Diving Under

Special Conditions 12

SECTION PAGE SECTION PAGE

12. 0 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 1 12.12 KELP DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-24
12. 1 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 1 12.13 WRECK DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-25
12.1. 1 Northeast Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 1 12.14 NIGHT DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-25
12.1. 2 Mid-Atlantic Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 2 12.15 DIVING IN DAMS AND RESERVOIRS . . . . 12-26
12.1. 3 Southeast Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 3 12.15.1 Diving at Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-27
12.1. 4 Gulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 3 12.15.2 Diving at Water Withdrawal and
12.1. 5 Northwest Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 4 Pumping Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-29
12.1. 6 Mid-Pacific Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 5 12.16 RIVER DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-29
12.1. 7 Southwest Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 6 12.17 DIVING FROM A SHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-30
12.1. 8 Central Pacific Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 6 12.17.1 Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-30
12.1. 9 Arctic and Antarctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 7 12.17.2 Use and Storage of Diving and
12.1.10 Tropics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 7 Related Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-31
12.1.11 Diving in Marine Sanctuaries or 12.17.3 Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-31
Underwater Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 7 12.17.4 Diving While Under Way . . . . . . . . . 12-31
12. 2 DIVING FROM SHORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 7 [Link] Equipment for Diving
12.2. 1 Through Surf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12- 7 While Under Way . . . . . . 12-33
12.2. 2 Through Surf on a Rocky Shore . . . . . 12- 9 [Link] Communications
12.2. 3 Through Shore Currents . . . . . . . . . . 12- 9 for Diving While
12.2. 4 From a Coral Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10 Under Way . . . . . . . . . . . 12-34
12. 3 DIVING FROM A STATIONARY 12.18 PINNACLE AND SEAMOUNT DIVING . . . 12-34
PLATFORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11 12.19 DIVING IN REMOTE LOCATIONS AND
12. 4 DIVING FROM A SMALL BOAT . . . . . . . . . 12-11 ON COASTS OF DIFFICULT ACCESS. . . . . 12-35
12.4. 1 Entering the Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12 12.20 DIVING IN LOW AND
12.4. 2 Exiting the Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 ZERO VISIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-35
12. 5 FRESHWATER DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 12.21 NOXIOUS GAS IN BOTTOM WATER . . . . . 12-36
12.5. 1 Great Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 12.22 ARTIFICIAL, EXPERIMENTAL, AND
12.5. 2 Inland Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 UNUSUAL SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-36
12.5. 3 Quarries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 12.22.1 Fish Tanks, Cages, Farms, Shellfish
12. 6 OPEN-OCEAN DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 Rafts, Diving Within Bio-Rich
12. 7 CORAL REEFS AND Enclosures and Containers . . . . . . . . 12-36
FRINGING REEFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17 12.22.2 Diving Around Enclosures . . . . . . . . 12-36
12. 8 FAST CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-18 12.22.3 Diving Within Enclosures. . . . . . . . . 12-37
12. 9 CAVE DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-19 12.22.4 Reactor Shielding Tanks . . . . . . . . . . 12-37
12.10 COLD-WATER DIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-20 12.22.5 Oceanographic Engineering
12.11 DIVING UNDER ICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-21 and Scientific Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-37
 Diving Under
Special Conditions 12
12.0 GENERAL 12.1.1 Northeast Coast
The characteristics of underwater environments, such Diving in northeastern waters is an exciting and chill-
as temperature, visibility, and type of marine life, vary sig- ing experience. Generally, the best diving conditions in
nificantly from geographic region to region and influence terms of water temperature, sea state, and underwater visi-
the amount and type of diving work that can be carried out bility occur from June through October. As one progresses
under water. The following paragraphs describe the diving north along the New England coast, water temperature
conditions most typical of U.S. coastal and other areas and decreases and underwater visibility increases.
provide an overview of the diving characteristics of these Water temperatures near the surface during the
regions. spring and summer, when a substantial thermocline
exists, range from 50 – 70°F (10 – 21C). Temperatures at
WARNING 100 ft. (30.5 m) range from 48 – 54°F (9 – 12C). During the
WHEN DIVING IN AN UNFAMILIAR REGION, winter months, the temperature of the water column is
OBTAIN INFORMATION ABOUT LOCAL CONDI- essentially homogeneous, with temperatures reaching as
TIONS FROM DIVERS WHO ARE FAMILIAR WITH low as 28.5°F (-2C) close to the surface. Subzero air tem-
LOCAL WATERS. AN ORIENTATION DIVE peratures and strong winds cause wind chill factors as low
SHOULD BE MADE WITH A DIVER FAMILIAR WITH as -70 –-80°F (-57 –-62C). Dry suits have become standard
THE AREA. for winter diving in the Northeast.
Underwater visibility is primarily a function of sea state
12.1 GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS and vertical turbulence in the water column. In the North-
For the purpose of this chapter, the coastal regions are east, horizontal visibility of 50 – 80 ft. (15.2 – 24.4 m) may
classified as shown in Table 12.1. The principal character- occur occasionally throughout the year, usually in connec-
istics of each region are described in the following sections tion with calm seas. Proximity to a land mass or to estuaries
of this chapter. or harbors is associated with a decrease in visibility because
the load of suspended material in the runoff from the land
TABLE 12.1 mass and the processes associated with the mixing of fresh
Definitions of Geographical Regions and salt water greatly elevate turbidity. During the summer,
biologically caused “red tide” conditions may occur, lower-
Region Area Encompassed ing visibility to less than 1 ft. (0.3 m). Coastal waters within
the Gulf of Maine have an average range in visibility of
Northeast Coast Maine to Rhode Island 25 –35 ft. (7.6 –10.7 m), while visibility in waters south of
Mid-Atlantic Coast Rhode Island to Cape Hatteras
Cape Cod averages 10 –15 ft. (3.0 – 4.6 m).
Southeast Coast Cape Hatteras to Florida
Gulf of Mexico Coast West Coast of Florida to Texas Several species of brown algae comprise the large kelp of
Northwest Coast Subarctic Alaska to Oregon the New England coast. Unlike the kelp of California, these
Mid-Pacific Coast Northern and Central California kelp do not form surface canopies. New England kelp occa-
Southwest Coast Point Conception to the Northern sionally extend as much as 25 ft. (7.6 m) off the hard ocean
Baja Peninsula bottom and, although they look impenetrable, they do not in
Central Pacific Ocean Hawaiian and Leeward Islands fact present a significant entanglement hazard. Generally,
Polar Arctic and Antarctic these algal plants are sparsely distributed and seldom project
Tropics Caribbean and Florida Keys more than 6 –8 ft. (1.8 –2.4 m) from the bottom.

