15

SECTION PAGE SECTION PAGE

15.1 NITROGEN-OXYGEN BREATHING 15. 9 PROCEDURES FOR USING NOAA
MIXTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 1 NITROX DIVING TABLES . . . . . . . . . . .15-16
15.1.1 Early Use of Nitrogen-Oxygen 15.10 OUT OF GAS EMERGENCIES . . . . . . . .15-16
Breathing Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 1 15.10.1 Diver Within No-stop Limits . . . . .15-16
15.1.2 NOAA Use of Nitrox 15.10.2 Shifting to Air During
Breathing Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 2 a Decompression Stop . . . . . . . . . .15-17
15.2 MISCONCEPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 3 15.11 PREPARATION OF NITROX
15.3 TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 3 GAS MIXTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-17
15.4 ADVANTAGES OF NITROX . . . . . . . . . .15- 3 15.11.1 Oxygen Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-17
15.4.1 Repetitive Dive Example . . . . . . . . .15- 4 15.11.2 The Fire Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-17
15.5 SELECTING A NITROX MIX . . . . . . . . . .15- 4 15.11.3 Air to be Mixed with Oxygen . . . . .15-17
15.5.1 Concerns of the Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 4 15.11.4 Cleaning for Oxygen Service . . . . . .15-18
15.5.2 Oxygen Exposure Time . . . . . . . . . . .15- 4 15.11.5 Design and Technique in
15.5.3 Maximum Operating Depth . . . . . . .15- 5 Using Oxygen Systems . . . . . . . . . .15-19
15.5.4 Partial Pressure of 15.12 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS . . . . .15-19
Oxygen Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 5 15.12.1 Scuba Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-19
15.5.5 Fraction of Oxygen 15.12.2 Identification of
for the Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 5 Nitrox Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-20
15.6 DIVING TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 6 15.12.3 Cylinder Label for
15.6.1 NOAA Nitrox Diving Tables . . . . . .15- 6 Oxygen Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-20
15.6.2 Equivalent Air Depth 15.12.4 Cylinder Labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-20
Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 7 15.12.5 Fill Station Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-21
15.6.3 Custom Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 7 15.13 PREPARING NITROX MIXTURES . . . . .15-21
15.6.4 Repetitive Dives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 8 15.13.1 Commercial Pre-Mix . . . . . . . . . . .15-21
15.6.5 Using Repetitive Procedures . . . . . . .15- 8 15.13.2 Partial-Pressure Mixing . . . . . . . . .15-22
15.6.6 Diving at Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 8 15.13.3 Oxygen Fill Formula . . . . . . . . . . .15-22
15.6.7 Dive Computers and Nitrox . . . . . . .15- 9 [Link] Oxygen to
15.7 USING NOAA NITROX Add Charts . . . . . . . . . . .15-24
DECOMPRESSION TABLES . . . . . . . . . .15- 9 15.13.4 Continuous Flow Mixing . . . . . . . .15-25
15.7.1 Using Fixed Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15- 9 15.13.5 Pressure Swing Adsorption . . . . . . .15-25
15.7.2 NOAA Nitrox 32% and 36% 15.13.6 Membrane Separation . . . . . . . . . .15-25
Decompression Tables . . . . . . . . . . .15-10 15.13.7 Boosting Pressure to Scuba
15.7.3 Application of Equivalent Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-26
Air Depth and Air Tables . . . . . . . . .15-14 15.14 PERFORMING GAS ANALYSIS . . . . . . .15-26
15.7.4 Calculating the 15.14.1 Oxygen Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-26
Equivalent Air Depth . . . . . . . . . . . .15-14 15.14.2 The Analysis Process . . . . . . . . . . .15-26
15.8 REPETITIVE DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-15 15.14.3 Analyzing Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-26
15.8.1 Repetitive Dive with the [Link] Calibrating Gas . . . . . . .15-26
Same Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-15 [Link] Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . .15-27
15.8.2 Repetitive Dive with a [Link] Calibration . . . . . . . . . . .15-27
Different Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15-15 [Link] Analyzing the
15.8.3 Omitted Decompression . . . . . . . . . .15-16 Nitrox Cylinder . . . . . . .15-27
 Nitrox Diving
15
15.1 NITROGEN-OXYGEN TABLE 15.1
BREATHING MIXTURES No-Stop Dive Times
Divers have used air as a breathing gas since the begin-
Depth USN Air NN32 NN36
ning of diving. Its principal advantage is that it is readily (fsw) (msw) 21% 32% 36%
available and inexpensive to compress into cylinders or use
directly from compressors with surface-supplied diving equip- 50 15 100 200 310
ment. Air is not the “ideal” breathing mixture for diving
60 18 60 100 100
because of the effects of nitrogen narcosis at deeper depths
70 22 50 60 100
and the decompression liability it imposes. Since decompres-
80 25 40 50 60
sion obligation is dependent on exposure to inspired nitrogen
partial pressure, this obligation can be reduced by replacing a 90 28 30 40 50
portion of the nitrogen content of divers’ breathing gas with 100 31 25 30 40
oxygen, which is metabolized by the body. This is the funda- 110 34 20 30 30
mental benefit of nitrogen-oxygen diving (Wells 1989). 120 37 15 25
The two most commonly used nitrogen-oxygen mix- 130 40 10 20
tures in NOAA are 32% and 36% oxygen, called NOAA
Nitrox 32 (NN32) and NOAA Nitrox 36 (NN36). The
remainder, the other gas in nitrox mixes, is nitrogen. Other
and describes how NOAA divers take advantage of this prin-
mixes can be used with permission from the NOAA Div-
ciple for their scientific underwater work.
ing Office. “Nitrox” is a generic term that can be used for
any gaseous mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, but in the 15.1.1 Early Use of Nitrogen-Oxygen Breathing
context of this chapter, the implication is that nitrox is a Mixtures
mixture with more oxygen than that in air. Using NN32 or The use of oxygen-rich breathing gases for diving is not
NN36 versus air can significantly increase the amount of a new concept. References to such gas mixes go back to the
time a diver can spend at depth without incurring addition- 19th century. The eminent American physicist and
al decompression. chemist, Elihu Thompson (1853–1936), first proposed the
Table 15.1, which is a comparison of air and the NOAA breathing of hydrogen and oxygen (Davis 1962). The U.S.
nitrox mixes for no-stop dive times measured in minutes, Navy has used nitrox effectively with semiclosed
clearly indicates why oxygen-rich mixtures are a preferred rebreathers since the 1950s when it was studied intensively
choice for diving in the 50–130 fsw (15– 40 msw) depth range. by Dr. Edward H. Lanphier, and also by Dr. Christian J.
A diver making a 90 fsw (28 msw) dive using one of Lambertsen.
these mixtures can increase the air no-stop dive time from 30 Commercial application of nitrogen-oxygen mixtures
minutes to as much as 50 minutes. Assuming a diver uses a was practiced from the late 1950s, particularly by André
30-foot-per-minute rate of descent, a diver using air will have Galerne at International Underwater Contractors (IUC) of
only 27 minutes on the bottom, whereas the diver breathing New York (Galerne 1989). These techniques were used to
NN36 will have 47 minutes. This is a 74 percent increase in a limited extent by IUC and other commercial companies.
bottom time. When equipment for on-line mixing of oxygen and air was
But the increased bottom time does not come without an developed, nitrox techniques became more popular and
operational price tag. Nitrox diving comes with limits and were used more extensively by a few commercial diving
safety procedures. This chapter explains why nitrox works companies.

15-1
15.1.2 NOAA Use of Nitrox Breathing Mixtures developed a comprehensive nitrox diving program to sup-
NOAA’s involvement with nitrox breathing mixtures port undersea research efforts in the South Atlantic Bight
began in the mid-1970s in an effort to increase the efficien- and Gulf of Mexico. With the assistance of Dr. Wells, the
cy of diving operations. The cost per hour of bottom time NURC/UNCW program developed standards and proce-
for diving operations can be quite expensive considering all dures for using nitrox, a mixing system (which eventually
the various direct and indirect costs involved with extended progressed from a simple partial pressure system to a con-
at-sea operations (i.e., vessel operating costs, salaries of tinuous mixer using an oxygen generator), a nitrox diver
personnel, diving equipment, etc.). The increase in useful training program, and decompression tables for oxygen-
bottom time provided by the use of nitrox mixtures results enriched mixtures between 30 – 40% oxygen content.
in a reduction of dives or divers required to accomplish a To date, NURC/UNCW has conducted over 25,000
given amount of work; thus, it is a very cost-effective way nitrox dives, making their program one of the most active
to reduce the cost per hour of bottom time. in the United States. Besides using nitrox mixtures in sup-
In early 1977, Dr. J. Morgan Wells, then Director of the port of field operations, the NURC/UNCW program also
NOAA Diving Program, proposed using nitrox breathing actively promoted nitrox in the scientific diving communi-
mixtures with open-circuit diving equipment (scuba or sur- ty by publishing and presenting numerous technical papers
face-supplied) for NOAA diving operations. The proposal at various symposia and conferences, conducting work-
was based on a fixed nitrogen and oxygen mixture contain- shops and training sessions, and assisting other organiza-
ing 32% oxygen. This gas mixture, which was designated tions in the development of similar diving programs.
“NOAA Nitrox I,” (now called NN32) was selected based Much of the credit for the widespread acceptance of nitrox
on two parameters: 1) a maximum operating depth of 130 in the scientific diving community belongs to
fsw (40 msw), which also corresponded to the maximum NURC/UNCW.
depth limit for NOAA scuba diving, and 2) a maximum par- Later NOAA authorized a second mix for use by
tial pressure of oxygen of 1.6 ata, which was, and still is, the NOAA divers. Designated then as “NOAA Nitrox II,”
maximum PO2 authorized for normal diving operations (now called NN36) this mixture contained 36% oxygen.
within NOAA. Decompression tables were developed for The mixture was designed to maximize bottom time at or
both no-stop and decompression diving operations. The near 100 fsw (31 msw). Both the 32% and 36% nitrox
original Nitrox Tables were identical to the U.S. Navy Stan- decompression tables are included in this fourth edition of
dard Air Decompression Tables in format and use. the manual. See Appendix VII.
The proposal was approved by NOAA’s Diving Safety In 1988, the National Undersea Research Program
Board and Diving Medical Review Board in late 1977 and (NURP) and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution
a series of tests were conducted to verify the validity of the (HBOI) sponsored a workshop on the use of nitrox mix-
decompression tables using Doppler bubble-monitoring tures for diving. Leading experts in the fields of decompres-
techniques. Following successful test results, NN32 was sion, oxygen physiology, dive computers, gas logistics, and
approved for NOAA-wide use in early 1978. The NN32 rebreathers from the scientific, military, and commercial
decompression tables were subsequently published in the diving community assembled at the HBOI facility in Fort
second edition of the NOAA Diving Manual in 1979. Pierce, Florida to discuss the subject. The consensus of the
In 1984, Dr. Wells and the NOAA Diving Program workshop was that the concepts and approaches being used
(NDP) developed a system for mixing air and oxygen and were sound, and basically endorsed the use of nitrox for
compressing it to pressures of over 3,000 psig. The system, diving applications. A report titled, “Workshop on
designated the “NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer,” Enriched-Air Nitrox Diving” (Hamilton et al. 1989),
involved injecting low-pressure oxygen into the intake of a known informally as the Harbor Branch Nitrox Workshop,
compressor that does not allow oil to come in contact with was generated and presented the state-of-the-art informa-
the air being compressed (oil-free or oil-less). The oxygen tion on nitrox diving at the time.
was combined with air in a mixing coil prior to entering NOAA’s development of a continuous blending system
the compressor. The result was a high-pressure mix con- increased the safety and effectiveness of the preparation of
taining a higher fraction of oxygen than found in normal nitrox mixtures. The original and widely used version of this
atmospheric air. The gas could then be used to fill storage apparatus used pure, high-pressure oxygen. In 1989, the
cylinders or individual scuba cylinders. The system signifi- NOAA Experimental Diving Unit began investigating alter-
cantly reduced the cost and time required to prepare nitro- native methods of supplying oxygen to the blending system.
gen-oxygen gas mixes. NOAA continuous nitrox mixing The system utilized gas separation devices (“oxygen genera-
systems were installed at several NOAA diving units and tors”) which essentially extract oxygen from atmospheric air.
on-site training was conducted by NDP personnel. Two fundamentally different gas separators were investigat-
Meanwhile, at approximately the same time, the ed: a pressure swing adsorption system (PSA) and a mem-
NOAA National Undersea Research Center at the Univer- brane separation system. The PSA system utilized the
sity of North Carolina in Wilmington (NURC/UNCW) selective adsorption-desorption characteristics of nitrogen on

