples of the mud on the bottom Certain chemicals are so dangerous that no diver
have revealed high levels of petrochemicals, copper, lead, should consider working around them. These chemicals
zinc, and arsenic. Eagle Harbor has very high levels of include, but are not limited to, the following:
PAHs, resulting from a now-closed wood treatment oper-
ation. • Acetic anhydride
Another hazard commonly found in most harbors and • Acrylonitrile
marinas is the variety of residues from boat bottom paints • Carbon tetrachloride
that have been used on both large and small vessels. These • Cresol
bottom paints were designed to kill or inhibit the growth of • Chlordane
marine life. The same chemicals that discourage marine • Dichloropropane
growth may also be hazardous to humans. • Epichlorohydrin
One of the primary components of these anti-fouling • Ethylbenzene
paints is an organotin compound known as tributyltin, • Methyl chloride
more commonly known as “TBT.” There are 20 TBT com- • Methyl parathion
pounds; nine are used in boat bottom paints. • Perchloroethylene
TBTs dissolve into fats, giving them the ability to • Styrene
move across the membranes of living cells. This trait • Trichloroethylene
makes them effective in killing marine organisms, such as • Xylene
barnacles. Like PCBs, TBTs tend to collect in the silt
Programs for monitoring the effects of hazardous
found on the bottom of harbors. Almost all the research
chemicals on divers must be maintained for divers engaged
that has been done on TBTs has concentrated on the effect
in dealing with acute exposures. Blood, urine, and stool
of these chemicals on marine creatures. However, chemi-
samples are recommended predive and postdive when
cals in this class have toxic effects on the human central
divers expose themselves to specific known chemical tox-
nervous system, blood, liver, kidneys, heart, and skin.
ins. In addition, tests of the divers’ lung capacities are mer-
More alarming, is the fact that while people react to a sin-
ited in cases where chemicals are known to affect the
gle acute dose of TBTs, repeated sub-toxic doses also pro-
divers’ breathing ability.
duce adverse reactions. This suggests a cumulative effect,
where low doses keep adding up in a diver’s body after
repeated exposures. 13.1.3 Radioactive Substances
Since some scientific dives take place in harbors, TBTs Radioactive substances are most likely to enter the
must be of concern to divers and diving safety officers. A marine environment through industrial accidents. Protect-
scientist for the EPA has labeled TBTs as the “most toxic ing divers from this hazard is a matter of limiting the time
chemicals ever deliberately added to the marine environ- they are exposed, ensuring the divers maintain an adequate
ment.” distance from the material, and using proper shielding. In
Tribytyltin use is restricted in some states and countries. situations where this type of hazard exists, dive activities
In 1988, U.S. President Ronald W. Reagan signed the should be deferred to military or commercial diving organi-
Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act which prohibited zations who have the experience to deal with this type of
the use of TBT on non-aluminum vessels less than 83 feet (25 emergency.
meters) in length; EPA subsequently instituted this ban via
federal regulations. High levels of TBTs have been found in 13.1.4 Thermal Conditions
San Diego Bay, San Francisco Bay, Honolulu Harbor, Long Aside from the risks of exposure to hazardous materi-
Beach Harbor (California), Narraganset Bay, Thames River als, dry suits and masks/helmets also create thermal