12-1
 Currents along the New England coast are primarily Water temperatures on the surface range during the
tidal in origin and generally do not exceed 0.5 knot (0.25 summer months from 72–75°F (22–24C) and from
m/s). Faster currents may be encountered in channels and 40 – 60°F (4 – l6C) on the bottom, depending on depth,
in river mouths. Divers should be cautious in the waters proximity to the shore, and general location. In the mid-
off the New England coast, especially when diving in Atlantic Bight (Montauk Point, New York to Cape May,
strong currents and cold water, because of the potential for New Jersey), a large bottom “pool” of cold winter water is
overexertion. The surf in this region is modest compared trapped every summer. This pool or cell contains the cold-
with the surf in California, but it is especially hazardous est summer water on the entire eastern continental shelf.
along rocky, precipitous coastlines such as the coast of Tidal and wind movement of cold bottom water can cause
Maine. Short-period waves as high as 5 –10 ft. (1.5 – 3.0 a significant and sudden change in the bottom temperature
m) can create very rough and turbulent sea states along of the water off the New Jersey coast.
these coasts and can push divers into barnacle-covered A chief characteristic of the mid-Atlantic water column
rocks. in the summer is the thermocline. The rapid decrease in tem-
Hazardous Marine Animals: Relatively few species perature at the thermocline may cause an unsuspecting and
of fish and invertebrates in the waters off the New Eng- unprepared diver enough discomfort to abort the dive.
land coast are potentially harmful to divers. Sharks of Plankton gathered at the thermocline also can decrease the
several species are occasionally seen, but are generally light so drastically that artificial lights occasionally are need-
not harmful to divers. These are the mako, dusky, great ed in water depths beyond 70 ft. (21.3 m). In the Cape Hat-
white, hammerhead, and blue shark; occasionally, the fil- teras area, eddies from the Gulf Stream often bring warm
ter-feeding basking shark is mistakenly identified as a clear water to the coast. Bottom temperatures are warmest
dangerous shark. The torpedo ray (electric ray), cow- in October and early November after the cold bottom water
nosed ray, and stingray are found off southern New Eng- mixes with the warmer upper layers. Winter temperatures in
land (Cape Cod and south). Documented diver-shark or the northern range drop as low as 35°F (2C) near shore and
diver-ray encounters are relatively rare along the New are relatively homogeneous throughout the water column,
England coast. with slightly warmer temperatures on the bottom.
The most bothersome fish in this region is the Underwater visibility is best during September–October,
goose-fish, which may weigh as much as 50 pounds (23 when it is common to be able to see for distances of up to 60
kg) and grow to 4 ft. (1.2 m) in total length. It is the ft. (18.3 m). Many of the inshore waters of the northern area
habit of the goosefish to lie partially buried on the and the waters near the major estuaries, such as the Hudson
ocean floor waiting for unsuspecting “meals” to pass and Chesapeake, have poor visibility throughout most of the
by. This fish is approximately one-half head and mouth year. Visibility can range from 0 –15 ft. (0– 4.6 m) in these
and one-half tail. The sight of a goosefish is enough to areas, but improves with distance offshore. Tides may cause
startle even a seasoned diver; generally, these fish do large changes in visibility for as much as 3 miles (4.8 km)
not attack, but may bite a misplaced hand or fin. The offshore near bays and rivers.
wolffish is another bottom-oriented creature that is Tides and Currents: Strong tidal currents can be
highly respected by fishermen and divers for its strength expected in the Chesapeake Bay, parts of the New York
and aggressiveness when bothered. The wolffish’s six Bight, off the outer banks of North Carolina, and in Long
large canine tusks are capable of inflicting considerable Island Sound. Diving in these areas can be especially haz-
damage, as many fishermen have discovered when try- ardous if the diver becomes lost because of low visibility
ing to land this species. and is swept away from the planned exit area.
The green sea urchin, which has many stout spines Waves: Long-period open ocean waves in the mid-
that can easily puncture a wet suit, can also injure divers. Atlantic are generally not hazardous to divers, although
Unless the tip of the urchin’s spine is surgically removed summer squalls can cause quick sea “chops” that may be a
from the diver’s flesh, it will cause a painful “lump” problem. Waves pose the greatest danger to divers attempt-
under the skin that may last for months or years. The ing to dive off the end of a rock jetty in a moderate to
green sea urchin is found in very dense concentrations on heavy surf; divers too close to the end of a jetty can be
hard substrates to depths of 50 – 60 ft. (15.2 –18.3 m). picked up and thrown into the rocks by a wave. The surf in
these waters is generally moderate, and most beaches are
12.1.2 Mid-Atlantic Coast composed of sand rather than rock, which makes entry
Waters off the coasts of the mid-Atlantic states are from the shore relatively easy for divers.
characterized by low visibility and cold bottom tempera- Although sharks are numerous off the coasts of the
tures. Bottom topography generally consists of flat sand, mid-Atlantic states, there have been few diver-shark
clay, or gravel and occasional low-relief rocky outcrop- encounters. However, divers carrying speared fish have
pings. Shipwrecks are abundant off the New York-New been attacked by sharks. Divers are advised to carry fish on
Jersey coasts and off Cape Hatteras. a long line, especially in murky water.