15-2 NOAA Diving Manual

molecular sieve material (clay-like) during pressurization and not get decompression sickness. Using nitrox provides sig-
depressurization with air. The membrane-based system nificant decompression advantages over air, but with all
depends on the differential rates of diffusion of gases through diving there is a risk of decompression sickness. The proce-
the walls of hollow fibers pressurized with air. Both systems dures and techniques in this chapter can help minimize
utilize compressed air as a gas source and produce streams of those risks while maximizing diving time.
high oxygen/low nitrogen and low oxygen/high nitrogen Nitrox makes treatment for decompression sickness impos-
gases. The high oxygen/low nitrogen function is used with sible. In the event that a diver who was breathing nitrox
the NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer to produce nitrox mix- develops decompression sickness, the treatment is conduct-
tures for diving. This new system offers the advantage of pro- ed in the same manner as an air diver incident, taking into
viding high oxygen mixtures without the problems associated account the possibility of extra oxygen exposure. An early
with the purchase, transportation, storage, and handling of misconception was that the extra oxygen exposure would
high pressure or liquid oxygen. The system has proven to be compromise a hyperbaric treatment, and this was extended
particularly useful in remote areas where oxygen availability to mean the diver could not be treated at all.
is limited and expensive, or aboard ships where space for Nitrox reduces narcosis. Initially it would seem logical
storage of cylinders is limited. that with reduced nitrogen in the breathing mix there
Nitrox was not confined to only NOAA, NURC, and a would be reduced nitrogen narcosis at depth. Although
few commercial diving companies. In 1985, Dick Rutkowski, this has not been adequately studied, oxygen’s properties
retired Training Director of the NOAA Diving Program, suggest that it can also be a narcotic gas under pressure.
developed a training and certification program for the recre- The result is that one should not expect a significant
ational diver. Today, 20 years after its formal introduction to change in narcosis when diving nitrox as compared to air
NOAA’s diving program, most recreational scuba training (Bennett 1970; Linnarsson, Ostlund, Sporrong, Lind,
agencies have some type of nitrox diver-training program and and Hamilton 1990).
the mixes are used widely among recreational and technical
divers. 15.3 TERMINOLOGY
Although nitrox diving has become fashionable in the A number of terms are introduced and used in this
civilian community, it is important to realize that using chapter. These mainly address names for the gas mixtures
gases other than air ( be it heliox, trimix, or nitrox) requires and type of diving.
the diver and support personnel to maintain a high level of The early terms for nitrogen-oxygen mixtures as used
training and proficiency in order to maximize safety. by the U.S. Navy were called just that, nitrogen-oxygen
mixtures, or nitrox. As with any other breathing gas mix-
15.2 MISCONCEPTIONS tures, because of the different ways it can be expressed, it is
Nitrox is safer than air. “Safe” to most people means important always to specify all the major component gases
without risk, and all diving contains a level of risk. Nitrox as well as the percentages.
has significant decompression advantages over air, but to Other terms often used to describe oxygen-rich mix-
take advantage of those benefits other risks must be man- tures, called “nitrox” in this chapter, include oxygen-
aged. The risks include oxygen toxicity, conforming to the enriched air (OEA) and enriched-air nitrox (EAN ). From
required depth and time limits, ensuring that the right mix the latter of these have evolved the terms “EAN or
is used, the need for special equipment maintenance, a “EANx.” The “x” was originally the “x” in nitrox, but in
requirement for gas analysis, and the risks involved in gas some usage it has become a subscript showing the oxygen
mixing. When all are managed properly, the risks are mini- percentage, as in EAN32 for 32% oxygen. Historically,
mal, just as for air diving in the same depth ranges. NOAA had referred to the 32% and 36% mixtures as
Nitrox is for deep diving. Quite the contrary, nitrox has “NOAA Nitrox I” and “NOAA Nitrox II,” respectively.
very stringent depth limits because of the higher concentra- To more clearly identify the oxygen content in these two
tion of oxygen in the mixture. The greatest advantages for mixes, NOAA has redesignated them as NN32 and
no-stop diving are in the 50 – 110 fsw (15 – 34 msw) diving NN36.
range. The two standard mixtures of 32% and 36% oxygen
have maximum operational depths of 130 fsw (40 msw) and 15.4 ADVANTAGES OF NITROX
110 fsw (34 msw) respectively (at a PO2 of 1.6 ata). There are Nitrox breathing mixtures are beneficial in helping to
other applications for using oxygen or high-oxygen mixtures prevent decompression sickness (DCS). Using a gas mix-
to accelerate decompression and for supplementing decom- ture with less nitrogen in it effectively lowers this risk.
pression to build in an additional safety margin, but those This does not mean that a diver will never get decompres-
particular mixes are used only in the shallow part of the dive. sion sickness; it means with proper management, the
Nitrox eliminates the risk of decompression sickness. No already small risk of DCS can be even smaller when div-
gas or diving table can absolutely ensure that a diver will ing with oxygen-rich mixtures.

Nitrox Diving 15-3

 Nitrox mixtures are of special value in the multi-day, an appropriate mix, planning operating depths, managing
repetitive-dive series. No-stop dive incident statistics show oxygen exposure, and choosing the appropriate decompres-
that almost 80 percent of recreational cases of decompres- sion table. As with all types of diving, there is a planning
sion sickness are a result of repetitive air dives (Divers Alert process; with nitrox diving it is essential that each component
Network 2000). If a diver were to dive the same time and be examined carefully, as each will affect the others. With
depth profiles with nitrox instead of air, not only would the time and practice most divers become familiar with the plan-
decompression be less, but there would also be an overall ning process and it becomes automatic.
reduction of nitrogen in the body, thereby lowering the risk This section deals with selecting the most appropriate
of decompression sickness. mix based on the partial pressure of the gas for the depth of
the dive. It is important to remember that all time spent on
15.4.1 Repetitive Dive Example a dive may not be at one constant depth, but may be at
The following examples compare two dives, one using many different depths throughout the dive. For purposes of
NN36 and the other air (see Figure 15.1). Notice that oxygen management for dive planning, nitrox divers should
NN36 provides twice as much bottom time on the second not exceed an oxygen partial pressure of 1.6 ata under any
dive as the air dive (36 minutes instead of 17 minutes). conditions and may want to further limit exposure when
doing other than light work or exertion (see Chapter 3).
Example 1:
A diver breathing air completes the first dive to 90 fsw 15.5.1 Concerns of the Mix
(28 msw) for 20 minutes, waits one hour between dives, The most important concern is that the mix chosen is
and then is allowed a repetitive no-stop dive to 80 fsw (25 the most appropriate for the dive planned. Too much oxy-
msw) for 17 minutes. Maximum bottom time for 80 fsw gen in the mix increases risk of oxygen toxicity; while too
with no-decompression stops is 40 minutes minus 23 min- much nitrogen, shortens the no-stop time. Using the wrong
utes residual nitrogen time resulting in 17 minutes (using mix with the wrong table could lead to decompression
U.S. Navy Dive Tables). sickness. It is important that only the appropriate mix be
used with the correct decompression table.
Example 2: Oxygen in high doses becomes toxic and can cause
A diver breathing NN36 does the same first dive to 90 central nervous system problems if the dose is too high
fsw (28 msw) for 20 minutes, waits one hour between dives for too long (see Chapter 3). The partial pressure of oxy-
and then can do a repetitive dive to 80 fsw (25 msw) for 36 gen at depth is the depth limiting factor for any nitrox
minutes. This is over twice the no-stop time as is allowed mixture. A key facet in nitrox dive planning is to opti-
when using air. mize the oxygen level by displacing as much nitrogen as
The diver using NN36 in this example has a 19-minute possible while remaining within the oxygen exposure
no-stop time advantage over the diver doing a similar pro- limits.
file with air. The air diver would have to complete a 17- The two standard NOAA nitrox mixes, 32% and 36%
minute decompression stop at 10 fsw (3 msw) to do a oxygen content, are considered the best all around gas
30-minute, second dive. This becomes significant when sci- mixes for dives in the 50 –130 fsw (15 – 40 msw) depth
entists have multiple dives to do over multiple days. By range (Mastro 1989). Other mixes can be used for specific
replacing some of the nitrogen with oxygen in the breath- depths; they are determined by selecting the mix based
ing mixture, the divers can conduct their work with mini- upon a partial pressure at depth and dive time desired.
mal or no required decompression stops.
15.5.2 Oxygen Exposure Time
Example 1: Air In choosing the appropriate mix, the diver should refer
First Dive 90 fsw/20 mins no-stop to the NOAA Oxygen Exposure Limits (see Table 15.2).
One hour surface interval, Group F ––––> E The lower the PO2, the longer the dive can be conducted
Second Dive 80 fsw/17 mins no-stop from an oxygen tolerance perspective. However, reducing
Example 2: NN36 the oxygen exposure limits also reduces the depth at which
First Dive 90 fsw/20 mins no-stop certain mixtures may be used. For example, using NN32 at
a depth of 130 fsw (40 msw) results in a PO2 to 1.58 ata,
One hour surface interval, Group E ––––> D
which limits exposure time to 45 minutes. Using the same
Second Dive 80 fsw/36 mins no-stop
mixture, but limiting the PO2 to 1.4 ata, the exposure time
would be increased to 150 minutes, but the mixture could
FIGURE 15.1
not be used deeper than 111 fsw (34 msw).
Comparison of Air Versus NN36
Nitrox dives are planned with PO2 levels not exceed-
ing 1.6 ata, though a slightly lower level provides less oxy-
15.5 SELECTING A NITROX MIX gen exposure risk. These levels provide significant single
Diving with nitrox gas mixtures requires the completion exposure bottom time with a relativity low risk of oxygen
of a variety of critical predive tasks. They include choosing toxicity.

15-4 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 15.2
NOAA Oxygen Exposure Limits

Maximum Single Maximum

MOD, fsw =
( (PO2 limit, ata)
(FO2 mix, ata)
× 33 fsw/atm
) - 33 fsw

PO2 Exposure per 24 hr

(atm) (minutes) (minutes) For example, to determine the MOD for 36% oxy-
gen, which has an FO 2 of 0.36, at a limit of 1.6 ata,
1.60 45 150 divide 1.6 ata by 0.36, then subtract 1 and multiply the
1.55 83 165 results by 33.
1.50 120 180
1.45
1.40
135
150
180
180
MOD, fsw =
( (1.6 ata)
(0.36)
- 1 ata
) × 33 fsw/atm = 113 fsw

1.35 165 195

15.5.4 Partial Pressure of Oxygen Chart
1.30 180 210 The calculation of partial pressure can be made easier
1.25 195 225 using the Partial Pressure of Oxygen, Table 15.3. To use
the chart to find the depth for a given PO2 with a specific
1.20 210 240 mix, enter from the top under the percentage of oxygen in
1.10 240 270 the mix, then slide down that column to the number that is
1.00 300 300 closest to but does not exceed the desired PO2, then move
to the left to the fsw/msw column to read the depth. Chart
0.90 360 360 calculations were created by first converting fsw to ata,
0.80 450 450 then multiplying the fraction of oxygen by that number.
0.70 570 570
15.5.5 Fraction of Oxygen for the Mix
0.60 720 720 Once the diver has determined the PO2 level for the
dive, the next step is to find the correct fraction of oxygen
15.5.3 Maximum Operating Depth needed to prepare the mix. This calculation is based on the
The Maximum Operating Depth (MOD) is the maxi- final partial pressure of the oxygen that is desired.
mum depth that should be dived routinely with a given For most nitrox diving operations, the standard 32%
nitrox mixture. The MOD is determined by the limits of oxy- and 36% oxygen mixes are normally sufficient. There may
gen exposure. NOAA considers the maximum operating be times, however, when a dive calls for the most no-stop
PO2 for dives to be 1.6 ata; this limits dives to 45 minutes. A dive time for a specific depth. This would be achieved by
lower PO2 would result in a longer dive with a lower oxygen determining the fraction or percentage of oxygen needed for
exposure and may be warranted under certain circumstances. that depth and having a specific mix blended for that dive.
Higher than 1.6 ata, the risk of CNS oxygen toxicity increas- Table 15.4 provides oxygen percentages for PO2 levels
es dramatically and becomes unacceptable. from 1.3 – 1.6 ata and depths to 130 fsw (40 msw). One can
NOAA requires that the MOD be displayed promi- also make these calculations by formula. Select the desired
nently on the diver’s cylinder. Typically, it is displayed on PO 2 and divide by the depth of the dive converted to
a tag attached to the cylinder valve. atmospheres absolute. This will result in the fraction of the
To calculate the maximum depth for a given mix, find gas needed to be mixed which may be converted to per-
out how many atmospheres of a mix it takes to produce a centage by multiplying by 100.
PO2 at a given level, and then convert the figure back to This is another application of the basic formula for par-
fsw. First, determine the fraction of an atmosphere of oxy- tial pressure. Remember to convert fsw to ata.
gen (FO2) in each atmosphere of the mix, then divide the PO2 (ata)
PO2 limit by this value. Next convert this number from FO2 Fraction =
Depth (ata)
absolute units back to depth units by subtracting one
atmosphere and multiplying the number of atmospheres
remaining by 33, the number of fsw per atm. For example, if the PO2 is to be 1.6 ata, the best mix for a
dive at 85 fsw (3.58 ata) is 1.6 ata /3.58 ata, or 44.6% oxy-
MOD, fsw =
( (PO2 limit, ata)
(FO2 mix, ata)
- 1 ata
) × 33 fsw/atm gen (rounded down to 44%), and 56% nitrogen so as not to
exceed the 1.6 PO2 limit. It is important that rounding of
values be in the direction of prudence.
Or, the conversion back to fsw can be done by multi- The planning process can also be done in reverse, as is
plying by 33 first, then subtracting the number of fsw in shown with the maximum operating depth of a given mix
one atmosphere. (see Figure 15.2). For example, how deep can a 32%

Nitrox Diving 15-5

 TABLE 15.3
Partial Pressure of Oxygen

Depth atm
(fsw) (msw) abs 21% 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40%
0 0 1.00 0.21 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.40
35 11 2.05 0.43 0.57 0.59 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82
40 12 2.21 0.46 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.69 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
50 15 2.52 0.53 0.71 0.73 0.76 0.78 0.81 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.96 0.98 1.01
60 18 2.82 0.59 0.79 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.99 1.02 1.04 1.07 1.10 1.13
70 22 3.12 0.66 0.87 0.90 0.94 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.12 1.15 1.19 1.22 1.25
80 25 3.42 0.72 0.96 0.99 1.03 1.06 1.09 1.13 1.16 1.20 1.23 1.27 1.30 1.33 1.37
90 28 3.73 0.78 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.27 1.31 1.34 1.38 1.42 1.45 1.49
100 31 4.03 0.85 1.13 1.17 1.21 1.25 1.29 1.33 1.37 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.53 1.57 1.61
110 34 4.33 0.91 1.21 1.26 1.30 1.34 1.39 1.43 1.47 1.52 1.56 1.60 1.65 1.69 1.73
120 37 4.64 0.97 1.30 1.35 1.39 1.44 1.48 1.53 1.58 1.62 1.67 1.72 1.76 1.81 1.86
130 40 4.94 1.04 1.38 1.43 1.48 1.53 1.58 1.63 1.68 1.73 1.78 1.83 1.88 1.93 1.98
140 43 5.24 1.10 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.62 1.68 1.73 1.78 1.83 1.89 1.94 1.99
150 46 5.55 1.17 1.55 1.61 1.67 1.72 1.78 1.83 1.89 1.94 2.00
160 49 5.85 1.23 1.64 1.70 1.76 1.81 1.87 1.93 1.99
170 52 6.15 1.29 1.72 1.78 1.85 1.91 1.97
PO2 (atm) based on depth and percentage of oxygen. The body of the chart has PO2 values for various mixes at a range of
depths. Standard 32% and 36% mixes are in light grey. PO2 levels higher than 1.6 ata are in dark grey and considered exceptional
exposures and should be avoided.

nitrox mix be used without exceeding an operating PO2 of

1.6 ata? Divide 1.6 ata by 0.32, the result is 5 ata. Next, 15.6.1 NOAA Nitrox Diving Tables
convert 5 ata into depth units by multiplying by 33, then In 1979, NOAA introduced diving procedures and
subtracting 33, and the result is 132 fsw (41 msw). decompression tables for a standard nitrox mixture of
From the steps just applied, the diver can take the 32% oxygen, 68% nitrogen. The decompression tables
desired mix and choose the appropriate diving table. were calculated using what has become known as the
“equivalent air depth” concept, which is simply to
MAXIMUM DEPTH FOR A MIX decompress from a non-air dive using air decompression
ata = PO2 (ata) / FO2 tables that have the same nitrogen partial pressure (PN2).
ata = 1.6 ata / 0.32 = 5 ata Later, NOAA introduced 36% oxygen, which is even
5 ata = 5 ata x 33 fsw = 165 fsw - 33 fsw = 132 fsw more beneficial for the 50 – 90 fsw (15 – 28 msw) range.
The full nitrox decompression tables (see Appendix VII)
are in the same format as the U.S. Navy Dive Tables.
FIGURE 15.2 This edition of the NOAA Diving Manual introduces
Maximum Operating Depth at 1.6 ata PO2 a new abbreviated decompression table format, more
precisely named NOAA Nitrox 32 and 36 Decompres-
15.6 DIVING TABLES sion Tables –Abbreviated Format (NN32-A and NN36-
This section discusses the NOAA Nitrox Decompres- A). The format includes all the information needed to
sion Tables and techniques needed for diving with mix- conduct no-stop repetitive dives, as well as dives that
tures other than air. require only one level of required decompression stop at