Polluted-Water Diving 13-3

hazards for the diver. These hazards, which are similar to the outside water, a puncture or leak in the suit results
those faced by hazardous-material (“HAZ-MAT”) person- in clean water leaking out, rather than outside water
nel topside, include fluid loss, heat cramps, and heat coming in, as is the case with air-filled suits. The insula-
exhaustion. From the time that the diver dresses-in before tion quality of the inner suit provides a buffer layer
the dive until completion of decontamination at the end of when cooling is necessary and helps prevent burning of
the dive, heat stress can be a severe problem. If the diver the diver in the event very hot water is accidentally sent
works in cold water, some of the heat stress will be to the diver via the umbilical from the surface. Today,
relieved during the dive. Moving from very warm surface an adaptation of the SUS is used by divers working in
climates into cold water, and back to hot surface tempera- nuclear power plants to reduce hyperthermia and pre-
tures, is stressful in itself. If the diver works in warm vent exposure to any potential contaminants.
water, there is no relief from heat stress. Overheating may In extended contaminated water diving operations in
be a very real danger. Divers who work in warm waters warm weather, the diver’s physiology must be moni-
must carefully evaluate these conditions and plan dives tored. These include heart rate, body temperature, and
accordingly. weight. Measurements of these vital functions should be
In the early 1980s, NOAA and the Environmental taken before and after diving. Experiments have been
Protection Agency (EPA) developed a “suit-under-suit” conducted at the Swedish National Institute of Occupa-
system (SUS) to deal with two problems associated with tional Health on the effectiveness of diver cooling using
contaminated water diving; thermoregulation and leak- an ice filled vest (Holmer 1989). The divers in the study
age. The SUS consists of a thin inner suit (foam neo- wore dry suits, similar to the SUS mentioned above, fit-
prene neck-entry dry suit with attached booties) covered ted with vests containing 46 small pockets filled with
by a conventional dry suit (vulcanized rubber with ankle blocks of ice in plastic bags. At water temperatures of
exhaust valves and an adjustable-pressure arm-mounted 107°F (41.7C), the divers were able to complete dives
exhaust valve) (see Figure 13.1). A “neck dam” installed that were 15 – 30 minutes longer when equipped with the
in the outer suit is clamped to the entrance hoke of the ice-filled vest. Further tests will need to be performed to
inner suit, creating a closed cavity between the two suits determine maximum safe exposure times for using such
and separating the diver’s head from the suits. An outer systems.
chafing/restraining garment is worn over the outer suit.
Clean water of the desired temperature (hot or cold) is 13.2 TRAINING
pumped into the area between the two suits to warm or Training for contaminated water diving operations
cool the diver. Since the entire volume of the suit is requires the combined talents of many people. Ideally, the
filled with water under a pressure slightly greater than staff for a training course in contaminated water diving

FIGURE 13.1
Suit Under Suit (SUS)