12-2 NOAA Diving Manual

 In the Northeast, the goosefish is probably the area’s tracking them. Some means of diver recall must be estab-
most troublesome marine creature for divers. Divers lished in case of emergency.
swimming close to the bottom to see their way in murky
water often inadvertently place a hand or foot in the 12.1.4 Gulf of Mexico
mouth of a goosefish lying camouflaged on the bottom Bordered by the States of Florida, Alabama, Mississip-
and thus run the risk of being bitten. Stinging jellyfish are pi, Louisiana and Texas, the waters of the U.S. Gulf of
so abundant in estuaries, especially during the summers in Mexico range from temperate in the north to subtropical
the Chesapeake Bay, that maximum protection against off southern Florida and Texas. Water temperature varies
them is necessary. with location and season but is most extreme in range in
the northern Gulf where coastal estuaries sometimes freeze
12.1.3 Southeast Coast over in the winter and swimming beaches are likened to
For the most part, the waters off the coasts of the bath water in the summer. On average, surface water tem-
southeastern states are tropical. Warm temperatures pre- perature ranges from about 55°F (13C) to about 85°F
vail and can reach as high as 75 – 80°F (24 – 27C) during (30C) seasonally. Thermoclines occur in the spring and
the summer months. In the most northern portions of this may remain through the summer, with differences between
region of Georgia, South Carolina, and southern North surface and bottom water varying as much as 10°F (6C).
Carolina, less tropical conditions prevail. Water tempera- In the fall, reverse thermoclines, where bottom water is
ture during the summer in this area is about 70°F (21C). In warmer than surface water, are common occurrences in the
the area just south of Cape Hatteras, the Gulf Stream pass- northern Gulf. Diver insulation requirements vary and
es close to land, causing the water temperature to be usually necessitate the use of thicker wet suits and possibly
warmer near shore than it is to the south. During the win- dry suits during winter months.
ter, water temperature in the southernmost areas remains Tides are semidiurnal along the west coast of Flori-
65 –70°F (18 – 21C); in the more northerly waters, howev- da but become diurnal and mixed to the north and
er, temperatures drop as low as 50°F (10C). In the tropical extending to Brownsville, Texas. While tidal ranges are
and subtropical waters of the Southeast, there are a vast relatively small (1 – 2.5 ft. [0.3 – 0.8 m]), tidal currents,
number of different species of marine animals. in the numerous small passes and inlets connecting bays
Visibility in southern waters is good to excellent in the with the open Gulf, can be substantial. Currents in
offshore areas; closer to shore, however, it drops to 25 – 30 open water are unpredictable and can be strong, at times
ft. (7.6 – 9.1 m), and in harbors and bays, it can be zero. reaching 3 knots (1.9 km/hr) or more. However, these
Farther north, both offshore and nearshore visibility drops currents are normally shallow and can be escaped by
drastically and averages 20 – 25 ft. (6.1 –7.6 m). descending 10 – 15 ft. (3 – 4.5 m). Midwater and bottom
When diving at the boundary of major oceanic cur- currents are not uncommon but in most cases are weak-
rent systems such as the Gulf Stream, special care must be er than surface currents. These subsurface currents usu-
exercised because of the episodic turbulent eddies and ally do not flow in the same direction as the surface
gyres that occasionally spin off the main mass of moving currents which can affect how a dive is conducted.
water. Extra precautions also must be taken because of the Longshore and rip currents occur along Gulf shores
meandering nature of the current’s edge; relatively quiet whenever onshore or longshore winds and waves are
water near the edge may suddenly change to water with a present.
current velocity of one knot or more. Dives in boundary Underwater visibility is mostly affected by local
regions must be planned to anticipate high current speeds, weather conditions and freshwater output from the
and appropriate surface support must be provided. As the numerous rivers that empty into the Gulf. The range of
diver descends, there are often sharp boundaries between visibility in the Gulf is from zero to over 100 ft (33 m)
water masses in the water column that have different cur- and can vary greatly over very short distances (1 mile
rent velocities. The current generally slows to about 1 – 2 [1.6 km] or less). Visibility may also change with depth.
ft. (0.3 – 0.6 m) above the bottom, and if divers hug the It is possible to have visibility in the upper part of the
bottom contours they may be able to work without inter- water column but not at the bottom or visa-versa, or to
ference from the current. However, the tending boat oper- have visibility in midwater but not at the top or bottom.
ator must be aware of the current differential and must Divers off parts of Texas and Louisiana may encounter
establish a reference for the diver’s position to prevent the what is known as a nephloid layer, patches or fingers of
boat from being carried away from the dive site. Dropping turbid water that move with the currents, where visibility
a well-anchored buoy over the side at the beginning of the may change dramatically over the period of a dive. The
dive is a good means of establishing such a reference. Loop Current (major ocean current) seldom comes closer
Carefully tracking divers is extremely important in this than about 50 miles (80 km) from the Gulf coasts, but,
type of diving. If the divers plan to travel more than a when it is that close, small eddy currents sometimes spin
short distance from the initial reference marker, they off and bring clear oceanic water (called blue water) very
should tow a small float to assist topside personnel in close to shore.