15-6 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 15.4 15.6.2 Equivalent Air Depth Principle
Percentage of Oxygen at Various PO2 Levels The equivalent air depth (EAD) is the depth based
on the partial pressure of nitrogen in the gas mixture to
PO2 be breathed, rather than the actual depth of the dive.
fsw msw atm 1.31 1.41 1.51 1.61
For a breathing mixture with less nitrogen than air, the
40 12 2.21 58% 63% 67% 72% equivalent depth is shallower than if air were being
breathed (see Table 15.5). Although a diver is physically
45 14 2.36 55% 59% 63% 67%
at a specific depth, physiologically the body is absorbing
50 15 2.52 51% 55% 59% 63% nitrogen equivalent to a shallower depth, since it is the
partial pressure of the breathing gas that determines gas
55 17 2.67 48% 52% 56% 59%
loading.
60 18 2.82 46% 49% 53% 56% EAD decompression is based not on the actual
depth of the dive, but on the equivalent inert gas expo-
65 20 2.97 43% 47% 50% 53%
sure depth experienced by the diver. Once the EAD has
70 22 3.12 41% 44% 48% 51% been determined, the diver can use the “equivalent air
depth” with any air diving table to find the resulting no-
75 23 3.27 39% 42% 45% 48%
stop and decompression stop dive times, and the repeti-
80 25 3.42 38% 40% 43% 46% tive criteria. The EAD may be calculated using a
formula, or tabulated using a look-up table. Table 15.6
85 26 3.58 36% 39% 41% 44%
provides equivalent air depths for oxygen percentages
90 28 3.73 34% 37% 40% 42% between 28–40%. To use the table, locate the oxygen
percent for the nitrox mixture to be used. Moving down
95 29 3.88 33% 36% 38% 41%
the column locate the exact or next greater depth of the
100 31 4.03 32% 34% 37% 39% dive. Move horizontally on the same row to the column
at the far left labeled “EAD.” This is the EAD for the
105 32 4.18 31% 33% 35% 38%
dive. An exceptional exposure depth (dark gray) is
110 34 4.33 30% 32% 34% 36% included for each mix illustrated for emergency purposes
only.
115 35 4.48 29% 31% 33% 35%
120 37 4.64 28% 30% 32% 34% 15.6.3 Custom Tables
There may be situations where a table for a specific
125 38 4.79 27% 29% 31% 33%
mix and depth are needed for a special diving project. In
130 40 4.94 26% 28% 30% 32% these cases, the diver has two choices. The first option is
to select a table using the EAD technique. Here the diver
determines the equivalent air depth for the specific
depths and mixes, either selected from a table or calculat-
the 10 fsw (3 msw) depth. This new format makes it eas- ed using the formulas, then selects the desired air diving
ier for divers and their supervisors to plan both single tables based on the equivalent depths. The second option
and repetitive dives using the standard NOAA nitrox is to have special tables developed specifically for the
gas mixes. project.
The new NOAA Nitrox Decompression Tables fall
within the NOAA oxygen exposure limits. Normal TABLE 15.5
exposures to 130 fsw (40 msw) can be done with NN32, Equivalent Air
and to 110 fsw (34 msw) with NN36. The allowed times Depth Comparison
are sufficiently generous that the oxygen exposure time
limits are not likely to be exceeded in normal no-stop AIR
DEPTH EAD for
scuba diving. That is to say, it is difficult for the average
(fsw) NN32 NN36
diver using single scuba cylinders to carry enough
breathing gas to stay on the bottom long enough to 60 47 42
reach the oxygen exposure time limit. If, however, the 80 64 59
diver uses larger capacity cylinders, or uses surface-sup-
plied equipment, or conducts decompression dives using 90 73 67
the nitrox decompression tables, then the oxygen expo- 110 90 83
sure time limits can be reached and in some cases
exceeded in normal operations. 130 107

Nitrox Diving 15-7

TABLE 15.6
Equivalent Air Depth Conversion Table
Fraction of Oxygen and Actual Depths (fsw)

EAD 28% 29% 30% 31% 32% 33% 34% 35% 36% 37% 38% 39% 40%
(fsw) ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê ê
30 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 46 47 49 50
40 47 48 49 50 51 53 54 55 57 58 60 62 63
50 58 59 61 62 63 64 66 67 69 71 72 74 76
60 69 70 72 73 75 76 78 80 81 83 85 87 89
70 80 81 83 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102
80 90 92 95 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 113
90 101 103 106 107 109 112 114 116 118 121
100 112 114 117 119 121 123 126 128
110 123 126 128 130 133 135
120 134 137 139 142
130 145 148 150
140 156 159
150 167

From time to time, NOAA will have special tables devel- group letter depends on the actual bottom time of the dive,
oped for specific projects, but for the most part the EAD for both no-stop and decompression dives. Then the time
application to the U.S. Navy Dive Tables works well and spent at the surface between this dive and the next one is
meets NOAA’s needs. used to determine the new repetitive group letter. Once this
is determined, select the new group letter designation to be
15.6.4 Repetitive Dives in effect after the surface interval. Follow that to the depth
Repetitive diving is quite common in NOAA diving. of the next dive and read the “penalty time” for the second
In fact, repetitive diving is one of the primary reasons dive in minutes to be added to the actual bottom time to
nitrox breathing gases are used in the NOAA diving pro- use in selecting the correct decompression table for the sec-
gram. ond dive. This method works the same for both U.S. Navy
NOAA defines a repetitive dive as one that begins Air and NOAA Nitrox Decompression Tables, although
within 12 hours of a previous dive. This means that the the charts and tables are configured differently.
tables assume that a diver is clear of inert gas (for practical Once the second dive is complete, re-enter the table
purposes) after 12 hours. If the second dive starts less than with a new repetitive group letter designation and repeat
10 minutes after the first dive, it is considered an extension the process. For surface intervals of less than 10 minutes,
of the previous dive. NOAA nitrox decompression tables add the entire time of the first (or previous) dive to the
utilize the same rules and procedures on repetitive dives. actual time for the second (or following) dive to get the cor-
rected repetitive dive time, and use this for selecting the
15.6.5 Using Repetitive Procedures correct schedule.
The procedure for using repetitive adjustments is
straightforward and reasonably simple. Basically, the diver 15.6.6 Diving at Altitude
determines from the first (or previous) dive its “residual” Details on diving at altitude are found in Chapter 4.
effect, then applies that to the next dive. For a first dive, Altitude tables may be prepared by performing altitude
read the “repetitive group letter” directly off the table. This “corrections” to standard air or nitrox tables.

15-8 NOAA Diving Manual

 The NOAA Dive Tables are authorized for use to an rate. The oxygen limits of the mixture must be heeded;
altitude of 1,000 ft. A number of factors must be consid- since the computer “thinks” the diver is using air, it will
ered when diving at altitude. The water in a mountain lake not warn when oxygen limits have been exceeded. It is
will be fresh water, which has a lower density than sea also mandatory to observe the maximum operating depth
water. An effective way to deal with this is to use sea water of the gas being used.
gauges, since the tables are for sea water pressure (some
gauges and dive computers are already calibrated to fresh 15.7 USING NOAA NITROX
water). The reference pressure of the pressure gauge (zero DECOMPRESSION TABLES
depth) should be set to zero at the surface of the lake or This section discusses the procedures for using NOAA
otherwise taken into account. Nitrox Tables, and other air tables utilizing the equivalent
For diving at elevations above 1,000 feet, it is neces- air depth concept.
sary to use tables designed or adapted for altitude. The
Equivalent Air Depth principle will work for altitude div- 15.7.1 Using Fixed Tables
ing with nitrox, but should be done with air tables that The most expedient method for determining decom-
are already adjusted for altitude. Nitrox is well suited for pression information is to use the NOAA NN32 and NN36
diving at altitude. The primary benefits are to decom- Decompression Tables (see Appendix VII). However, by
pression; these become even more valuable at altitude to using the EAD principle, any nitrox dive can be planned
help offset the reduced dive time due to altitude adjust- using the EAD formula and U.S. Navy Air Dive Tables.
ments. As discussed in detail in Chapter 3, divers have cer-
tain single and cumulative time limits for oxygen expo-
15.6.7 Dive Computers and Nitrox sure, depending on the partial pressure of the oxygen at
A dive computer performs the same sort of calculations the maximum depth of the dive. For example, for a dive
mentioned above for tables, but does them in real time. with a maximum operating partial pressure of 1.5 ata,
Whereas decompression tables display decompression the time limit is 120 minutes. However, dives that place
stops at 10 fsw (3 msw) increments, the computer shows
the “ceiling”— the depth to which the diver can ascend
without violating the computer’s ascent limits. This has
been called the “safe ascent depth,” but for the same rea-
son decompression tables are not described as “safe,” the
term “ceiling” is preferred.
There are two options for using dive computers with
nitrox. The best is to use a computer designed for the
proper mixes. Early computers were limited to one or two
specific mixes, but more recently dive computers have
become available that allow the percentage of oxygen to be
set in 1% increments (see Figure 15.3). The recorded data
can also be downloaded to a PC for logging and analysis.
Some computers even allow for multiple nitrox mixes to be
used during advanced types of decompression dives.
Nitrox computers monitor the diver’s exposure to oxygen,
based on the mixture used, and signals when limits are
approached or exceeded. For these computers, divers
should refer to the manufacturer’s instructions and to the
specific training required for the particular unit.
As a second option, a common application is a nitrox
mixture used with a dive computer designed for air to
reduce the risk of DCS. In using an air computer with
nitrox, it should be possible to use the computer to its full
limits without the need for as much added conservatism as
when using air. Even so, ascent rates should be performed
according to recommendations; the benefit of the extra FIGURE 15.3
oxygen is not enough to compensate for too fast an ascent Nitrox Dive Computer

Nitrox Diving 15-9

the partial pressure of oxygen at a 1.6 ata level provide START
CHART 1 - DIVE TIMES WITH END-OF-DIVE GROUP LETTER
only 45 minutes of oxygen exposure time. Oxygen expo- DEPTH
PO2 msw fsw 00
MAXIMUM
NO-STOP TIME
DIVE TIME REQUIRING DECOMPRESSION
MINUTES REQUIRED AT 10 fsw STOP (3 msw)
00
00
sure level and time need to be monitored carefully. If a
0.8 12 40 15 30 45 60 75 95 120 145 170 205 250 310 344 405
single planned dive is to be longer than 45 minutes, the
0.9 15 50
250
5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130 150 170 200 11
PO2 level will have to be reduced by choosing a mix with
1.0 18 60 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 160 180
a lower oxygen content. 5 21 29

1.0 22 70 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 55 60 70 80 100
Other considerations include having enough gas to 2 7 14

breathe, repetitive diving procedures, and verifying the actual 1.1 25 80 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 60

8
70
14
80
18

mix in the cylinder. For most NOAA diving operations, the 1.2 28 90 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50
10
60
17
70
23

mix will be prepared in advance based upon the dive plan. 1.3 31 100 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 40
7
50
18
60
25

1.4 34 110
40
The mix must fall within the tolerance limits, ±1 percentage 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 7
50
18
60
25

unit from the nominal value. When using the EAD principle, 1.5 37 120 5 7 10 15 20 22 25 30
3
40
15

calculation should be based on the exact mix in the cylinder. 1.6 40 130 5 10 13 15 20 25
3
30
7

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
15.7.2 NOAA Nitrox 32% and 36%
Decompression Tables Figure 15.4
The NN32 and NN36 Decompression Tables make Part of the NN32ÐA, Chart 1
planning dives that use 32% and 36% oxygen relatively sim-
ple. The Abbreviated (NN32-A & NN36-A) format has been at depth, and the lower figure, in a dark box, the stop time.
designed to accommodate all no-stop dives and decompres- Stop time is to be taken at a depth of 10 fsw, as measured at
sion dives requiring a 10-ft. decompression stop. The fully the diver’s mouth.
expanded nitrox decompression tables are included in Chart 1 (see Figure 15.4) has a PO2 level indicator for
Appendix VII. each depth. The PO2 levels have been rounded to the next
The procedures for using the NOAA Nitrox Decom- highest level for conservatism. For exact PO2 use the for-
pression Tables –Extended are essentially no different from mula or use Table 15.3. Chart 1 also provides informa-
conducting decompression dives with the U.S. Navy Dive tion necessary for the planning and execution of a nitrox
Tables, except that the diver must also take oxygen expo- dive. For example, if a diver wants to dive to 90 fsw
sure time into consideration. For example, a 130 fsw (40 using a 32% mix, the maximum no stop time is 40 min-
msw) dive using NN32 can be done for 40 minutes, requir- utes. The schedule shows an end-of-dive group letter of
ing stops at 20 and 10 fsw for 2 and 21 minutes respectively I, at the bottom of the column that contains 40 minutes
and to remain within the normal range of oxygen exposure in the 90 fsw row. The PO2 is shown at the left end of
time (1.6 ata PO2 / 45 minutes); however, a 50-minute dive the 90 fsw row as 1.2 ata for this dive.
would place the diver beyond the normal exposure range of Figure 15.5 is Chart 2 — Surface Interval Time. This
oxygen partial pressure. It is critical, whenever decompres- chart is used to determine a new group letter after a surface
sion dives are planned, that both oxygen exposure and interval following a previous dive. Enter this chart from
decompression obligation be considered. the top, following down from the group letter to the appro-
The NN32–A (see Table 15.7) and NN36–A (see Table priate interval time. Times are shown as ranges, so select
15.8) Tables are designed for diving with the two nitrox the range that will include the actual interval time from
mixes in the range 40 – 130 fsw (12 – 40 msw). Each surfacing from the first dive until beginning descent for the
depth/time schedule has information for completing required next. For example for a 1:25 surface interval, enter the
decompression stops, if they are needed, for dives that exceed chart in the J column, move down to the box containing
the no-stop limit. The NN32–A Table has a useable depth 1:47/1:20, indicating a surface interval time between 1
range to 130 fsw (40 msw) and the NN36–A Table has a hour 20 minutes and 1 hour 47 minutes. From here, move
range to 110 fsw (34 msw). The tables have a maximum to the left to find the new group letter at the end of that
operating depth based on an oxygen partial pressure expo- interval, which in this example is the letter G.
sure of 1.6 ata. Figure 15.6 is Chart 3 — Repetitive Dive Time. The
The NN32–A and NN36–A Tables are divided into amount of “residual nitrogen time” is a function of the next
three charts that interact with each other. dive. In the body of the chart, in each column below the
Figure 15.4 shows Chart 1, the No-stop Time and End- depth headings, the entries each have two numbers. The
of-Dive Group Letter. It shows the no-stop dive times for upper number is the Residual Nitrogen Time (RNT) from the
the various depths with a circle around the maximum no- previous dive, the lower number is the Adjusted No-stop Dive
stop time for each depth. For dives of less than the maxi- Time that can be used for the repetitive dive to the depth at
mum time, the times are shown in the body of the chart and the top of the column. The lower numbers are the adjusted
the End-of-Dive group letter is shown at the bottom for no-stop repetitive dive times which were calculated by sub-
each of these times. Dive times that require decompression tracting the RNT from the maximum allowable bottom
are shown as a double entry, with the upper figure the time time for that depth.