13-4 NOAA Diving Manual

would include a biologist, a chemist, a HAZ-MAT special- After evaluating actual and potential contaminants in the
ist, and a diving safety officer intimately familiar with dive planning process, three options are available:
appropriate diving equipment and procedures.
As a minimum, polluted-water diving training should 1. Diving is not an option when unacceptable expo-
include the following topics along with hands-on and in- sure conditions exist or when the water contains
water scenarios: chemicals in which a diver should never be allowed
to operate. In this case, other means (i.e., remotely
• Hazard recognition and evaluation operated vehicles, surface sampling devices, etc.)
• Go/No-Go decision making must be used to obtain required data.
• Equipment selection 2. For less severe but still hazardous exposures where
• Dive planning it is absolutely necessary to have a diver enter the
• Dress-in procedures water, total encapsulation (i.e., full-coverage hel-
• Diving procedures met mated to a dry suit with dry gloves) should be
• Emergency procedures required.
• Postdive decontamination 3. In less polluted environments (i.e., where contami-
nants are bound to sediments or the waters carry
low levels of biological contamination) a full-face
13.3 EQUIPMENT mask can often be used with a dry suit and dry
gloves. This system offers a lesser degree of protec-
13.3.1 General
tion than a helmet but far more protection than a
Polluted-water diving operations require specialized half mask with scuba regulator.
equipment. Both the divers in the water and the support
personnel topside must be properly equipped. Although 13.3.2 Full-Face Masks
equipment used topside is essentially the same as that used Full-face masks can be supplied with breathing gas
by personnel for HAZ-MAT operations, special considera- from a variety of sources including open-circuit scuba, sur-
tion must be given to splash-back protection and the face-supplied systems, or a rebreather. When used in the
amount of water required to decontaminate the divers. open circuit mode, full-face masks should be equipped with
Equipment used for polluted-water diving is somewhat dif- a series non-return valve to prevent a backflow of contami-
ferent from standard “off the shelf ” scuba or surface-sup- nants into the breathing system. In addition, the mask
plied diving equipment. should have separate inhalation and exhalation chambers.
There are several characteristics of commonly used This will help to further reduce the possibility of inhaling a
diving equipment that make it unacceptable for diving in spray of contaminants if leakage occurs on the exhaust side
contaminated water: foam neoprene dry suits are difficult of the breathing system.
to impossible to adequately decontaminate; the numer- Since a full-face mask can leak if a strap breaks or
ous “breakable” seals on masks, helmets, and suits becomes loose, another desirable feature is a positive pres-
increase potential for leaks; and reliable, dry-glove sure regulator. Scuba full-face masks normally operate in
arrangements are scarce. Moreover, exhaust valves in the demand mode, but masks with positive pressure are
demand regulators allow a few small droplets of water to designed to free flow if the face seal is broken. This very
enter during the exhaust cycle. When the demand valve important feature can help prevent contaminants from
is activated during inhalation, the jet of incoming air entering the mask in the event of a leak. Positive pressure
breaks up the droplets into a mist which is then inhaled masks also clear water automatically if the mask complete-
by the diver. ly floods. Conservative calculation of breathing gas supply
It is essential to keep in mind that accidents which requirements is absolutely essential when using full-face
occur when diving in polluted water may require addition- masks with open-circuit scuba equipment. Unfortunately,
al procedures prior to initiating standard diving accident buoyancy can be a problem with some full-face masks.
management. The combination of top-quality, well-main- Depending on the individual, some masks with high inter-
tained equipment, coupled with proper training, safety con- nal volumes may be buoyant producing jaw fatigue and
sciousness, and common sense can go a long way to generally making the mask uncomfortable to wear. Select-
reduce the likelihood of accidents. There is no such thing ing a mask with the lowest volume available is advisable,
as 100 percent safe contaminated-water diving. assuming it meets the other important criteria for the spe-
Just as there are different levels of protection for HAZ- cific polluted-water application (see Figure 13.2).
MAT situations topside, there are different types of diving It is possible to use a full-face mask with a fully closed-
equipment to be selected according to the hazard level circuit rebreather, however, the cost involved with purchas-
under water. Unfortunately, no standards currently exist ing and maintaining the system, plus the additional
for diving equipment that can be selected based upon the training requirements for personnel, may make the use of
potential effects/risks of the hazard to the divers. such systems for polluted-water application prohibitive.

Polluted-Water Diving 13-5

 Reclaimed gasisisvented
Reclaimed gas vented
Breathing Air Manifold to
to atmosphere
atmosphere

Inlet Reclaim System Inlet

Vacuum Pump Supply

Vacuum Pump Supply

Outlet Outlet

Vacuum Vacuum Pump Vacuum

Air Supply
Crossover

Vacuum Pump Vacuum Pump

© 1998 S. Barsky

FIGURE 13.2
Full-Face Masks for Use in Contaminated Water
Reclaim
Reclaim Helmet
Helmet