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-3

 The Gulf of Mexico coastline is characterized by a divers in the Gulf, but most of these were related to han-
very gradual offshore slope resulting in relatively shallow dling dead or dying fishes (spear fishing) or to diving in
diving depths for a long distance out from shore. The shal- weather disturbed turbid water (which usually occurs after
low coastline also means short period choppy wave condi- cyclonic activity).
tions under moderate wind conditions. Shorelines The only marine mammal in the Gulf considered to be
accessible for beach entries are mostly of sand composition a potential threat to humans is the killer whale. These ani-
but may change to silt over sand or mud a short distance mals have only been observed well offshore where there is
offshore, especially adjacent to river outlets. The offshore little chance that divers would encounter them.
bottom is mostly featureless, but, in the northern and west-
ern Gulf, is interrupted by the limestone remains of prehis- 12.1.5 Northwest Coast
toric reefs, rock outcroppings and an increasing number of Diving activities in the northwest take place off the
manmade artificial reefs and petroleum structures. Sponge coast of subarctic Alaska and extend to areas offshore
bottom and small coral patch reefs occur off southwest from Oregon. Water temperatures in subarctic Alaska
Florida, and larger coral reef areas are located further off- range from 34 – 38°F (1– 3C) during the winter months
shore in the northwestern Gulf and off the west coast of and average 45 – 50°F (7 – 10C) during the summer. Divers
Florida. in these waters must give serious consideration to their
Hazardous Marine Animals: As in marine environ- choice of thermal protection so that dive duration is not
ments around the world, divers in the Gulf are most in overly affected by the cold. During the winter, tempera-
danger of being cut, abraded or punctured by the small, ture and wind conditions may combine so that some bays,
sharp, shelled animals that adhere to and grow on almost inlets, and near-shore waters freeze over. In these condi-
every square inch of exposed rock and reef surface. The tions, the hazard of icing of diving equipment must be
most notorious of the puncturing organisms is the sea considered.
urchin. Long and short-spined sea urchins are common Visibility in Alaskan waters varies drastically from
throughout the Gulf. On the reefs, the unwary and unpro- place to place and from time to time. The best visibility
tected diver is at risk of receiving deep and painful wounds occurs along coastlines and in the Aleutians, where it
from contact with coral. may range, at best, from 40 – 80 ft. (12.2 – 24.4 m). Visibil-
Stinging organisms abound in the Gulf. Stinging ity in the waters of bays and straits is usually 15 – 30 ft.
hydrozoa including fire coral are common encounters in (4.6 – 9.1 m). At any location, visibility may become tem-
the south, and jellyfish occur throughout the Gulf. Most porarily limited by storms or phyto-plankton blooms.
jellyfish are seasonal and are at their highest densities in Late each spring in southeast Alaska, the visibility in the
the summer and early fall. The Portuguese man-of-war is upper 30 – 40 ft. (9.1 – 12.2 m) of the water column may
an open ocean traveler, but may at times occur in large be near zero because of phyto-plankton, but below that
numbers near shore as a result of areal winds and currents. layer the water may be very clear with a visibility of 40 ft.
To avoid being stung, the diver should be alert, look before (12.2 m) or more. Although this deep, clear water is often
touching, and wear appropriate protective body covering. dark because of the shading effect of the overriding low-
There are also fishes inhabiting Gulf waters that can visibility water, there is usually sufficient ambient light to
sting or shock divers. The stingers include scorpion fish see.
and rays which are experts at concealing themselves from Currents and tides are strong and unpredictable in sub-
view of the unaware diver. Sting rays are especially prob- arctic Alaskan waters. The large range of tidal exchanges
lematic in the shallows where they are very hard to detect, can cause currents as high as 10 knots in certain narrows.
and divers entering the water from the beach must shuffle Currents vary significantly with depth and have been
their feet to avoid stepping on them. Electric rays and observed to change direction within a period of minutes.
stargazers are capable of generating an electric charge and Much of the Alaskan coastline is steep and rocky;
can shock an unsuspecting diver. many areas are too steep to allow divers either to enter or
Gulf fishes that have the potential to bite divers fall exit the water. Such points must be carefully selected
into two categories, fishes that inhabit holes in the bottom before a dive. Most sections of coastline are accessible only
and reef crevices, and those that occur in the water col- from boats. During times of heavy seas or swells, many
umn. The bottom dwellers include eels (including moray near-shore diving locations become unsafe to dive.
eels) and toadfishes. These fishes normally do not present Alaskan waters harbor relatively few hazardous
a threat unless the diver recklessly reaches into a hole marine organisms. Those that cause divers the most trou-
without first checking for inhabitants. The off-bottom fish- ble are the urchins, barnacles, and jellyfish, with their
es include triggerfishes, barracuda, and sharks. The grey potential to cause punctures, abrasions, and stings. Dense
triggerfish has the worst reputation for biting and is beds of floating kelp can cause some problems for divers,
responsible for missing finger tips and earlobes as well as especially during surface swimming. Sharks and whales are
scars on a number of Gulf divers. Although they are not common but are rarely, if ever, seen under water and gen-
thought of as a major threat, barracuda have attacked erally do not influence diving activity. The presence of