15-10 NOAA Diving Manual

TABLE 15.7
NOAA Nitrox 32 No-Decompression Dive Table –Abbreviated

NOAA NITROX 32USENO-DECOMPRESSION DIVE TABLE–Abbreviated

ONLY WITH 32% OXYGEN 68% NITROGEN MIXTURES
START
CHART 1 - DIVE TIMES WITH END-OF-DIVE GROUP LETTER
DEPTH MAXIMUM DIVE TIME REQUIRING DECOMPRESSION 00
PO2 msw fsw 00 NO-STOP TIME MINUTES REQUIRED AT 10 fsw STOP (3msw) 00

WARNING: EVEN STRICT COMPLIANCE WITH 0.8 12 40 15 30 45 60 75 95 120 145 170 205 250 310 344 405
THESE CHARTS WILL NOT GUARANTEE AVOIDANCE 250
OF DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS. CONSERVATIVE 0.9 15 50 5 15 25 30 40 50 70 80 100 110 130 150 170 200 11
USAGE IS STRONGLY RECOMMENDED.
120 160 180
1.0 18 60 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 5 21 29
RNT RESIDUAL NITROGEN TIME 70 80 100
+ABT ACTUAL BOTTOM TIME
1.0 22 70 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 55 60 2 7 14
60 70 80
ESDT EQUIVALENT SINGLE 1.1 25 80 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 8 14 18
DIVE TIME 50 60 70
1.2 28 90 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 17 23
40 50 60
PO2 has been rounded 1.3 31 100 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 7 18 25
to next highest value 40 50 60
1.4 34 110 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 7 18 25
30 40
1.5 37 120 5 7 10 15 20 22 25 3 15
25 30
1.6 40 130 5 10 13 15 20 3 7

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
PO2 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
msw 12 15 18 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 GROUP
fsw 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 LETTER
12 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00
393 193 94 55 46 36 27 27 22 17 A 0:10 3:21 4:50 5:49 6:35 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:51 8:59 9:13 9:29 9:44 9:55
25 17 13 11 9 8 7 7 7 6 3:20 4:49 5:48 6:34 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:50 8:58 9:12 9:28 9:43 9:54
380 183 87 49 41 32 23 23 18 14 B 0:10 1:40 2:39 3:25 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49 6:03 6:19 6:33 6:45
39 25 21 17 15 13 11 11 10 10 1:39 2:38 3:24 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48 6:02 6:18 6:32 6:44
366 175 79 43 35 27 19 19 15 10 C 0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20 4:36 4:50 5:04 5:17
ARE TO USE THE 40 FSW (12 MSW) REPETITIVE SCHEDULE
REPETITIVE DIVES SHALLOWER THAN 40 FSW (12 MSW)

54 37 29 24 20 18 16 16 14 13 1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19 4:35 4:49 5:03 5:16
351 163 71 36 30 22 14 14 11 7 D 0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22 3:37 3:53 4:05 4:18
70 49 38 30 26 23 20 20 18 16 0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21 3:36 3:52 4:04 4:17
335 151 62 30 24 17 10 10 7 4 E 0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39 2:54 3:09 3:23 3:34
88 61 47 36 31 28 24 24 22 20 0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38 2:53 3:08 3:22 3:33
317 139 53 24 19 12 6 6 3 F 0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04 2:20 2:35 2:48 3:00
109 73 56 44 37 32 29 29 26 24 0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03 2:19 2:34 2:47 2:59
296 127 44 16 13 8 1 1 G 0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36 1:50 2:06 2:19 2:30
132 87 66 52 43 38 33 33 30 27 0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35 1:49 2:05 2:18 2:29
273 113 34 8 7 2 H 0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12 1:26 1:36 1:54 2:05
159 101 76 61 50 43 38 38 34 31 0:33 0:54 1:11 1:25 1:35 1:53 2:04
246 99 24 I 0:10 0:32 0:50 1:05 1:19 1:31 1:44
190 116 87 70 57 48 43 43 38 34 0:31 0:49 1:04 1:18 1:30 1:43
215 84 13 J 0:10 0:29 0:46 1:00 1:12 1:25
229 138 99 79 64 54 47 47 43 38 0:28 0:45 0:59 1:11 1:24
176 62 1 K 0:10 0:27 0:43 0:55 1:08
279 161 111 88 72 61 53 53 48 42 0:26 0:42 0:54 1:07
126 39 L 0:10 0:26 0:40 0:52
349 187 124 97 80 68 58 58 52 47 0:25 0:39 0:51
56 13 M 0:10 0:25 0:37
213 142 107 87 73 64 64 57 51 0:24 0:36
N 0:10 0:24
241 160 117 96 80 70 70 62 55 0:23
O 0:10

CHART 3 - REPETITIVE DIVE TIME

00 RED NUMBERS (TOP) ARE RESIDUAL NITROGEN TIMES (RNT)
BLACK NUMBERS (BOTTOM) ARE ADJUSTED NO-STOP REPETITIVE
! CHART 2 - SURFACE INTERVAL TIME
TIME RANGES IN HOURS : MINUTES
ENTER FROM THE TOP, MOVE DOWN TO FIND SURFACE INTERVAL TIME.
00 MOVE LEFT TO FIND THE NEXT REPETITIVE GROUP LETTER.
DIVE TIMES. ACTUAL DIVE TIME SHOULD NOT EXCEED THIS NUMBER.
Copyright © 2000 Best Publishing Company

Nitrox Diving 15-11

TABLE 15.8
NOAA Nitrox 36 No-Decompression Dive Table – Abbreviated

NOAA NITROX 36USENO-DECOMPRESSION DIVE TABLE — Abbreviated

ONLY WITH 36% OXYGEN 64% NITROGEN MIXTURES
START
DEPTH MAXIMUM DIVE TIME REQUIRING DECOMPRESSION 00
PO2 msw fsw 00 NO-STOP TIME MINUTES REQUIRED AT 10 fsw STOP (3msw) 00
WARNING: EVEN STRICT COMPLIANCE WITH
THESE CHARTS WILL NOT GUARANTEE AVOIDANCE
OF DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS. CONSERVATIVE
0.8 12 40 15 30 45 60 75 95 120145 170 205 250 310344405
USAGE IS STRONGLY RECOMMENDED.
1.0 15 50 5 15 25 40 50 60 80 100120 140160190 220 270 310
RNT RESIDUAL NITROGEN TIME 120 160 180
1.1 18 60 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 5 21 29
+ABT ACTUAL BOTTOM TIME
120 160 180
ESDT EQUIVALENT SINGLE
1.2 22 70 10 15 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 5 21 29
70 80 100
DIVE TIME 1.25 25 80 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 55 60 2 7 14
60 70 80
PO2 has been rounded 1.35 28 90 5 10 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 8 14 18
to next highest value 50 60 70
1.5 31 100 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 10 17 23
40 50 60
1.6 34 110 5 10 12 15 20 25 30 7 18 25

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
PO2 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.35 1.5 1.6
msw 12 15 18 22 25 28 31 34 GROUP
fsw 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 LETTER
12 7 6 6 5 4 4 3 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00
393 303 94 94 55 46 36 27 A 0:10 3:21 4:50 5:49 6:35 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:51 8:59 9:13 9:29 9:44 9:55
25 17 13 13 11 9 8 7 3:20 4:49 5:48 6:34 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:50 8:58 9:12 9:28 9:43 9:54
380 293 87 87 49 41 32 23 B 0:10 1:40 2:39 3:25 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49 6:03 6:19 6:33 6:45
39 25 21 21 17 15 13 11 1:39 2:38 3:24 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48 6:02 6:18 6:32 6:44
C
ARE TO USE THE 40 FSW (12 MSW) REPETITIVE SCHEDULE

366 285 79 79 43 35 27 19 0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20 4:36 4:50 5:04 5:17
REPETITIVE DIVES SHALLOWER THAN 40 FSW (12 MSW)

54 37 29 29 24 20 18 16 1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19 4:35 4:49 5:03 5:16
351 273 71 71 36 30 22 14 D 0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22 3:37 3:53 4:05 4:18
70 49 38 38 30 26 23 20 0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21 3:36 3:52 4:04 4:17
335 261 62 62 30 24 17 10 E 0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39 2:54 3:09 3:23 3:34
88 61 47 47 36 31 28 24 0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38 2:53 3:08 3:22 3:33
317 249 53 53 24 19 12 6 F 0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04 2:20 2:35 2:48 3:00
109 73 56 56 44 37 32 29 0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03 2:19 2:34 2:47 2:59
296 237 44 44 16 13 8 1 G 0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36 1:50 2:06 2:19 2:30
132 87 66 66 52 43 38 33 0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35 1:49 2:05 2:18 2:29
273 223 34 34 8 7 2 H 0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12 1:26 1:36 1:54 2:05
159 101 76 76 61 50 43 38 0:33 0:54 1:11 1:25 1:35 1:53 2:04
246 209 24 24 I 0:10 0:32 0:50 1:05 1:19 1:31 1:44
190 116 87 87 70 57 48 43 0:31 0:49 1:04 1:18 1:30 1:43
215 194 13 13 J 0:10 0:29 0:46 1:00 1:12 1:25
229 138 99 99 79 64 54 47 0:28 0:45 0:59 1:11 1:24
176 172 1 1 K 0:10 0:27 0:43 0:55 1:08
279 161 111 111 88 72 61 53 0:26 0:42 0:54 1:07
126 149 L 0:10 0:26 0:40 0:52
349 187 124 124 97 80 68 58 0:25 0:39 0:51
56 123 M 0:10 0:25 0:37
213 142 142 107 87 73 64 0:24 0:36
97 N 0:10 0:24
241 160 160 117 96 80 70 0:23
69 O 0:10

00
00
RED NUMBERS (TOP) ARE RESIDUAL NITROGEN TIMES (RNT)
BLACK NUMBERS (BOTTOM) ARE ADJUSTED NO-STOP REPETITIVE
!$ TIME RANGES IN HOURS : MINUTES
ENTER FROM THE TOP, MOVE DOWN TO FIND SURFACE INTERVAL TIME.
MOVE LEFT TO FIND THE NEXT REPETITIVE GROUP LETTER.
DIVE TIMES. ACTUAL DIVE TIME SHOULD NOT EXCEED THIS NUMBER.
Copyright © 2000 Best Publishing Company

15-12 NOAA Diving Manual

 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O PO2 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
1.6
40 GROUP
msw 12 15 18 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 GROUP
130 LETTER
fsw 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 LETTER
3 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00 12:00
A 12 7 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3
17
6
0:10 3:21 4:50 5:49 6:35 7:06 7:36 8:00 8:22 8:51 8:59 9:13 9:29 9:44 9:55
3:20 4:49 5:48 6:34 7:05 7:35 7:59 8:21 8:50 8:58 9:12 9:28 9:43 9:54 393 193 94 55 46 36 27 27 22 17 A
14 B 0:10 1:40 2:39 3:25 3:58 4:26 4:50 5:13 5:41 5:49 6:03 6:19 6:33 6:45
25 17 13 11 9 8 7 7 7 6
10
10 C
1:39 2:38 3:24 3:57 4:25 4:49 5:12 5:40 5:48 6:02 6:18 6:32 6:44
0:10 1:10 1:58 2:29 2:59 3:21 3:44 4:03 4:20 4:36 4:50 5:04 5:17 380 183 87 49 41 32 23 23 18 14 B
13 1:09 1:57 2:28 2:58 3:20 3:43 4:02 4:19 4:35 4:49 5:03 5:16
D 39 25 21 17 15 13 11 11 10 10
7
16
0:10 0:55 1:30 2:00 2:24 2:45 3:05 3:22 3:37 3:53 4:05 4:18
0:54 1:29 1:59 2:23 2:44 3:04 3:21 3:36 3:52 4:04 4:17 366 175 79 43 35 27 19 19 15 10 C
E

ARE TO USE THE 40 FSW (12 MSW) REPETITIVE SCHEDULE

4 0:10 0:46 1:16 1:42 2:03 2:21 2:39 2:54 3:09 3:23 3:34

REPETITIVE DIVES SHALLOWER THAN 40 FSW (12 MSW)