Bail-Out
Bail-Out
System
13.3.3 Diving Helmets System
For exposure to chemical or biological hazards that can
produce severe illness or death, divers should be equipped
with a full coverage helmet, a dry suit with a mating yoke FIGURE 13.3
for the helmet, and mating dry gloves. The advantage of a Schematic of Reclaim System with Topside Supply
diving helmet over a full-face mask is that the diver’s entire
head is encapsulated in a dry environment. Diving helmets
are also less likely to be accidentally pulled-off a diver’s
head and they are less prone to leak. (see Figure 13.4). The SEV helps prevent a back-flow of
The typical mode for supplying breathing gas to a full- water into the helmet. Both the regulator exhaust and the
coverage helmet is from a surface-supplied source. Such main helmet exhaust are linked together with a special tube,
sources consist of either a low-pressure air compressor or a and a third external exhaust valve is added to the system.
high-pressure gas storage system that is reduced to low pres- Any water that manages to sneak past this outer exhaust
sure. Another, more sophisticated mode of supplying gas to valve is unlikely to make it past either of the two other
a diving helmet is a “reclaim” gas system. A reclaim system, valves. Testing by NOAA using dye tracers revealed the pres-
also referred to as a “push-pull” system, routes the helmet’s ence of occasional droplets of water behind the outer-most
exhaust to the surface, by means of a separate hose, where it valve, however, none were detected inside the second valve.
is either recycled or exhausted to the surrounding atmos-
phere (see Figure 13.3). The advantage of this type of system 13.3.4 Umbilicals
is that it reduces the possibility of contaminants entering the One of the big problems with umbilicals for surface-
helmet via a back-flow through the exhaust valve (see Figure supplied diving in the past has been that they have tradi-
13.4), and protects the tender from volatile contaminants tionally been assembled with duct tape, which can absorb
being released from the sediment and transported to the sur- contaminants or even disintegrate when used in contami-
face with exhaust bubbles. The disadvantage is that they are nated water. New umbilicals are available today made
more expensive and not easily deployed on a small boat. from chemically resistant hoses that are manufactured in
Special reclaim systems have been developed specifically for a spiral and require no tape to hold the components
polluted-water diving (Divex 1997). together (see Figure 13.5). These are preferred for many
Diving helmets that are equipped with demand regula- polluted-water diving scenarios.
tors, without reclaim systems, are subject to the same
exhaust “splash-back”problems experienced with open-cir- 13.3.5 Dry Suits
cuit scuba regulators. To reduce the possibility of this hap- If a dry suit is to be used with a full-face mask, the dry
pening, NOAA developed the “series exhaust valve” (SEV) suit must be equipped with a latex or vulcanized rubber

13-6 NOAA Diving Manual

 27

FIGURE 13.4
Double Exhaust System

dry hood which is attached directly to the suit (see Figure NOAA and the EPA conducted tests in the 1970s with
13.6). The full-face mask must seal on the hood without different types of dry suits in several biologically contami-
leakage. If the diver is using a full-coverage helmet (see nated rivers. After decontamination, it was determined that
Figure 13.7), the interface between the diving helmet and suits with a nylon fabric exterior showed signs of bacteria
the dry suit is extremely critical. Ideally, the helmet should for several days after the dive. In contrast, vulcanized rub-
mate directly to the suit, quickly and easily. Yet, the ber dry suits displayed almost no evidence of bacteria after
connection must be positive and secure. The system should proper wash down. Based upon these tests, vulcanized rub-
be designed so that few, if any, contaminants are trapped ber dry suits have become the most widely used type of
suits for diving in polluted water. While vulcanized rubber
between the helmet and the suit when the two are separat-
dry suits help protect the diver from most biological conta-
ed after the dive.
mination, they do not protect him from all types of chemi-
Dry suits for contaminated water diving should be
cals or radiation.
made from a material that has a smooth, non-porous outer
surface. The material must not absorb or trap contaminants. NOTE
For diving in biologically polluted water, vulcanized rub- No type of diving helmet/mask or suit can guarantee
ber dry suits are the most popular choice. complete protection from exposure to contaminants
under water.

Dry suits used in a contaminated environment must

also be equipped with attached boots. Suits with thin latex
socks are unacceptable, due to the ease with which the
material can be punctured, especially when walking on the
bottom of a garbage littered harbor.
Dry glove systems consisting of a set of cuff rings and
gloves (or mittens) should also be used for polluted-water
diving operations. Cuff rings come in pairs of inner and
outer rings. The inner ring, which is machined from hard
plastic, goes inside the sleeve of the dry suit where the
sleeve attaches to the wrist seal. The outer ring, which is
made from rubber, slips over the sleeve and compresses the
FIGURE 13.5 suit over the inner ring. Take care not to tighten the clamp
Twisted Umbilicals too much or it will cut the glove. Tape should be used over