12-4 NOAA Diving Manual

killer whales, which are common, is an exception to this San Francisco, visibility ranges from 5 – 15 ft. (1.5 – 4.6
general rule. Although no known diver/killer whale m) in the early spring and summer, 10 – 25 ft. (3.0 – 7.6
encounters have taken place in Alaska, general caution m) in late summer and fall, and 0 – 10 ft. (0 – 3.0 m) dur-
should keep divers out of the water if these animals are ing the winter and early spring. From Point Conception
known to be near. Steller sea lions are very abundant in to Santa Cruz, visibility ranges from 15 – 25 ft. (4.6 – 7.6
some areas of Alaska; although there are no reports that m) during the late spring and summer and from 15 – 50 ft.
these animals have ever harmed divers in Alaska, Califor- (4.6 – 15.2 m) in the fall occasionally reaching 100 ft.
nia sea lions have been known to injure divers. Because sea (30.5 m) near Camel Bay. During winter and early
lions are large, fast, and agile and are attracted to divers, spring, one can expect visibility to extend 5 – 20 ft.
they can disrupt an otherwise routine dive. In addition to (1.5 – 6.1 m). The main factors controlling underwater
being a psychological distraction, the activity of sea lions visibility in this area are the huge plankton bloom, which
often causes serious movement of bottom sediments and a occurs during upwelling in the spring and summer, and
reduction of visibility. the dirty water conditions caused by rough seas and river
Farther south, in the waters off Washington and Ore- runoffs during the winter and early spring.
gon, water temperatures range from about 43 – 60°F Three species of surface-canopy-forming brown
(6 – 16C) over the year in protected areas such as Puget algae-kelp occur on the Pacific coast. From Monterey
Sound. In open-ocean waters, depending on the water north, the dominant kelp is the bull kelp. This particular
masses moving through, temperatures ranging from species forms large beds, but because of its structure,
40 – 60°F (4 – 16C) may be encountered throughout the does not pose the same entanglement hazard to divers as
year. Visibility usually is low, ranging from 5 – 25 ft. the giant kelp. Kelp beds or forests are widely diversified
(1.5 – 7.6 m) in coastal water near beaches and from 0 – 70 both geographically and as a function of depth and tem-
ft. (0 – 21.3 m) in protected Puget Sound waters. perature. Different varieties grow in different zones and
Currents in certain areas are strong and unpredictable. support an incredible variety of sea life. Kelp will attach
This is especially true in river diving, where very low visi- itself to practically any substrate (i.e., rock, concrete,
bility can cause orientation problems. Logs, stumps, steel, wreckage, etc.) and will often form a treelike struc-
wrecked automobiles, fishing hooks and lines, and other ture, the base of which is a root-like hold-fast that pro-
bottom debris also pose distinct dangers to divers working vides a secure anchor and a home for many organisms.
in this region. There is generally an area of open water between the
stipes originating from one hold-fast.
12.1.6 Mid-Pacific Coast North of Point Conception, surf conditions are probably
The mid-Pacific coastal region includes the waters of the most important consideration in planning a dive. Divers
Northern and Central California. From San Francisco can expect 2–3-ft. (0.6 –0.9-m) surf in most areas even on
north, the best diving conditions in terms of underwater calm days, and on rough days it is not uncommon to see
visibility as well as water temperatures generally occur waves 10 ft. (3.0 m) or more high. Divers should always
from June through September. From San Francisco south scout the proposed dive area before going into the water to
to Point Conception, good diving conditions may continue determine the safest area of entry and, in case conditions
through December. change, to choose alternate exit sites.
From San Francisco north to the Oregon border, sum- Long-shore currents and tidal currents are common
mer temperatures generally range from about 48 –56°F and tend to be severe in northern and central California.
(9 – 13C). A thermocline generally exists at depths from On very windy days, divers should watch for strong cur-
20 – 40 ft. (6.1 – 12.2 m) during late spring and summer. rents around headlands, off rocky shores, and near reefs.
The difference in surface and bottom temperatures during Rip currents are common along beaches and in coves.
this period ranges between 2 and 5°F (1 and 3C). A full Hazardous Marine Animals: As in other areas, divers
wet suit, including hood, boots, and gloves, is a necessity must watch for sea urchins, jellyfish, and rockfish. Fortu-
when diving in these waters and many divers use dry nately, shark attacks in this area are not common. In the
suits. last fifteen to twenty years, fewer than two dozen shark
Underwater visibility varies quite drastically attacks involving divers have been recorded. However,
throughout the area from summer to winter. From Fort caution must be exercised when diving near seal breeding
Bragg to the Oregon border, late spring and summer areas around Pt. Reyes, the Farallon Islands, Bodega Bay,
underwater visibility ranges between 10 and 15 ft. (3.0 Tomales Bay, and off San Francisco. Diving is not recom-
and 4.6 m). In the late summer and fall, underwater vis- mended except when underwater visibility is ideal.
ibility increases to about 15 –25 ft. (4.6 – 7.6 m). During Stingrays and electric rays are also found in the mid-Pacific
the winter and early spring, visibility decreases to 0–10 coastal region.
ft. (0 – 3.0 m). South of Fort Bragg to San Francisco, There are ecological reserves in this area, where all
visibility ranges from 10 – 20 ft. (3.0 – 6.1 m), increasing animals and plants are protected: Gulf of Farallon, Cordell
to 30 ft. (9.1 m) in the fall. From Santa Cruz north to Bank, and Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuaries;