54 37 29 24 20 18 16 16 14 13
20
F
0:45 1:15 1:41 2:02 2:20 2:38 2:53 3:08 3:22 3:33
0:10 0:41 1:07 1:30 1:48 2:04 2:20 2:35 2:48 3:00 351 163 71 36 30 22 14 14 11 7 D
24 0:40 1:06 1:29 1:47 2:03 2:19 2:34 2:47 2:59
G 70 49 38 30 26 23 20 20 18 16
27
0:10 0:37 1:00 1:20 1:36 1:50 2:06 2:19 2:30
0:36 0:59 1:19 1:35 1:49 2:05 2:18 2:29 335 151 62 30 24 17 10 10 7 4 E
H 0:10 0:34 0:55 1:12 1:26 1:36 1:54 2:05
88 61 47 36 31 28 24 24 22 20
31
I
0:33 0:54 1:11 1:25 1:35 1:53 2:04
0:10 0:32 0:50 1:05 1:19 1:31 1:44 317 139 53 24 19 12 6 6 3 F
34 0:31 0:49 1:04 1:18 1:30 1:43
J 109 73 56 44 37 32 29 29 26 24
38
0:10 0:29 0:46 1:00 1:12 1:25
0:28 0:45 0:59 1:11 1:24 296 127 44 16 13 8 1 1 G
K 0:10 0:27 0:43 0:55 1:08
132 87 66 52 43 38 33 33 30 27
42
L
0:26 0:42 0:54 1:07
0:10 0:26 0:40 0:52 273 113 34 8 7 2 H
47 0:25 0:39 0:51
M 159 101 76 61 50 43 38 38 34 31
51
0:10 0:25 0:37
0:24 0:36 246 99 24 I
N 0:10 0:24
190 116 87 70 57 48 43 43 38 34
55
O
0:23
0:10 215 84 13 J
229 138 99 79 64 54 47 47 43 38
E
S (RNT) ! CHART 2 - SURFACE INTERVAL TIME
TIME RANGES IN HOURS : MINUTES
ENTER FROM THE TOP, MOVE DOWN TO FIND SURFACE INTERVAL TIME.
176 62 1 K
REPETITIVE 279 161 111 88 72 61 53 53 48 42
THIS NUMBER. MOVE LEFT TO FIND THE NEXT REPETITIVE GROUP LETTER.
Copyright © 2000 Best Publishing Company 126 39 L
349 187 124 97 80 68 58 58 52 47
FIGURE 15.5 56 13 M
Part of the NN32 – A, Chart 2 213 142 107 87 73 64 64 57 51
N
241 160 117 96 80 70 70 62 55
O
To use Chart 3, enter on the right with the group letter
designation from Chart 2 (which is G from the above exam- CHART 3 - REPETITIVE DIVE TIME
ple) and move to the left to the column that has the depth of 00 RED NUMBERS (TOP) ARE RESIDUAL NITROGEN TIMES (RNT)
the next dive at the top. Continuing with a repetitive dive to 00 BLACK NUMBERS (BOTTOM) ARE ADJUSTED NO-STOP REPETITIVE
DIVE TIMES. ACTUAL DIVE TIME SHOULD NOT EXCEED THIS NUMBER.
60 fsw (18 msw), intersect row G with the 60 fsw column and
the resulting no-stop dive time is 44 minutes, the residual
FIGURE 15.6
nitrogen time from the previous dive is 56 minutes.
Part of the NN32 – A, Chart 3
Example 1:
In this example (see Figure 15.7), the diver uses a 36% Example 3:
mix for a no-stop dive to 90 fsw (28 msw), using either the In this example (see Figure 15.9), the diver uses a
abbreviated or expanded table for a bottom time of 50 min- 36% mix for a dive to 74 fsw (23 msw) for 117 minutes.
utes. PO2 level is 1.35 ata at 90 fsw. According to Table Here the diver will use the NN36 No-Decompression
15.2, a diver can breathe a PO2 of 1.35 ata for up to 165 Table–Expanded format, since the time is too long for the
minutes, which places the 50 minute maximum bottom abbreviated format, and must be planned as a decompres-
time well within the NOAA oxygen exposure limits. sion dive using the NN36 Decompression Table. The
schedule used will be the 80 fsw/120 minute line, which
Example 2: requires a 10 fsw stop for 26 minutes. Oxygen exposure
In this example (see Figure 15.8), the diver uses a needs to be calculated for both the bottom time and the
32% mix for a dive to 90 fsw (28 msw) using either the decompression time. The ending repetitive pressure group
abbreviated or expanded table for a bottom time of 50 letter is N and the total oxygen exposure is approximately
minutes. The PO2 level is 1.2 ata at 90 fsw, so the oxy- 56% of the limit (117 min out of a possible 210 min).
gen exposure of 50 minutes at 1.2 ata is applied for calcu- To calculate the oxygen exposure fraction “oxygen
lation of the CNS “clock.” clock,” find the PO2 limit on the NOAA Oxygen Exposure
If the dive is extended to 50 minutes, the diver is Normal Limits Table (see Table 15.2) and divide the dive
required to complete a 10 minute decompression stop at 10 time at that PO2 level by the Oxygen Exposure Limit. For
fsw (3 msw). The oxygen exposure becomes 50 minutes at the example, in Figure 15.9 the PO2 level is 1.17 ata; using
1.2 ata, and thus rises to 24% of the single exposure limit the 1.20 limit divide 117 minutes by 210 minutes, resulting
(see Chapter 3). in 0.5571 or 56% rounded up. Next calculate the exposure

Nitrox Diving 15-13

 Dive Depth = 90 fsw (28 msw) Dive Depth = 74 fsw (23 msw)
Mix = 36% nitrox, NN36 Mix = 36% nitrox, NN36
Maximum No-Stop Time at 90 fsw Dive Time at 74 fsw = 117 mins
Schedule use = 80 fsw/ 120 mins
= 50 mins
Stop required = 26 mins @ 10 fsw
PO2 = 1.34 ata (rounded to 1.35) PO2 = 1.17 ata at 74 fsw (rounded to 1.20)
Ending repetitive group = J Maximum Operating Depth @ 1.6 ata
Oxygen exposure for single dive = 113 fsw (35 msw)
= 30% of allowable limit Ending repetitive group = N
Oxygen exposure for single dive
Note: Maximum Operating Depth for this = 57% of allowable limit
gas at 1.6 ata is 113 fsw (35 msw). 117 mins @ 1.17 ata = 56%
26 mins @ .47 ata = 0.5%

FIGURE 15.7 FIGURE 15.9

Dive Example 1 Dive Example 3

fraction for the decompression stop (PO2 level of 0.47 ata) When a lower than normal (i.e., 79%) nitrogen mix-
at the lowest PO2 level on the oxygen exposure table of 0.6. ture is breathed, the body is considered to be on-gassing
The stop time of 26 minutes is divided by the exposure limit nitrogen in a way equivalent to diving with air at a shal-
of 720 resulting in 0.0361 (or 4% rounded up). Sum all lower depth.
the oxygen fractions (56 + 4) resulting in an oxygen
exposure of 60%. Always round oxygen exposure to the 15.7.4 Calculating the Equivalent Air Depth
next highest setting. In lieu of using the Equivalent Air Depth Conversion
Table to look-up an EAD, a formula can be used to calcu-
15.7.3 Application of Equivalent Air Depth late the EAD. To accomplish this the absolute pressure (in
and Air Tables “absolute” depth units) is multiplied by the ratio of the
There may be times when NN32 and NN36 mixes and nitrogen fraction, FN2, to that of air, then converted back
tables will not be appropriate for a specific dive. to depth units.
This could be because of mix availability or a specific mix is
desired for an operation. In either case, an effective alterna- EAD formula:
tive is to apply the equivalent air depth conversion to the This equation shows the EAD formula, where
U.S. Navy Dive Tables. Any time the fraction of the oxy- EAD = equivalent air depth
gen in the breathing mixture is greater than 0.21, an air div- D = actual depth of the dive in fsw
ing schedule for a depth shallower than the actual depth of FO2 = fraction of oxygen in the mix
the dive will result. 1-FO2 = yields the fraction of nitrogen in the mix, FN2
0.79 = fraction of nitrogen in air
33 = number of fsw in one atmosphere
Dive Depth = 90 fsw (28 msw)
Mix = 32% nitrox, NN32
Maximum No-Stop Time at 90 fsw
EAD fsw =
[( 1-FO2
0.79
) × (D+ 33)] - 33 fsw
= 40 mins
PO2 = 1.2 ata at 90 fsw The equivalent air depth formula converts the actual
Ending repetitive group = I depth of the dive, in fsw (D), to an absolute pressure by
Oxygen exposure for single dive adding 33 fsw (10 msw) to the number. The number is then
= 19% of allowable limit multiplied by the product of a fraction consisting of the
nitrogen percentage in the nitrox mixture in the numerator
divided by the nitrogen percentage in air (.79) in the
Note: Maximum Operating Depth for this denominator. The fraction of nitrogen in the nitrox mix-
gas at 1.6 ata is 132 fsw (41 msw) ture (FN2) is obtained by subtracting the fraction of oxygen
in the mix (FO2) from the number one (i.e. 1-FO2). Both
numbers in the fraction must be converted to decimal
FIGURE 15.8
equivalents before dividing the denominator into the
Dive Example 2

15-14 NOAA Diving Manual

numerator. The results of this portion of the formula will If the repetitive dive will be conducted with either the
be the equivalent air depth of the dive in “fsw absolute.” 32% or 36% oxygen mixes, the diver can move from table
To find the actual EAD in fsw, subtract 33 fsw from the to table with relative ease. After finding the new repetitive
absolute number. group letter after the surface interval, enter Chart 3 of the
abbreviated table with the group letter and select the resid-
EAD Example: ual nitrogen time and the total no-stop dive time based on
Determine the EAD for a dive to 81 fsw using NN36. the depth of the repetitive dive.

EAD fsw =
[ ( ( 10.79
- 0.36 )
]
) × (81 + 33) - 33 fsw NOTE
When conducting repetitive dives with different
mixes, the RNT must be obtained from the RNT table
EAD fsw =
[( (.64)
0.79 )× 114
] - 33 fsw
for the gas mix that will be used on the repetitive
dive, not the table from the previous dive.

EAD fsw = 59.35 ~

~ 60 fsw Example 1:
First Dive: NN32 at 120 fsw (37 msw) for 25 minutes
results in an ending repetitive group letter of H. A surface
The EAD computes to 59.35 fsw, which rounds to 60. interval of 1 hour 48 minutes results in a new repetitive
The appropriate dive schedule would be a 60 fsw air sched- group letter of E.
ule. Second Dive: The diver can enter Chart 3 of the
NN36–A Table as an “E diver” to make a repetitive dive
15.8 REPETITIVE DIVING to a selected depth. This procedure will also work when
15.8.1 Repetitive Dive with the Same Gas mixing air and nitrox dives. It is possible to do a first dive
Repetitive diving with the NOAA nitrox diving tables is with air and a second dive with nitrox or visa versa.
no different from the procedures used for repetitive air diving. In the situation where the nitrox mix is not a standard
A NN32 or NN36 repetitive dive can be carried out with a 32% or 36% mix, the table calculations must be conducted
NOAA nitrox table or with the EAD method. If the first using the air table with EAD. The procedure for doing this
dive is done with a nitrox table, then the repetitive dive can is to calculate the ending repetitive group letter from the
be done with either NN32 or NN36 tables. Likewise, if either previous dive based on its EAD, and plan the repetitive
of these tables was not suitable for the first dive, but was done dive using the EAD for the new gas.
with the EAD conversion and an air table, then repetitive Repetitive dives are often done where a dive is con-
dives should use the same method. ducted first using air followed by a dive using nitrox. The
It is normally advantageous from an operational stand- procedures are the same in this situation for conducting the
point to conduct repetitive dives in a progressively shallow- repetitive dive. Complete the air dive and its appropriate
er manner. For example, consider a first dive to 105 fsw decompression, find the ending repetitive group letter, and
(32 msw) and a second dive to 70 fsw (22 msw). If a third complete the surface interval. The surface interval results
dive is done, it should be shallower than the previous dives in a new repetitive group letter. The diver can now enter
(or equal to the last one). The rationale for this is that Chart 3 and find the new adjusted no-stop dive time or
there just may not be enough bottom time to do another residual nitrogen level.
dive to the same or deeper depth.
Repetitive dives to 40 fsw (12 msw) or shallower using Example 2:
the NN32–A, NN36–A, or NN32, NN36 Decompression First Dive: An air dive to 150 fsw (46 msw) for 20 min-
Tables should use the 40 fsw repetitive dive schedule. By utes requires decompression stops of two minutes at 20 fsw
using the NN32, NN36 Expanded Tables (Appendix VII), (6 msw) and seven minutes at 10 fsw (3 msw) using the air
bottom times may be calculated for dives shallower than 40 decompression tables. This results in an ending repetitive
fsw, thus accessing additional bottom time beyond that group letter H. After a 2 hours 30 minutes surface interval
available on the abbreviated tables. the new pressure group letter is D.

15.8.2 Repetitive Dive with a Different Mix Second Dive: To make a repetitive dive to 100 fsw (31
There may be times when a diver will use a different msw) using NN36, the diver enters the NN36–A, Chart 3, at
mix for a repetitive dive; this can be by choice or circum- a group letter D and finds a residual nitrogen time of 18 min-
stance. By choice, the plan may already call for a higher utes and an adjusted no-stop dive time of 22 minutes.
oxygen mix for the shallower repetitive dive, which will
ultimately provide longer no-stop time. By circumstance, As a side note, if the second dive had been conducted
the diver’s analyzed mix may be different from the standard as an air dive, the diver would only have 11 minutes of no-
32% and 36% mixes for which there are specific tables. stop time. A repetitive dive with a lower oxygen content

Nitrox Diving 15-15

than the previous dive, although it will calculate correctly, Cold or Strenuous Dives: If a diver is particularly cold or
will provide shorter no-stop dive time. For that reason, it has been doing strenuous work
is best to plan repetitive dives with progressively higher the diver should use the next
oxygen-content mixtures. greater bottom time when
determining their decompres-
15.8.3 Omitted Decompression sion schedule. For example, a
Should a nitrox diver surface with a decompression dive to 90 fsw (28 msw) for 20
obligation, for whatever reason, or upon surfacing discover minutes would be considered a
that some required decompression has been omitted, the dive to 90 fsw for 25 minutes.
diver should be observed and/or treated in accordance This puts the diver in a higher
with omitted decompression procedures outlined in Chap- repetitive group letter.
ter 4 for air diving. Repetitive Dives: A repetitive dive is any dive
that has been made less than 12
15.9 PROCEDURES FOR USING NOAA hours after a previous dive.
NITROX DIVING TABLES Although no-stop repetitive
The NOAA nitrox diving tables and charts have cer- dives are typically conducted to
tain procedures for maximizing their effectiveness while successively shallower depths
minimizing risks. These are standard procedures to be for operational reasons, they
used when diving with NOAA nitrox tables and charts. may be conducted to depths up
to 40 fsw (12 msw) deeper than
Maximum Descent Rate: 75 fsw per min (23 msw/min) the previous dive.
Maximum Ascent Rate: 30 fsw per min (9 msw/min) Short Surface Interval: Whenever a surface interval of
Travel Rate Exceeded: If the ascent rate is faster than 30 less than 10 minutes occurs the
fpm, STOP THE ASCENT, two dives are to be considered
allow dive timers to catch up, as one single dive and the dive
and then continue the ascent. If schedule for the deepest dive
the stop is reached early, start for the total time is to be used.
the stop time after the timers Flying After Diving: Requires surface interval before
catch up. ascent to altitude after diving.
Delayed Ascent: With no-decompression stops See Chapter 4 to determine
If delayed more than one minute minimum required time before
during ascent and no-decom- flying.
pression stops were planned, add Altitude Diving: The NOAA nitrox diving
the time of the delay to the actu- tables are usable to 1,000 ft.
al bottom time of the dive and (305 m) elevation. For diving
recompute the dive schedule at higher elevations, use EAD
With decompression stops with altitude tables or a dive
Follow procedures outlined in computer that has altitude
the U.S. Navy Dive Manual, Rev capability.
4, 1999.
No-Stop Bottom Time: Bottom time is measured from 15.10 OUT OF GAS EMERGENCIES
the time a diver leaves the sur- There may be situations where divers who need to
face to the time the diver leaves share gas have been breathing different gas mixtures. Since
the bottom for a direct ascent to the important issue is to have something to breathe, the
the surface. choice of gas is not a matter of great concern, but some
Safety Stop: A safety stop of 3– 5 minutes at procedures should be followed.
10–20 fsw (3–6 msw) is recom-
mended on all dives deeper than 15.10.1 Diver Within No-stop Limits
60 fsw (18 msw) and on all repet- A nitrox diver who has not yet exceeded the no-stop
itive dives at any depth. This time, can breathe air or any nitrox mix for an immediate
time is not “counted” in bottom ascent. This will have trivial decompression consequences.
time and is not considered a A safety stop should be made at 10 – 20 fsw (3 – 6 msw) for
required decompression stop. three to five minutes, gas supply permitting. If the situa-
Decompression Stops: Stops are to be taken at the tion is reversed and an air diver needs to breathe an oxy-
specified depth and measured gen-rich mix, this is also permitted; a safety stop should be
at the diver’s mouth. made, has supply permitting.