Polluted-Water Diving 13-7

FIGURE 13.6
Full-Face Mask with Dry Suit

the clamp to prevent it from snagging, or tape may be used

alone to hold the gloves in position. The dry gloves or mit-
tens snap into position over the outer ring (see Figure
13.8).
It is essential to remember that any individual piece
of diving gear will not be compatible with all chemical
FIGURE 13.7
environments. In 1983, the U.S. Navy’s Surface Weapons
Center commissioned a study on the effects of a variety of Full-Coverage Helmet with Dry Suit
hazardous chemicals on diving equipment (Glowe 1983).
The tests, which were performed by the TRI Environmen-
tal, Inc., covered a wide variety of military and commer-
cial diving equipment. The results of immersion tests of 13.4 POLLUTED-WATER DIVING
selected suit and helmet components and Gates C3 diving TECHNIQUES
hose to chemical exposure are available from the NOAA Diving in contaminated water is not much different
Diving Center (NDC), Seattle, Washington. In 1998, than diving under ordinary conditions. The procedures and
Trelleborg Viking conducted permeability and resistance techniques used under water are basically the same as they
tests on their vulcanized rubber dry suits, zippers, latex are for any surface-supplied dive. The real differences in
seals, and gloves for various chemical exposures. These diving in contaminated water are the procedures and tech-
results are also available from NDC. niques that take place before and after the dive. Gear set-
In addition to protecting the diver, the diver’s ten- up, dress-in procedures, air supply systems, and
ders, who aid him in dressing and handle the diving hose, decontamination are quite different when diving in conta-
must also be properly protected. The tenders will be in minated water as compared to diving in less hostile envi-
the “hot zone” while they tend the diver at the water’s ronments.
edge (see Figure 13.9). They must also accompany and The preparation for a contaminated water dive actual-
assist the diver through the decontamination procedure. ly starts with team training. Even though the diver may be
Tenders must wear the appropriate protection according very experienced, the extra equipment required for conta-
to the hazard level (Barsky 1999). Besides dressing the minated water diving usually requires extra training for
diver, they must keep a firm grip on the diver’s umbilical personnel. The diver must become thoroughly familiar
at all times. Since they cannot leave the diver’s hose unat- with the dry suit, full-face mask or helmet, and any other
tended, they must be provided with a sufficient air sup- gear to be utilized. Both the diver and tenders must be
ply, if the situation warrants it. The air supply must last familiar with the decontamination procedures. A difficult
for the anticipated duration of the dive, as well as includ- and important part of contaminated water diving is dress-
ing a reserve. Tenders must also be protected from heat ing the diver quickly and efficiently so that he does not
stress. become overheated.