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-5

Point Lobos State Reserve; Point Reyes Seashore area; Salt The outfall discharge point may occur from a few hundred
Point State Park; Estero de Limantour Reserve in Mann feet to several miles offshore, in 60 to several hundred feet
County north of San Francisco; and Del Mar Landing in (18.3 to several hundred meters) of water. The effluent
Sonoma County. Divers should consult with the sanctuary sometimes rises to the surface in a boil characterized by
park authorities to determine the boundaries of these elevated temperatures, paper and other debris, and an
marine reserves and the restrictions that apply to them. unpleasant odor. If diving must be conducted in outfall
areas, precautions such as immunization, use of full-face
12.1.7 Southwest Coast masks and dry suits, and scrupulous postdive hygiene must
The waters of the Southwest include the area from Point be observed (see Chapter 13 for polluted-water diving pro-
Conception to the northern Baja Peninsula. Water tempera- cedures). Most outfall discharge points are marked on
tures range from 50 – 60°F (10 – 16C) in winter and 55 – 70°F charts and can be identified on the surface by a boil or by
(13 – 21C) in summer, with some localized areas made colder an orange-and-white striped spar buoy anchored near the
by upwelling. During much of the year, temperatures at pipe terminus.
depths below 100 ft. (30.5 m) are fairly stable in the 50° to the As in Northern California, ecological reserves that
low 60°F (10 –16C). In fall and winter there is a great deal of have various restrictions have been established in the
mixing in the upper layers and discrete temperature zones do southwestern coastal region. The local office of the Califor-
not exist. However, a distinct summer thermocline at 40 – 60 nia Department of Fish and Game or National Park Ser-
ft. (12.2 – 18.3 m) causes a sharp temperature drop that vice is the best source of information about the location of
should be considered in dive planning. these reserves and any restrictions that pertain to them.
Horizontal visibility underwater ranges from 5 – 10 ft. Diving in northern Mexican (upper Baja California)
(1.5 – 3.0 m) along much of the mainland coast to as much waters is similar to that in lower southern California. Howev-
as 100 ft. (30.5 m) around the offshore islands. The best er, Mexico imposes heavy fines and impounds the boats of
visibility conditions occur in the late summer and fall. Dur- people diving in Mexican waters without proper permits; per-
ing spring and early summer, underwater visibility is gener- mits can be obtained through the Mexican government or
ally less than 30 – 50 ft. (9.1 – 15.2 m) around the islands, at from Mexican customs officials in San Diego, California.
least in part because of prevailing overcasts and heavy fogs.
Winter storm conditions and rain runoff can reduce the 12.1.8 Central Pacific Ocean
visibility to zero for miles along the mainland coast, The most accessible diving in this area is around the
because the prevailing long-shore current distributes sus- Hawaiian Archipelago, which consists of the major Hawai-
pended material from storm drains and river mouths. ian Islands and the lesser-known Leeward Islands. The
Shore conditions along the mainland coast of southern major islands are: Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai,
California range from sand beaches to high palisade cliffs. Molokai, Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau. The Leeward Islands
Ocean access from these areas is often impossible, and a are a group of rocks, shoals, and islets that are remnants of
careful check of charts and weather/surf forecasts, supple- ancient islands and seamounts that extend from Kauai to
mented by a preliminary site visit, is highly recommended Midway Island. They are all wildlife reserves and generally
before initiating a dive. The offshore islands (i.e., Channel are inaccessible except to government personnel or autho-
Islands) generally are accessible to divers only by boat. rized visitors.
Moderate-to-heavy surf prevails along the entire mainland The average water temperature around the major
coast and on the windward sides of the offshore islands. islands is 76°F (24C) with little change throughout the
Under certain weather conditions, the normally calm lee- year. Underwater visibility is almost always excellent,
ward sides also may present hazardous diving conditions. ranging from 50 – 100 ft. (15.2 – 30.5 m) or more. Currents
Currents and tides are not of prime importance in the can sometimes be a problem in channels and near points
southwest coastal region, although there are local excep- and may reach speeds of up to 3 knots (1.5 m/s). High
tions. Currents around the islands, especially during tidal surf is also a potential hazard and may vary widely with
changes, may attain speeds of 3 – 4 knots. The direction the seasons.
and relative strength of nearshore currents can be observed It is possible to make shore entries from all the islands,
both topside and under water by watching the degree and but rocks, surge, and surf must always be considered when
direction of kelp layover. planning entries and exits. Since drop-offs occur very near
Hazardous aquatic animals in this region include: shore and continue for several hundred feet, it is easy to get
sharks (especially around the offshore islands) such as the into deep water quickly after making a shore entry. Caution
blue, horned, swell, angel, and leopard; whales (including must always be exercised when diving in these areas to
killer whales); moray eels; sea urchins; and jellyfish. Divers avoid exceeding depth limits.
should be aware of the habitats, appearance, and habits of Although most forms of dangerous marine life can be
these species. found in Hawaiian waters, they seldom pose a problem for
Sewer outfalls are common along the mainland coast, divers. There have been a few recorded shark attacks, but they
and direct contact with sewer effluent should be avoided. are extremely rare and usually involve swimmers or surfers.