15-16 NOAA Diving Manual

15.10.2 Shifting to Air During a Decompression Stop misconception that silicone lubricants are safe with oxygen;
If a diver breathing nitrox is required to switch to air dur- they are not. Oxygen-compatible lubricants such as Christo-
ing a decompression stop, the stop time(s) listed in the dive Lube®, Krytox®, and Halocarbon® 25-5 S should be used
table can be completed without deviation or adjustment. This (Mastro and Butler 1990).
is because the decompression stop times listed in the table are
based on the U.S. Navy Air Decompression Table, which Oxidizer: In all the mixing systems presented in this
assumes the diver is breathing air. If the decompression must chapter, oxygen is present by intent at levels greater than in
be shortened because of depletion of the air supply, omitted air; the oxidizing agent in the fire triangle is there by default
decompression procedures must be followed upon surfacing. and cannot be removed from the equation. Under the right
circumstances, the oxygen in air can participate vigorously in
15.11 PREPARATION OF NITROX GAS combustion, so increased levels of oxygen can only increase
MIXTURES the hazard. Further, recalling the main theme of this chapter,
The commonly used methods for creating gas mixes are as oxygen is increased in a mix, the inert nitrogen back-
discussed in this chapter, each with its own advantages and ground gas is reduced; for this and other reasons combustion
disadvantages. It is important for the diver using oxygen-rich does not follow the oxygen fraction in a linear way. The rate
mixtures to have an understanding of how mixtures are pre- of combustion increases as both the fraction and the partial
pared and the cleanliness requirements of mixing systems pressure of oxygen increase. Both are important.
and diving equipment.
Ignition: A source of energy is required to initiate a fire in an
15.11.1 Oxygen Handling oxygen-rich environment. Three main sources of ignition
In the process of gas mixing, the object is to obtain the inside a gas system are: 1) particle impact; 2) friction; and 3)
correct percentage of oxygen in the high-pressure mix. This pneumatic impact or compression heating. Ignition by parti-
can be done by mixing pure oxygen with nitrogen or air, or cle impact can occur when particulate matter (i.e. dirt, sand,
by removing nitrogen from air. One of the main problems metal shavings, etc.), carried by flowing gas in the oxygen
when mixing with high-pressure oxygen is the risk of fire system, strikes various surfaces and components in the sys-
(Mastro and Butler 1990). Everything that is not already tem. The kinetic energy of the moving particles converted to
completely oxidized, which means virtually everything, will thermal energy (heat) on impact, and can ignite the particle
burn in high-pressure oxygen when there is a source of igni- itself or the surrounding material (ASTM 1995). Localized
tion. The diver using nitrox mixtures may not need to handle friction heating of combustible materials can occur in system
pure oxygen, but some understanding of its hazards is essen- components subject to high gas velocities. Ball valve designs
tial. used in high differential pressure throttling applications are
particularly susceptible to seat and seal material frictional
15.11.2 The Fire Triangle heating (Mastro and Butler 1990). Another phenomenon, the
Fire is a rapid chemical reaction between a fuel and an heat of compression that causes a gas cylinder to heat up
oxidizer (oxygen), and it can only take place if there is a when compressed, may produce enough heat to raise the
source of ignition (heat) to start it. Oxidation can occur temperature to the point of combustion; this is the same
without fire, as in rusting, but fire requires heat to initiate effect that causes fuel to ignite in the cylinders of a diesel
burning. After ignition, the chemical reaction releases energy engine without a spark plug. This is especially true if the
as heat, and this heat sustains the reaction. If any one of the compression is abrupt.
ingredients (fuel, oxygen, or ignition) is removed, there can- The compression in a gas line when a valve is opened or
not be a fire. If all three are not present at the same time, fire closed abruptly can cause ignition temperatures to develop.
is prevented. If a fire does exist, removing any one of the If there are contaminants in the line a fire can result. For this
ingredients will extinguish the fire. This is the basic theory of reason, oxygen systems do not use quick-opening valves such
fire protection. as ball valves.

Fuel: At high pressures of oxygen, once a fire is started, 15.11.3 Air to be Mixed with Oxygen
the gas system itself can become the fuel, but it takes some- Some methods of preparing nitrox involve air being
thing flammable to start a fire in a gas system. This can be mixed with oxygen. It is extremely important that the air
any sort of particulate matter, lubricants, solvents, and “soft be clean and free of oil mist and particulate matter. Ordi-
goods” like rubber and plastic that may be part of the system. nary compressed air is not clean enough for mixing with
Some types of “fuels” found in diving systems that nor- oxygen. Standards for breathing air allow an amount of
mally are of little fire concern, in air can become quite flam- oil mist or hydrocarbons that is tolerable physiologically,
mable in an oxygen-enriched environment. These include but has too much oil in it to be safe for use with high-pres-
silicone grease, silicone rubber, neoprene, compressor lubri- sure oxygen. For example, one set of standards for divers’
cants, plastic shavings, metal shavings, organic material, breathing air allow 5 mg/m 3 of oil mist. With this
dust from a variety of sources, and even body oils. Lubri- amount of oil in the air, oil can accumulate in equipment
cants are probably the worst offender in practice. There is a which may pose a problem when exposed to oxygen-rich

Nitrox Diving 15-17

breathing mixtures. Currently none of the existing stan- later in this section. NOAA has used the “40% rule” on
dard “grades” of air adequately addresses allowable oil scuba equipment and gas distribution systems since the intro-
mist or hydrocarbon — they either do not address oil, duction of nitrox into its diving program without any prob-
imply that none can be present, or allow too much. lem.
To deal with this dilemma, leaders in the industry sup- The NOAA policy states that any equipment used for
plying oxygen-rich mixtures for recreational diving and the 100% oxygen or an oxygen level above 40% at high pres-
U.S. Navy (U.S. Navy Diving Manual, Rev. 4, 1999) specify sure (above 200 psi) must be oxygen compatible, use oxy-
that a condensable hydrocarbon level of 0.1 mg/m3 is accept- gen-compatible lubricants, and be formally cleaned for
able for “air to be mixed with oxygen.” This is low enough to oxygen service. This includes scuba cylinders and valves,
avoid oil buildup in equipment, but high enough to be mea- first stage regulators, and any high-pressure hoses. NOAA
sured. It is just at the lower limit of detectability by ordinary recognizes two levels of oxygen cleaning, a formal proce-
test methods, and is now attainable by filtration, as well as by dure according to industry practice, and an “informal”
using compressors that are not lubricated with oil. method that meets essentially the same criteria, but lacks
Compressors that do not expose the air to lubrication in the formal certification and documentation procedures.
the first place can produce oil-free air, and these are used
most frequently by the NOAA Diving Program. The terms Formal Oxygen Cleaning
“oil-free” and “oil-less” have been used to describe two dif- Formal oxygen cleaning requires strict procedures to be
ferent types of compressors; those that are non-oil lubricat- followed by trained technicians, and all steps must be docu-
ed thus producing a product containing no oil, and those mented in detail (see Figure 15.10). The Compressed Gas
that are oil lubricated but which also produce a product that Association (CGA), American Society for Testing and Mate-
is free of oil as a result of hyper-filtration. For the purposes rials (ASTM), National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
of this text, the terms “oil-free” and “oil-less” refer to those NASA, U.S. Navy (MIL-STD 1330D 1996), and numerous
compressors which are non-oil lubricated. other organizations publish formal procedures for oxygen
In addition to reducing the oil mist, particulate matter cleaning. Formal oxygen cleaning has to be done by techni-
needs to be filtered. Most hyper-filtration systems remove cians trained and authorized in those procedures. The details
large particulates while removing oil mist at the same time. of how to do formal oxygen cleaning are beyond the scope of
Since the introduction of nitrox mixing systems in the late this manual.
1980s, new filtration systems have become available that Just cleaning the apparatus for oxygen service is not
can process clean compressed breathing grade air to meet the whole picture, since the equipment has to be kept
the stringent requirements for air to mixed with oxygen. clean. According to most specifications, once an oxygen
While this filtration process may work well enough system is cleaned and assembled it is necessary to use spe-
for preparing air prior to mixing it with oxygen, it is not cial procedures to “open” an oxygen system to ensure that
acceptable practice to add oxygen to oily air and then fil- the system does not become contaminated.
ter the oil out of a mix after the oxygen has been added.
The air must be filtered prior to being mixed with oxy- Informal Oxygen Cleaning
gen. “Informal” oxygen cleaning is intended to clean equip-
ment as clean as formal oxygen cleaning, but without the
15.11.4 Cleaning for Oxygen Service certification and documentation.
It has become well established that equipment used for Generally, equipment should be cleaned of any visible
handling oxygen has to be made of oxygen-compatible debris and lubricants, then scrubbed or cleaned ultrasonical-
materials and has to be clean, free of hydrocarbons, partic- ly with a strong detergent in hot water, then rinsed several
ulate matter, and other materials that can burn in the pres- times in clean hot water. Good detergents are Crystal®,
ence of oxygen. One step in meeting these requirements is Simple Green®, Navy Oxygen Cleaner® (NOC), Alconox®,
oxygen cleaning. and liquid detergents such as Joy® or Dawn®. When dry,
the soft components are replaced and the equipment is
NOAA Standards for Oxygen Service lubricated as necessary with oxygen-compatible lubricant.
NOAA, as well as, several other agencies including Once cleaned, the equipment should be dedicated for
OSHA (29 CFR 1910.430) and U.S. Coast Guard (46 CFR use only with nitrox mixtures and not used with air from
197.452) allow gas mixes with oxygen up to 40% to be han- an oil-lubricated compressor without proper hyper-filtra-
dled as if they were air. This “40%” approach separates the tion. If it is, it should be cleaned again prior to use with gas
handling of nitrox mixtures and equipment used for prepar- mixtures containing more than 40% oxygen content.
ing and using these mixes into two separate and distinct cate- Equipment removed from a system should be protected
gories: one follows procedures for air and the other for from recontamination.
oxygen. NOAA has adopted this approach for its nitrox and Scuba regulators, cylinder valves, high-pressure
mixed gas diving operations, with some exceptions discussed gauges, and cylinders that will be used with mixtures

15-18 NOAA Diving Manual

 The following may be informally cleaned for use with
oxygen:

• Cylinders, valves, hoses, etc., that will be in contact

with high-pressure pre-mixed gases greater than 21%
and 40% or less oxygen content
• Gas storage cylinders, valves, and piping that will
only be filled with pre-mixed gas mixes of 40% or
less oxygen content

Diving equipment that will only be used with air may

be cleaned using ordinary cleaning procedures.

15.11.5 Design and Technique in Using Oxygen Systems

The risk of fire in a system working with high oxygen
levels can be minimized by proper design and technique.
Design includes avoiding sharp corners and quick-opening
valves, and using the right materials. The metals used for
standard diving equipment are acceptable for oxygen use.
The “soft goods,” which includes seals, flexible tubing,
diaphragms, etc., might have to be replaced with “oxygen-
compatible” components. In some cases these are less like-
ly to burn in oxygen; in other cases such materials are
chosen because they are more durable when exposed to
high-pressure oxygen. Specific “oxygen- compatible”
replacement part kits are available from each respective
manufacturer for converting standard scuba gear to nitrox
compatible.
Proper techniques for using oxygen systems include
FIGURE 15.10
cleaning systems properly and keeping them clean, using
Preparation of Regulator Parts for Oxygen Service
proper lubricants, and handling gases so as to avoid caus-
ing rapid gas movement by opening valves slowly.

containing 40% or less oxygen content may also be infor- 15.12 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS
mally cleaned for use with oxygen. Cylinders can be 15.12.1 Scuba Cylinders
marked as clean, but should only be marked as cleaned Scuba cylinders that will be used for nitrox are to be prop-
for oxygen service when that is the case. They should be erly “dedicated” for nitrox to avoid mistaking a nitrox cylin-
marked so that only premixed nitrox up to 40% oxygen der with an air cylinder. In addition they need to be cleaned
content can be introduced. As a reminder, the lubricant properly as outlined previously.
is believed to be the weak spot; only oxygen-compatible In the commercial gas world, different gases (helium,
lubricants should be used with mixtures having an oxy- oxygen, argon, air, propane) are placed in cylinders with
gen content greater than 40%. Use the following check- unique valve connections to prevent misidentification.
lists to ensure proper safety. Each gas is assigned a unique valve connection and a cylin-
The following must be cleaned for oxygen service der content label is also required.
(either formally or informally): The U.S. scuba industry currently has two valve configu-
rations (see Figure 15.11); one is for the standard “yoke” reg-
• Gas mixing and blending systems, and any equip- ulator, and the other for the DIN-threaded connector with a
ment containing 100% oxygen captive O-ring. At this time, neither of these connectors can
• Cylinders and valves that will be in contact with prevent a scuba regulator that has not been cleaned from
high pressure oxygen or oxygen mixes greater than being placed on a nitrox cylinder. Because any scuba regula-
40% oxygen content tor can fit onto any cylinder despite contents, it is most
• Diving equipment that will come in contact with important that identification procedures be strictly followed.
oxygen fractions greater than 40% oxygen content at There is a third valve type, the EIN 144. This valve is
high pressure (including regulators, valves, hoses, used in parts of Europe for nitrox cylinders. It is different from
cylinders, gauges, etc.) the standard U.S. valves in that is has an external reverse

Nitrox Diving 15-19

 Yellow
Yellow Green
Lettering NITROX
Yellow

FIGURE 15.11
Yoke and DIN Style Scuba Valves

thread configuration requiring a dedicated scuba regulator.

This special valve is used to prevent regular “air” scuba regu-
lators and filling devices from being placed on nitrox cylin-
ders. The concept is a sound one and falls in line with the way
CGA differentiates gas valves on storage cylinders.
A label on a nitrox cylinder distinguishes it from other
scuba cylinders. The label has become an international stan-
dard for identifying nitrox cylinders, their level of cleanliness,
and their contents.