13-8 NOAA Diving Manual

FIGURE 13.8
Hose Clamp on Dry Glove
FIGURE 13.9
Protected Dive Tender
Inoculations will usually be in order if the diver will be
diving in biologically contaminated water. Hepatitis vacci-
nation is considered essential if the diver will be exposed to
fecal coliforms. Other inoculations, including polio and The contamination reduction zone is where the process
typhoid, may be needed depending upon the location of of decontamination occurs. The support zone is where all
the dive. The integration of a HAZ-MAT team with the personnel and equipment are stationed that are not
dive team is desirable whenever possible. The tender must equipped to be exposed to the contaminants. The divi-
be trained in the use of SCBAs (Self-Contained Breathing sion of the dive site into these separate zones is known as
Apparatus) and HAZ-MAT suits and be prepared to tend the “zone management system” (see Figure 13.10).
the diver while totally encapsulated. The diver’s life support equipment will usually be
The first step in planning a contaminated water dive is placed as close to the contamination reduction corridor as
determining what equipment should be used. To do this, possible. Ideally, the diver’s air manifold operator should
the dive team must know what contaminants are present at be able to see the dive site and have visual contact with the
the dive site. This is the cardinal rule of contaminated tender at the water’s edge. If this is not possible, they must
water diving; if the diver doesn’t know what’s in the water, at least have audio communications between both areas.
he should not dive. The diver's topside air manifold operator should not be
Plans for decontamination should include making sure encapsulated. An encapsulated air manifold operator will be
the right equipment is on hand before the diver enters the unable to communicate clearly with the diver without special
water. This means that the dive team must have the proper communications equipment. In addition, the air manifold
decontamination solutions and wash down gear prepared operator cannot leave the manifold unattended to change his
prior to the dive. own SCBA. Finally, if the manifold operator is located where
Generally, the diver should select the highest level of pro- there is the possibility of contacting contaminated material, it
tection available, unless there is some good reason why this is might be possible for contaminated air to be introduced into
not possible. The justification for this is that even though he the diver's breathing system. As with any hazardous materi-
may think he knows what hazards are present, there may be als incident, the dive station and incident command supervi-
additional hazards under water that have not been anticipat- sor should be located up-wind of any potential source of
ed. For example, if the diver is working in a biologically cont- chemical fumes.
aminated river, it is possible for people to dump chemicals
upstream from the dive site with no notice given. WARNING
When the dive team actually arrives at an incident, SINCE WIND DIRECTION AND/OR AIRBORNE
as with any HAZ-MAT scenario, they must determine CONTAMINATES CAN NOT BE CONTROLLED,
the center of the contaminated site. The location of the UTILIZATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS COULD
"hot zone" as well as the adjacent “contamination reduc- PRESENT SERIOUS COMPLICATIONS. FILLING OF
tion zone” and the “support zone” will greatly influence ALL HIGH-PRESSURE CYLINDERS, SCBA, AND
the placement of the surface support gear. The hot zone SCUBA CYLINDERS SHOULD BE FILLED WELL
is the area that contains the spill or other contamination. CLEAR OF POSSIBLE CONTAMINATION.

Polluted-Water Diving 13-9

 NOTE parts on the helmet. Although a piece of gear may have
Exposure levels that are tolerable at the surface been in good condition when it was last stored, it may
may be highly toxic at elevated partial pressures have deteriorated over time.
under water. Divers should always personally test the non-return
valve on any surface-supplied diving helmet to make
During the set up of equipment, thoughtful attention sure it is operating properly. The diver must not be able
must be given to the routing of the diver's umbilical. For to suck any air back through the valve. If a non-return
example, in an inland hazardous materials spill, the sur- valve fails the diver can be seriously injured. Do not dive
face-supplied diver's umbilical may often need to cross a unless the non-return valve on the helmet is operating
street to reach a drainage canal or lake. While the street properly.
may be cordoned off to local traffic, the diver's breathing Whether dressing the diver or the standby diver, both
air umbilical must still be protected from emergency vehi- crew members should be provided with a chair or other
cles that might accidentally run over the hose. A truck that place to sit. Both divers will be wearing a lot of equipment
runs over a diving hose could cause it to fail immediately. and a sturdy bench, chair, or stool will be a necessity. In
A truck that parks on top of a diver's hose could leave a addition, if the weather is at all warm, there must be some
diver with no air. Obviously, either situation must be type of shade and cooling for the divers. Overheating is a
avoided since this jeopardizes the diver's lifeline. major problem in contaminated water diving, as it is in all
The best protection for the dive hose is to route the HAZ-MAT operations.
traffic around it with traffic cones or crowd control tape. If Dive team organization must be completely discussed
this is impossible it may be necessary to build some sort of prior to every dive so that each person understands their
simple protective shield to cover the hose, such as several responsibilities. Additional team members will be needed
wooden two by four beams, nailed together, with a chan- to assist during the wash down of the diver and the tender.
nel between them for the hose to fit inside. Contaminated water diving requires a great deal of logisti-
During set-up, all equipment must be thoroughly cal support.
inspected. Although each piece of gear should have been Divers must ultimately understand that they are
tagged after its last cleaning and use, it should all be com- responsible for making the decision whether or not it is
pletely inspected again. Particular attention should be safe to dive. Divers must never be forced to dive when they
given to the seals on the suit, the valves, and the rubber feel conditions are unsafe.