12-6 NOAA Diving Manual

Eel bites, sea urchin punctures, and coral abrasions are the comprehensive, geographically-oriented planning and
most common types of injury. No license is needed to harvest management, but do not necessarily exclude use by peo-
fish or crustaceans for home consumption; however, game ple. It is important when diving in these areas to follow
laws in most states place season and size limitations on some the rules and regulations established for sanctuary man-
species. agement. Accordingly, when conducting working or sci-
entific dives in designated marine sanctuaries and parks,
12.1.9 Arctic and Antarctic it is important to check with local authorities before
The two most important factors to be considered in arc- beginning operations.
tic and antarctic environments are the effects of cold on the
diver and the restricted access to the surface when diving 12.2 DIVING FROM SHORE
under ice. These topics are covered in detail in section A diver should expect to encounter a wide variety of
12.10 which deals with diving in cold water and diving conditions when entering the water from shore. Shorelines
under ice. vary greatly, and diving from a particular shore requires
Water temperature in arctic waters can be as low as individual preparation and planning (see Figure 12.1).
28°F (-2C), but the air temperature and its associated chill Before entering the water from shore, special attention
factor may be more limiting to divers than the cold water should be given to determining a safe exit point. Since div-
itself. Often, surface air temperatures as low as -40 – -50°F ing equipment is often placed on the ground near the
(-40 – -46C) are reached, with accompanying wind veloci- water, extra care must be taken to ensure that diving equip-
ties that bring the chill factor to a temperature equivalent to ment is kept free from dirt, which can cause regulator mal-
-100°F (-73C) or less. In such conditions, protecting divers function.
from the extreme cold is paramount both before and after If the dive from shore is to be made to a precise under-
the dive. water location, it is advisable to place a reference marker
In polar regions the marine species of concern may clearly at the water surface. This can be done by using a
include leopard seals, walrus, killer whales, and polar marker buoy or surface float. A small marker buoy floating
bears. A predive reconnaissance by an experienced observ- on the surface, however, may be difficult for a diver to see;
er will indicate if any of these animals are in the vicinity therefore, compass bearings, underwater contours or fea-
and are likely to cause a problem. tures, or triangulation methods using known shore posi-
tions should be used initially in locating a dive site.
12.1.10 Tropics When diving operations are being conducted from
Tropical waters provide an interesting environment for shore without a boat, a dive flag must be displayed at the
diving, because of the excellent underwater visibility and dive location. If entry conditions permit, divers should
abundance of marine life. The visibility in tropical waters is carry and/or tow the flag with them during the dive. It is
generally 50 ft. (15.2 m) or more with little variation also advisable to equip each diver with a day/night signal
throughout the year. However, the waters may become flare or acoustical signaling device to alert shore personnel
murky and silty after a storm, during plankton blooms, or in an emergency. These devices provide a quick means of
from silting near shore. Water temperatures hover around accurately locating a diver on the surface.
70°F (21C) during the winter months and may be as high
as 82°F (28C) in shallower waters during the summer. 12.2.1 Through Surf
Marine life is abundant, and many forms pose a danger Entering the water even through moderate surf when
to divers. Sharks often thrive in these waters and precau- burdened with diving equipment is a difficult and potentially
tions should be taken when they are sighted. A wide variety hazardous operation. A careful analysis of surf conditions
of poisonous marine animals ( jellyfish, scorpionfish, sea should be made and, if conditions are considered too severe
snakes) also abounds. Therefore, diving supervisors and to allow safe passage to open water, the dive should be post-
divers should review area-specific guides to hazardous poned.
marine life.
WARNING
12.1.11 Diving in Marine Sanctuaries or Underwater BEFORE DIVING FROM AN UNFAMILIAR SHORE,
Parks LOCAL DIVERS SHOULD BE CONSULTED ABOUT
Divers may on occasion dive for recreation or work in LOCAL CONDITIONS.
sanctuaries or underwater parks. These marine sanctuaries
have been set aside for the purpose of preserving or restor- Before entering the water, divers should observe the
ing recreational, ecological, or esthetic values. Examples surf. By watching the surf for a short period of time, water
include the NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries, and state entry can be timed to coincide with a small set of waves.
and national parks. On a steep sloping beach, the diver should approach the
Marine sanctuaries are built around distinctive water fully dressed for diving. At the water’s edge, the diver
marine resources whose protection and proper use require should don his fins, mask, and snorkel. With one hand on