15.12.2 Identification of Nitrox Cylinders

One method of identifying nitrox cylinders is the use of a FIGURE 15.12
yellow cylinder with the top painted green down four inches Single Tank with Nitrox Tank Wrap
from the shoulder of the cylinder. Stenciled on the body of
the cylinder in two-inch high letters is the word “Nitrox.”
Another acceptable method is to use a commercially The label only certifies that the cylinder has been cleaned
available label that surrounds the top of the cylinder. On yel- for the date indicated. If the cylinder has been contaminated
low cylinders a four-inch green band with the words any time after the inspection date, it should be immediately
“Nitrox,” “Oxygen-Enriched Air,” “Enriched Air,” or marked “CONTAMINATED.” After cleaning it should be
“Enriched Air Nitrox” or the equivalent are printed in yellow re-labeled. Contamination can occur by having the cylinder
or white letters and placed just below the shoulder of the filled with air from an oil-lubricated compressor. It is prudent
cylinder. (see Figure 15.12) to inspect and re-clean scuba cylinders annually. NOAA
For cylinders that are not yellow, the same green band requires annual visual inspection of all scuba cylinders.
will have a one-inch yellow band on both top and bottom.
A cylinder that is properly prepared and labeled should not 15.12.4 Cylinder Labeling
be filled with any mixture other than Nitrox. Every nitrox cylinder must be properly labeled as to its
contents and fill data (see Figure 15.14). In some cases,
15.12.3 Cylinder Label for Oxygen Cleaning once a cylinder has been analyzed at the fill station it is
This label (see Figure 15.13) or a MIL STD 1330 label is likely that it will not be analyzed again. Unless analyzed
applied to the cylinder after it has been cleaned and placed again immediately before use, the cylinder-contents label
into oxygen service. These labels indicate when the cylinder is the only way to know what gas is in the cylinder before
was cleaned and its level of cleanliness. Some nitrox filling diving. The data include fill date, cylinder pressure, oxy-
systems require a cylinder to be cleaned for oxygen service gen percentage, maximum operating depth, the name or
before being filled since high-pressure oxygen is in contact identification of the person completing the label, and the
with the valve and the cylinder when it is being filled. Other user’s initials verifying that it was analyzed. The contents
systems do not use oxygen for filling. The label distinguishes label or tag should be attached to the cylinder or valve.
whether the cylinder has been cleaned for oxygen service. A Plastic re-useable contents tags can be written on in pencil
cylinder that does not have an “oxygen service” certification and erased for the next use. Non-reusable labels should be
should not be filled by partial pressure methods because dur- ascribed with a permanent marker, not with a grease pen-
ing the mixing procedure the cylinder would be exposed to cil which may come off, and should only be removed by a
100% oxygen. gas-blending technician before the next fill.

15-20 NOAA Diving Manual

 NITROX Contents Data
Oxygen Service
Certification Fill Date

Oxygen %
This cylinder and valve have been cleaned and
visually inspected in accordance with NOAA Pressure
specifications. This cylinder may be used for:
Max. Depth
Oxygen Service
21-40% Nitrox Pre-mix Only Analyzed by
WARNING User
This cylinder will require visual inspection 12 months
from the date stamped or sooner if contaminated.
Caution: This cylinder
00 01 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun contains gas other than air.
Observe maximum operation
depth limit. Use only with
02 03 Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec appropriate procedures for
the mix indicated. Failure to
heed proper use may result in
FIGURE 15.13 serious injury or death.
NOAA Oxygen Service Label
FIGURE 15.14
Cylinder Contents Label

NOTE
Pre-mix does not ensure correct mix. The safest
method is to do an analysis prior to dive. 15.13 PREPARING NITROX MIXTURES
Nitrox blending systems have traditionally involved
15.12.5 Fill Station Log adding oxygen to air in some manner. Recently, two
Once a cylinder has been filled and analyzed, a perma- new methods have become available that enrich air in a
nent record is kept at the filling center in a fill station log. different way, by removing some of the nitrogen. This
In the log, the diver prints their name, the date, cylinder section reviews three “oxygen addition” methods: com-
serial number, cylinder pressure, oxygen percentage, maxi- mercial mixing by weight, partial pressure mixing, and
mum operating depth, and then signs the log. The cylinder continuous flow blending. It also reviews two nitrogen
log is used to help keep track of cylinders and helps ensure removal methods: pressure-swing adsorption and mem-
that a technician can verify the last fill should a contents brane separation.
tag or label somehow get removed from the cylinder. A
cylinder that loses its label must be re-analyzed to properly 15.13.1 Commercial Pre-Mix
ensure its contents. The log also verifies, by the diver’s sig- The simplest and most straightforward method of
nature, that the diver has personally analyzed the cylinder obtaining precisely mixed-gases is to purchase them from
being received. a commercial supplier. This method of obtaining nitrox
It is generally accepted practice that a mix within ±1% of may be preferred when logistics and project costs are
the desired mix is acceptable. The NOAA nitrox tables use appropriate.
the ±1% range, thus NN32 can be 31–33 oxygen content, The gases are normally mixed by weight; this avoids
and NN36 can be 35–37 oxygen content. However, if the any anomalies due to “non-ideal” behavior of the gases
mix is off by more than 1% in either direction of the desired and allows mixes to be quite precise. It also eliminates
mix, the mixture will need to be adjusted or totally re-mixed. complications resulting from temperature changes during
If time is a factor on a diving operation, the mix may be used mixing. Mixing can be in cylinders, small banks of cylin-
as long as its oxygen limit (MOD) is not exceeded and proper ders known as “quads,” or large tube trailers. It is neces-
decompression procedures (such as EAD) are applied. sary to have appropriate scales, which are somewhat

Nitrox Diving 15-21

expensive because they measure a small change in a heavy Partial-pressure gas mixing is one of the simpler meth-
weight. Because of the use of precision scales, mixing by ods of mixing nitrox, but is also one of the more challeng-
weight is generally considered a shore-based technique. ing. Handling pure oxygen and managing flow rates requires
This is by far the most accurate method of obtaining mixed care and skill. However, because it is of frequently used in
gases with a reliable analysis. Although premix requires the field, this brief section on technique is included. This sec-
oxygen handling by the commercial gas company, it does tion assumes that there is a properly designed and oxygen-
not require oxygen handling by the end user. clean filling system available, supplied with either
hyper-filtered air or air from an oil-free compressor, and
15.13.2 Partial-Pressure Mixing either medical grade or aviator’s grade oxygen. For purposes
As its name implies, partial-pressure mixing sets the pro- of safety, partial-pressure mixing should not be started until
portions of the mix by partial-pressure. The technician puts a there is no doubt as to the cleanliness of any part of the mix-
measured amount of oxygen ( by pressure) into a cylinder ing systems, including valves, scuba cylinders, or air quality.
and then fills the cylinder to a specific final pressure with The fill rate for introducing oxygen should be 60 psi per
another gas. For nitrox, it is typically ultra-pure air (see Fig- minute or less, and the cylinder should not get overly warm
ure 15.15). Oxygen is added first so that it need not be han- to the touch. A metered needle valve or oxygen flow regula-
dled at the full cylinder pressure. Because high-pressure tor should be used to help regulate the oxygen flow. Once
oxygen is added, the entire system, including the cylinder the oxygen has been introduced and the pressure gauge sta-
being filled, must be cleaned for oxygen service. Since pres- bilizes, air is added to the cylinder at a flow rate not to
sure is influenced by temperature and the cylinder can get exceed 400 psi per minute. The air flow rate can also be reg-
warm during compression, it is necessary to let the cylinder ulated with a metering needle valve. Filling from a compres-
cool before making the pressure determinations. Because the sor at a rate of 10 cfm or less is sufficient to maintain slow
proportions often need to be adjusted after cooling and/or air fill rate. Higher capacity compressors should bank air
analyzing, the overall process can be fairly time consuming. prior to mixing or mix multiple cylinders at a time to slow
Recently developed computerized partial-pressure mix- the fill rate. The cylinder is best filled dry and slow enough
ing systems streamline the process by using microprocessors, that it remains close to ambient room temperature. There
pressure transducers, and temperature sensors, combined may be slight variations in the final mix if the temperature is
with sophisticated valve systems, making partial-pressure either too high or too low; this can be adjusted after a final
mixing relatively easy. Available systems are capable of fill- analysis. In any case the final pressures in all cylinders
ing upwards of 100 cylinders a day. should be taken with the cylinders at room temperature, oth-
Partial-pressure mixing is also used to “top off” a erwise the pressure will have to be adjusted to account for
cylinder when the oxygen content and pressure are already the temperature difference. Filling an empty cylinder is usu-
known, to the same or a different mix. ally the desired choice, but at times a partially filled cylinder
To make partial-pressure mixing effective, air needs to will be refilled with the same or different mix.
be supplied at a pressure high enough to fill the scuba
cylinders completely. To get maximum utilization of pres- 15.13.3 Oxygen Fill Formula
sure from a bank of supply cylinders, they are often used in Mixing with pure gases (oxygen and nitrogen) to make a
bank configuration using a “cascade” fill technique. The nitrox mix is rarely done except by industrial gas companies.
supply cylinder with the lowest pressure is used first, and Blending technicians will normally use air and oxygen.
others follow one at a time in sequence, progressing to the The oxygen already in air must be considered when mixing
one with the highest remaining pressure. nitrox using air. To determine the amount of oxygen to add
Compressors are often used with partial-pressure mix- to a cylinder for a desired mix the technician will use known
ing. Compressors may be oil-free or used with ultra filtra- values in a fill formula. Target FO2 is the desired oxygen
tion systems that can supply air suitable for mixing with percentage in decimal form, 0.21 is the oxygen component
oxygen. Another way to boost gas to scuba cylinder pres- in air, 0.79 is the nitrogen component in air, and FP is the
sure is with a “boost pump.” Such systems are available final pressure (psi) of the cylinder.
that are cleaned for oxygen service. They use electricity
or low-pressure air for power, amplifying pressure by Filling an Empty Cylinder
means of different sized pistons.
Partial-pressure blending allows mixing a variety of O2 psi to add =[(target FO2 -0.21) ÷ 0.79] × FP
mixtures for different diving operations. This method is not
limited to any oxygen percentage and is good for mixing in Example: Desired mix of NN36 at 3,000 psi, filling an
remote locations. The cylinders, valves, and the mixing empty cylinder. To simplify the arithmetic, it is handy to
system must always be cleaned for oxygen service when use a dimensionless factor.
using this method.
It is important that oxygen or nitrox mixtures not be Step 1: Determine a conversion factor for this target mix,
introduced into oil-lubricated compressors. and air:

15-22 NOAA Diving Manual

 amount of oxygen needed for the desired mix, then find
the difference. This difference is the new amount of oxygen
to add to make the new mix.

Example: Divers have returned from a diving operation

with some gas remaining in their cylinders and need to
refill them with the same mix.
A returned cylinder is analyzed and contains 550 psi of
NN36.

Step 1: Determine how much oxygen has been added to

make 550 psi of 36% nitrox.
Conversion factor = [(target FO2 -0.21) ÷ 0.79]

NN36 conversion factor = [(0.36-0.21) ÷ 0.79] =

0.1898

Step 2: O2 psi to add = conversion factor × FP

O2 psi to add = 0.1898 x 550 psi = 104.4 psi

Step 3: Determine how much oxygen would be needed to

make 3,000 psi of 36% nitrox.

Step 3a: Conversion factor = [(target FO2 -0.21) ÷ 0.79]

NN36 conversion factor = [(0.36-0.21) ÷ 0.79] =

0.1898
FIGURE 15.15
Step 4: O2 psi to add = conversion factor × FP
Filling Nitrox Cylinder
O2 psi to add = 0.1898 × 3,000 psi = 569.6 psi
Conversion factor = [(target FO2 -0.21) ÷ 0.79]
Step 5: Subtract the existing oxygen from the total oxygen
NN36 conversion factor = [(0.36-0.21) ÷ 0.79] = needed.
0.1898
569.6 psi – 104.4 psi = 465.17 psi of oxygen is
Step 2: O2 psi to add = conversion factor × FP needed

O2 psi to add = 0.1898 × 3,000 psi = 569.6 psi Step 6: Add the needed oxygen of 465.17 psi to the exist-
ing mixture of 550 psi:
Step 3: Finish fill with ultra-pure air to final pressure (at
room temperature). 456.17 psi + 550 psi = 1,015 psi

This method ignores the ambient pressure (14.7 psi) of Step 7: Add oxygen to the cylinder until the pressure reach-
air that exists in an “empty” scuba cylinder. The amount of es 1,015 psi, then add air to reach the final desired
oxygen in it is trivial to the final mix. pressure of 3,000 psi (at room temperature).

Filling a Partially Filled Cylinder The oxygen supply pressure needs to be sufficient to
At times, it may be advantageous to blend a nitrox mix enable the partially-filled cylinder to be topped up.
in a cylinder that already contains a known mixture. This Because of the potential for mathematical error in this
can be done for economy of gas, or to change a mix that process, all gas mixtures must be analyzed prior to use.
has been made for a different dive.
In this situation the technician completes the “oxygen Changing a Mix
to add” calculation in two steps: 1) determine the amount There are times where a particular mix has been made
of oxygen (in psi) in the existing mix, and 2) determine the and it needs to be changed to either a higher or lower oxygen

Nitrox Diving 15-23

content mix. In these situations, the technician can predict TABLE 15.9
what will need to be done. For example if an existing mix Oxygen Mixing Table
contains 32% oxygen and the new desired mix is 36% then
oxygen will need to be added. If a mix of 40% exists and a Final OXYGEN PRESSURE (psi) TO ADD
Nitrox
32% mix is needed then air will be added. In either case the psi Oxygen Percentage Desired

technician must analyze the mix after adjustment to verify 30% 32% 36% 40% 50%
the contents, before tagging and releasing the cylinder. 4000 456 557 760 962 1468
3900 444 543 741 938 1432
3800 433 529 722 914 1395
Using Premix
3700 422 515 703 890 1358
It is common on some dive operations to premix a bank 3600 410 501 684 866 1322
of gas for later mixing with air to make lower oxygen con- 3500 399 487 665 842 1285
tent nitrox mixes. This can be done either with the NOAA 3400 387 473 646 818 1248
Continuous Nitrox Mixer or a membrane separation system. 3300 376 460 627 794 1211
Typically a high oxygen content mix will be made, such as a 3200 365 446 608 770 1175
36% or 40% mix. Lower oxygen content mixes are then 3100 353 432 589 745 1138
made by introducing the premix into the scuba cylinder and 3000 342 418 570 722 1101
2900 330 404 551 697 1065
topping-off with compatible air. It may be necessary to use a
2800 319 390 532 673 1028
gas booster to maximize the premix gas transfer.
2700 308 376 513 649 991
2600 296 362 494 625 954
Premix Filling Formula 2500 285 348 475 601 918
Premix psi to add = 2400 273 334 456 577 881
[(target FO2 - 0.21) ÷ (premix FO2 - 0.21)] × desired pressure 2300 262 320 437 553 844
2200 251 306 418 529 808
Example: Desired mix is NN32 at 3,000 psi. The storage 2100 239 292 399 505 771
bank contains 40% oxygen. 2000 228 279 380 481 734
Premix to add = 1900 216 265 361 457 697
1800 205 251 342 433 661
= [(0.32-0.21)÷(0.40-0.21)]×3,000 psi 1700 194 237 323 409 624
1600 182 223 304 385 587
= [0.11 ÷ 0.19] × 3,000 psi 1500 171 209 285 361 551
1400 160 195 266 336 514
= 0.5789 × 3,000 psi 1300 148 181 247 313 477
1200 137 167 228 289 441
= 1,736.94 psi of 40% O 2 1100 125 153 209 265 404
1000 114 139 190 241 367
Top with air to 3,000 psi and analyze
900 103 125 171 216 330
800 91 111 152 192 294
[Link] Oxygen to Add Charts
700 80 97 133 168 257
For ease of use and to help minimize calculation errors
600 68 84 114 144 220
an Oxygen Mixing Table is provided for five common 500 57 70 95 120 184
nitrox gas mixes (see Table 15.9). 400 46 56 76 96 147
300 34 42 57 72 110
200 23 28 38 48 73
100 11 14 19 24 37
Mixing by Blending Select final cylinder pressure in left column, inter-
sect with desired oxygen mix. Add this amount of oxy-
Gas Mixing Coils
Oxygen Analyzer gen to empty cylinder at 60 psi per minute, add oxygen
Gas Distribution
Air Intake Panel compatible air to cylinder at no more than 400 psi per
minute to final pressure. Let cylinder stand, then ana-
lyze. Adjust mix if necessary.
Air Compressor
ÒOil-FreeÓ
Oxygen Injection
System