one
nZ
io
ct

e du
io nR
in at
C o nta m

FIGURE 13.10
Zone Management System

13-10 NOAA Diving Manual

 outside of the gloves to help hold them in place. Caution
should be used whenever the diver works around wreckage
or other debris to avoid damaging the connection between
the gloves and the suit. If latex dry gloves are worn, the
diver may need to wear additional disposable work gloves
over them to protect the dry gloves from puncture.
After the diver is dressed in, but prior to him entering
the water, the entire diving system worn by the diver must
be leak tested. The best way to accomplish this is to sub-
merge the diver in a vat of clear, clean water. Carefully
observe the system for leaks. If a test tank is not available,
then the diver's suit should be inflated and the diver should
be sprayed with a solution of soapy water.
During a contaminated water dive, the diver must be
constantly alert to feelings of wetness inside his suit, or
unusual smells inside the diving helmet. If the diver even
suspects there is a leak in his diving system he must exit
the water immediately and proceed to decontamination.
In an out-of-air situation, the diver must never remove a
full-face mask or helmet. Aside from the danger of expos-
FIGURE 13.11 ing himself to contaminants, he will not be able to see
Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) underwater. In the surface-supplied mode, he should be
able to switch to his bail-out reserve with no interruption
of his breathing air supply. Training for other emergen-
At the dive site, the diving supervisor and divers will cies, such as entanglement and regulator failure, should be
need to evaluate all the conditions affecting the dive. a regular part of each dive team’s program.
Important aspects to consider include the depth, any physi-
cal underwater hazards (aside from the contaminant), top- 13.5 DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
side weather conditions, underwater visibility, currents, etc. Decontamination should start as the diver exits the
If the decision is made not to dive, it may be preferable to water (Traver 1982). When the diver first mounts the lad-
use a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Many commercial der to exit the water the tenders can hose the diver off as
diving companies have ROVs available that can be used for part of the gross decontamination process.
this type of work and some dive teams are using this type of During the gross decontamination process the diver
equipment regularly (see Figure 13.11). will still be wearing all his equipment. Considering the
Once the zone management system is in place, and the weight of most diving helmets, and the other equipment
hazard has been identified, it is time to start dressing the the diver will be wearing, it is very important for the ten-
diver. During the dress-in for a contaminated water dive, ders to perform their duties as quickly as possible. The
the diver should allow the tender to adjust the neck seal and diver is apt to be extremely fatigued after a hard dive and
other pieces of equipment as much as possible. There are the heat build-up inside the dry suit can be extreme during
two principle reasons for this: the tender can see things that decontamination. If a diver were to pass out during decont-
may be wrong with the equipment that the diver may not be amination, this would pose a serious emergency for the
able to determine by feel alone, and the tender is less likely dive team.
to tear or damage a neck seal or other piece of equipment Of special concern during the decontamination proce-
than a diver working by himself. dures is the area where the diving helmet mates to the dry
Surface-supplied divers wearing a diving helmet suit. This is one location where most diving systems will
should be assisted in mating the helmet to the dry suit trap contaminants. Extra care must be taken to ensure
yoke. Tenders who assist in mating the helmet to the suit that there is no trace of contaminants left in the collar of
must take care not to injure the diver's neck. The weight of the suit when the helmet is removed. If this area is not
the helmet itself, combined with careless handling by the scrupulously cleaned, any remaining contaminants will
tenders, can produce discomfort and possible injury. run down inside the collar towards the diver’s neck. This
While many scientific divers use dry gloves for cold area must be scrubbed and rinsed with large amounts of
water diving, using dry gloves in contaminated water water.
requires extra care. Dry gloves should be kept separate from Decontamination solutions should be specific to the
the internal pressure inside the suit. In cases where the hazard encountered. For biological contamination, com-
gloves leak, they will compromise the diver’s entire dry suit monly used solutions include Betadine, Zeppamine, and
system. Clamps or waterproof tape should be used on the tincture green soap. For chemical solutions, the appropriate