HP Oxygen Filling an empty cylinder:

Cylinder
Nitrox Scuba
Cylinder
• Find the desired mix and final pressure
Enriched Air Nitrox Bank • Add oxygen to the cylinder to the specified amount,
let the pressure gauge stabilize
FIGURE 15.16 • Continue filling with compatible air to the final pres-
Illustration of NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer sure

15-24 NOAA Diving Manual

 Select final cylinder pressure in left column, intersect with nitrox mixtures containing a fraction of oxygen greater
with desired oxygen mix. Add this amount of oxygen to than that of the desired final mixture. NOAA Experimental
empty cylinder at 60 psi per minute, add oxygen compati- Diving Unit Report 93-04 (Wells and Moroz 1993) describes
ble air to cylinder at no more than 400 psi per minute to modifications of the basic “mixer” which incorporates such
final pressure. Let cylinder stand, then analyze. Adjust mix gas separation technologies as “pressure swing absorption,”
if necessary. and differential permeability “membrane” systems. Such sys-
tems are currently available from commercial sources. Sys-
Filling a partially-filled cylinder: tems utilizing gas separation units and the NOAA
• Look up the existing pressure and oxygen content Continuous Nitrox Mixer are of particular value when nitrox
• Look up the desired mix and pressure preparation is required in areas where pure oxygen is difficult
• Subtract the existing oxygen from the desired oxygen to obtain, or expensive.
• Add the differential amount of oxygen to the cylinder
• Continue filling with compatible air to the final 15.13.5 Pressure Swing Adsorption
pressure The pressure swing adsorption (PSA) system is based
It is important that the cylinder not get hot during the on a material called “molecular sieve,” a synthetic clay-
filling process. Upon completion let the cylinder stand for 30 like substance with pores that give it a very high surface
minutes to mix and stabilize then analyze. area that adsorbs gases (“adsorb” means to absorb on the
surface). Nitrogen is adsorbed more readily than oxygen;
15.13.4 Continuous Flow Mixing so, air that passes through the adsorbent bed emerges rich-
The NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer, developed by Dr. er in oxygen. Two beds of adsorbent are normally used,
Morgan Wells in 1989, is one of the most user-friendly meth- and the gas stream is selectively alternated between them.
ods for mixing oxygen with air (see Figure 15.16). With this While one is adsorbing, the other is being purged. Con-
method, oxygen is metered into the intake stream of an oil- trol of the cycling and pressures enables different levels of
free compressor. The resulting mixture is compressed and oxygen to be produced. The maximum oxygen such a
routed to a gas distribution panel. The mixture is analyzed system can deliver is approximately 95%, with the balance
continuously, and this analysis is used to adjust the input oxy- argon. Argon behaves much like oxygen in this type of
gen flow. Oxygen-enriched air is vented from the distribution adsorbent bed, so it will be present in the product gas in
panel to the atmosphere until the desired mixture is obtained. about the same ratio to oxygen as it is in air. The pres-
With a scuba cylinder attached to the system, both the storage ence of argon at this level is not harmful to a diver.
bank and scuba cylinder valves are open. Thus, nitrox enters This system does not require high-pressure oxygen, but
the scuba cylinder from both the compressor and storage is somewhat complicated and moderately expensive to
bank. When pressure in the scuba cylinder reaches that of the acquire and maintain. The output gas can be fed directly
storage bank, the bank valve is closed, and all gas from the into the NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer at atmospheric
compressor enters the scuba cylinder. When the pressure of pressure.
the scuba cylinder reaches the desired pressure, the fill valve is
closed and the bank valve is opened, thus diverting the gas 15.13.6 Membrane Separation
from the compressor to the storage bank. The above cycle is The membrane separation system works by forcing
repeated with a new empty scuba cylinder. The point at clean low-pressure air through a membrane that allows
which the bank pressure and scuba cylinder pressure are equal oxygen to pass more readily than nitrogen. The “mem-
is obvious from the slowed increase in pressure at the scuba brane” is in the form of thousands of tiny hair-like hollow
cylinder fill gauge. If the cylinder to be filled contains nitrox at tubules. The output gas is richer in oxygen than air, and
a pressure greater than the storage bank, the bank valve is left the level of oxygen can be controlled by varying the input
closed, and gas is added only from the compressor. flow rate. The maximum effective oxygen level in com-
When all scuba cylinders are filled, the storage bank valve is mercial membrane systems is about 50%. This technique
opened, and the storage bank is filled to capacity. This signifi- is used commercially to separate helium from natural gas,
cantly reduces the time required for the next filling operation, and for other gas separation processes.
and allows the filling of some scuba cylinders without operat- Like the PSA system, no oxygen is needed to prepare
ing the “mixer.” The above procedure also eliminates the nitrox mixes with the membrane system and the output gas
requirement for an additional booster pump. can be used as the feed gas for the NOAA Continuous
Numerous sources of gaseous oxygen are available for Nitrox Mixer. The membrane system is relatively sturdy
metering into the NOAA Continuous Nitrox Mixer. Com- and needs little maintenance. The input gas has to be prop-
pressed gaseous oxygen is normally used if the nitrox require- erly filtered.
ment is small or irregular. Liquid oxygen is generally a good
source when large quantities of oxygen are used on a regular 15.13.7 Boosting Pressure to Scuba Cylinders
basis. The oxygen source does not have to be “pure” oxygen, The 40% rule only applies to the introduction of com-
since the system will function effectively when mixing air pleted nitrox mixes into scuba cylinders and for use with

Nitrox Diving 15-25

scuba regulators and storage banks. Introducing a nitrox mix- Electrochemical analyzers are relatively inexpensive,
ture with an oxygen content greater than air into an oil-lubri- can be made portable and rugged, and show little interfer-
cated compressor places all at risk of explosion. The NOAA ence from other gases. However, they tend to be unstable
continuous nitrox mixing method is used only with oil-free and may need frequent calibration, especially as the cell
compressors. begins to age. Cell life depending on manufacturer and use
It is common to use a gas booster to complete the fill- can be anywhere from 6 to 18 months.
ing process of a scuba cylinder, either for scavenging oxy-
gen supply or for boosting premix to final pressure in the 15.14.2 The Analysis Process
scuba cylinder. It is important that gas boosters used with The process of analyzing a cylinder of gas mix involves
high oxygen content mixes be prepared and appropriately calibrating the analyzer with a “standard gas” or “calibrat-
labeled for oxygen service. Using a gas booster that has ing gas,” then repeating with the “unknown” or “sample”
been contaminated or has not been prepared properly can mix. Both the calibrating gas and the sample mix should
result in explosion. be passed through the analyzer at the same flow rate.
No matter what the method or mechanism of a gas
15.14 PERFORMING GAS ANALYSIS analyzer, the analysis is no better than the calibration of
All divers who use gas mixes need to know how to the analyzer. An electrochemical cell tends to be quite lin-
properly analyze the gas they will be using. Before dis- ear. Some types of analyzers are not linear, and these can
cussing the procedures of how to analyze gas, a short dis- be a great deal more trouble to use. Being linear, it needs
cussion of how oxygen analyzers work is in order. to be calibrated in only two places to give reliable readings.
This is called “zeroing” and “spanning.” In effect this sets
15.14.1 Oxygen Analyzers the slope and the intercept of the calibration curve. Oxygen
Oxygen analyzers are available from many manufac- analyzers can be “zeroed” with an inert gas such as argon,
turers, in different sizes and types; some have a digital nitrogen, or helium; the gas type does not matter with this
display, and others use an analog (needle) read-out. See mechanism. Some analyzers rely on an electrical zero, but
Figure 15.17 for various models. Either type can be used this may not be quite as reliable, since this method does
successfully for analyzing breathing gas mixtures. Ideally, not account for drift of the sensor cell.
an oxygen analyzer should have a resolution to a fraction Ideally it is best to calibrate or “span” an analyzer with
of 0.001 or 0.1% (one-tenth of a percent). For example, a “standard” gas that is close in oxygen level to the sample.
the digital read-out should be able to read 32.4% instead For analyzing oxygen levels in the range of 21– 40% oxy-
of 32% or 35.8% instead of 36%. Divers should refer to gen, it is satisfactory to calibrate with fresh outside air,
the manufacturer’s instructions to insure sufficient accu- using the value 20.95% oxygen. Since values above this
racy of their analyzer. level are “extrapolations,” if an analyzer is spanned but not
The heart of an oxygen analyzer is its detection method. zeroed properly it may be off by a percentage point or two
There are two primary types of oxygen analyzers generally at 40%. The best method is to “bracket” the unknown
used for breathing gases; paramagnetic and electrochemical. with calibration gases.
Paramagnetic analyzers are primarily used in research
laboratories; the traditional ones are accurate, stable, rela- 15.14.3 Analyzing Gas
tively expensive, and somewhat delicate, and intolerant of It is standard procedure for NOAA divers to analyze
vibration. the gas before accepting or signing out a nitrox cylinder
The other category of oxygen analyzer available in for use. In addition, the diver will want to analyze the gas
portable units comprises those that are electrochemical. The again just before diving with it. The procedures for analy-
electrochemical cell breaks oxygen into ions and electrons and sis are simple to follow, but must be done carefully to
measures the current generated; this current is proportional to maintain the integrity of the resulting analysis. The diver
the partial pressure of oxygen to which the sensor is exposed. will choose diving tables and oxygen limits based on this
Electrochemical oxygen analyzers use two electrodes made of analysis.
different metals; these are immersed in an electrolyte solution One properly calibrated analyzer, used correctly, is
that is contained by a thin, oxygen-permeable membrane. adequate for checking scuba cylinders. Repeated analysis
Oxygen diffuses through the membrane to the cathode, where with the same unit properly calibrated helps build the con-
it is reduced, generating a very small current. This current is fidence in the tool. If in doubt as to the accuracy of the
linearly proportional to the PO2; it is measured by the unit’s analyzer, a second properly calibrated unit may be utilized
electronic circuit and the results are displayed. for comparative purposes.
The electrochemical analyzers are of two types—polar-
graphic and fuel cell. The function of these is the same to [Link] Calibrating Gas
the user and the difference is not relevant here. These are The best calibration gases are normally obtained from a
also used in laboratories and industrial settings. commercial gas supplier, and should be in the range of or

15-26 NOAA Diving Manual

slightly higher than the sample to be analyzed. As an alter- device is attached to the source of calibrating gas or com-
native, atmospheric air has a uniform composition every- pressed atmospheric air. Turn on the oxygen analyzer,
where, at a level of 20.95%, or 21% for practical purposes. set the flow rate at (nominally) one liter per minute and
Industrial “air” obtained in cylinders might vary from this let the gas flow through the sensor for approximately one
value, so only compressed atmospheric air should be used. minute or until the reading is stable. Once settled, make
sure the reading is set to the value of the calibrating gas,
[Link] Flow Rate or 20.9% (see Figure 15.19) if air is used; adjust the cali-
Proper analysis depends not only on the analyzer itself, bration setting on the analyzer if necessary.
but on the flow rate of the gas passing in front of the sensor If adjustments are needed too often during re-calibra-
cell. The sample should be read at the same flow rate as is tion, it may be time to replace the sensor.
used for the calibration. A flow meter or flow controller
should be used. Different tools are available to regulate the [Link] Analyzing the Nitrox Cylinder
gas flow for analyzing (see Figure 15.18). One type uses a Once the meter has been calibrated, leave it turned on
special regulator fitted with a flow valve capable of adjust- and move the sampling device onto the cylinder that needs
ing the flow rate from zero to ten liters per minute (the analysis. The reading shown in Figure 15.20 (31.8%) is
upper end of this device is much higher than needed). Ideal- appropriate for use as NN32. Remember that the flow rate
ly, the flow should be between one-half and one liter per should be the same as that to which the unit was calibrat-
minute. One type of special fitting is available that connects ed. The meter should read the new gas for at least one
to the low-pressure inflation hose of a buoyancy compen- minute or until stable. If the sampling hose between the
sator and acts as a flow meter that is either adjustable or cylinder and the analyzer is more than 24 inches in length,
preset to two liters per minute. Although it is possible to the flow should be allowed to continue for at least two
analyze the gas without a flow meter, readings can be inac- minutes. The resultant reading is the oxygen fraction in the
curate and this is not recommended practice. mixture. At sea level, this is equal to the oxygen fraction.
Transfer this number immediately to the cylinder contents
[Link] Calibration label, fill out the rest of the data, and attach it to the cylin-
Before performing an analysis the analyzer should der. This information should also be entered in a perma-
be calibrated to a known gas. The flow rate regulating nent log book.

Nitrox Diving 15-27

 FIGURE 15.18
FIGURE 15.17 Flow Meter Connected to Low-Pressure Inflator
[From left] Analox Mini-Ox, OMS Professional, Tele- Hose
dyne 320B, Miniox (Catalyst Research)

FIGURE 15.19 FIGURE 15.20

Oxygen Analyzer, with Flow Meter Set to 2 lpm Oxygen Analyzer Analyzing a Nitrox Cylinder

15-28 NOAA Diving Manual

The NOAA Diving Manual was prepared jointly by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce and Best
Publishing Company.

This CD-ROM product is produced and distributed by the National Technical Information
Service (NTIS), U.S. Department of Commerce.
Visit our Web site at [Link].