Polluted-Water Diving 13-11

neutralizing agents must be employed. When the chemicals It is especially important to clean items such as dry
present are very toxic or hazardous, or where decontamina- suits and helmets as soon as possible after the dive. If the
tion procedures are complex, the equipment is usually con- suit is damp inside from the diver's sweat, the suit will
tainerized for safe handling and transport. Gear used in grow mold inside if it is not properly cleaned and dried.
wash-down may include hoses, brushes, showers, and This final cleaning will take place during the definitive
equipment to capture and transport the used decontamina- decontamination.
tion solution and equipment (see Figure 13.12). In cases of
simple biological contamination, a child’s wading pool may NOTE
be sufficient in which to wash down the diver’s equipment. Personal hygiene is the number one priority when
All water used during the decontamination process, which diving in contaminated water.
normally involves fairly large quantities, must be captured.
Recovery drums must be available to transport the spent Procedures required for major decontamination
decontamination fluids. exposure are generally well recognized. A prudent decon-
As the diver removes each piece of his equipment, it tamination, immunization, and monitoring protocol has
should be placed in a marked container or bag. There been established following HAZ-MAT and medical
should be a tag attached to the container listing the date, authorities. Unfortunately, divers and support personnel
the exposure time, the contaminants, the level of deconta- exposed to mild or moderate contamination often disre-
mination achieved, and what piece of gear is inside. Equip- gard possible consequences of the exposure and fail to
ment that has been damaged or cannot be effectively maintain personal hygiene as a minimum. Definitive
decontaminated may need to be destroyed. Dive teams decontamination for the diver includes a minimum 5
should remember to budget for replacing one-third of their minute shower, during which he scrubs vigorously with a
equipment on an annual basis. brush and appropriate decontamination solution, rinse,

FIGURE 13.12
Decontamination of Diver

13-12 NOAA Diving Manual

and a second scrub, after removal of all dry suit undergar- indicate it is ready for the next operation. Any piece of
ments and his bathing suit. The diver then towels himself equipment that is not operational should have a red tag
dry, disposes of the towel, and enters a second shower. A clearly affixed to it indicating any problems with the gear.
mobile decontamination facility is the best location for
these showers. Any cuts or scratches the diver receives 13.6 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
during the course of the dive should be examined by a 13.6.1 Resources for Consultation
doctor, particularly if the injury occurs in biologically The following resources are available for consultation
contaminated water. Biological contaminants can cause regarding diving in contaminated water:
serious infections; therefore, divers must report any post-
dive illness or other problems to the appropriate supervi- • NOAA Hazardous Materials and Assessment
sory and medical personnel. Division
Definitive decontamination of diving equipment usu- 7600 Sand Point Way NE
ally takes place at a dedicated facility. At a minimum, the Seattle, WA 98115
valves in diving helmets and dry suits need to be com- Telephone: (206) 526 -6943 (Voice)
pletely disassembled and checked for any sign of damage. (206) 526 -6329 (Fax)
If the contaminants encountered during the dive are E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
beyond the scope of the dive team, the manufacturer of
the equipment should be contacted for further instruc- • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
tions. Dive equipment should never be returned to a man- Nation Health and Environmental
ufacturer without contacting them first. All equipment Effects Research Laboratory
used in contaminated water diving operations should have 1 Sabine Island
a use log and a maintenance log to record the information Gulf Breeze, FL 32561-5299
on the history of the gear. At the completion of mainte- Telephone: (850) 934-9242 (Voice)
nance, each piece of gear should be tagged and dated to (850) 934-9201 (Fax)

Polluted-Water Diving 13-13

 NOTES

13-14 NOAA Diving Manual

The NOAA Diving Manual was prepared jointly by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce and Best
Publishing Company.

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