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-7

 1

2 6 7 9 10 11 13 16 17
12

3 19

20
15

4
5

8
14 18
A diver standing on the shore and looking seaward would observe and note: (1) surf zone (2) limit of uprush (3) uprush (4) back-
rush (5) beach face (6) inner translatory waves (7) inner line of breakers (8) inner bar (9) peaked-up wave (10) reformed oscillatory
wave (11) outer translatory waves (12) plunge point (13) outer line of breakers (14) outer bar (inner at low tide) (15) breaker depth,
1.3 x breaker height (16) waves flatten again (17) waves peak up but do not break on this bar at high tide (18) deep bar (outer bar at
low tide) (19) still-water level and (20) mean low water.

FIGURE 12.1
Diagram of Waves in the Breaker Zone

the mask, the diver should then turn around and back into not be attempted. As breakers approach, the diver should
the water with knees slightly bent and body leaning back duck his head under and swim through them. Swimming
into the waves, or face the waves and enter the water on into the base of the wave is advantageous because the cir-
their hands and knees. cular motion of the entrained water will carry the diver
When diving off beaches with gradual slopes and no up behind the wave. When waves are encountered in
surf, the diver should leave his fins off until he reaches shallow water, the diver should turn his back toward and
waist-to-chest depth water. It is important to remember that brace against them.
sting ray encounters are not uncommon in shallow water, A group of divers may make a surf entry in buddy teams
so the diver should shuffle his feet along the bottom rather and meet beyond the surf zone. Once safely through the surf,
than using a lifted step when traversing the shallows. Divers all equipment should be checked prior to beginning descent.
entering with a float should tow it behind them on 10 –30 Sand may have entered the mask, regulator, or fins as
ft. (3.0 – 9.1 m) of line and should be aware of the possibili- the diver passed through the surf. This should be removed
ty that turbulence may cause the line to wrap around an before continuing with the dive. Sand in the regulator
arm, leg, or equipment. exhaust valve can cause it to seal improperly, permitting
water, as well as air, to be inhaled. Sand in the fins, may be
WARNING mildly irritating at first, but can cause painful abrasions by
DIVERS NEAR THE SURFACE SHOULD NOT HOLD the end of a dive.
THEIR BREATH WHEN A WAVE PASSES OVER- After successful entry, the diver can swim seaward
HEADÑTHE RAPID PRESSURE DROP AT THE on the surface using a snorkel if conditions are good, but
DIVERÕS DEPTH AS THE WAVE TROUGH PASSES may have to switch to scuba and swim as close to the
MAY CAUSE A LUNG OVERPRESSURE ACCIDENT. bottom as possible if seas are rough. Sand ripples gener-
ally run parallel or somewhat oblique to shore and can
When swimming through the surf zone, the diver’s be used, by swimming perpendicular to them, to navigate
BC should not be inflated, and if possible, only the off shore. If the bottom is rocky, divers can pull them-
snorkel should be used. Swimming over breakers should selves along by grasping the rocks. On a sandy bottom, a

12-8 NOAA Diving Manual

 • Overweight by at least six lbs. (2.24 kg) to stay on
the seabed.
• Be prepared to have your face mask dislodged; hold
on when necessary. The second-stage regulator is
rarely pulled out of the mouth; fins are commonly
pulled off one at a time. Items should not be tied to
the weight belt because the weight belt may need to
be ditched quickly if the diver gets into difficulties.
Loss of weight belts is a common event in surf-zone
diving.

12.2.2 Through Surf on a Rocky Shore

Before entering the surf from a rocky shore, divers
should evaluate wave conditions and should not attempt
to stand or walk on rocks located in the surf zone.
Instead, divers should select the deepest backwash of the
last large wave of a series and enter the water; the back-
wash should carry the diver between the larger rocks.
Every effort should be made to swim around the rocks
rather than over them. Divers should stay in the smaller,
deeper channels between rocks and maintain a prone
FIGURE 12.2 swimming position facing the next oncoming wave. They
Near-Shore Current System should kick or grasp a rock to keep from being carried
back toward the shore and then kick seaward after the
wave passes.
When exiting on a rocky shore, divers should stop out-
diver can accomplish the same by thrusting his knife into side the surf zone to evaluate wave conditions and should
the bottom. then exit toward the beach on the backside of the last large
Exiting the water through the surf involves performing wave of a series. As momentum from the wave is lost,
the same procedures used to enter, except in reverse order. divers should kick or grasp a rock to avoid being carried
The diver should wait just seaward of the surf for a small seaward by the backwash. Divers should maintain their
set or for a break in the sets of waves. When the time is position, catch the next wave, and thus move shoreward,
right, the diver should begin swimming shoreward (keep- exercising caution over slippery rocks.
ing an eye on the incoming waves) immediately after the
passage of the last of the larger waves. The smaller waves 12.2.3 Through Shore Currents
breaking behind will assist the diver’s progress toward the In and adjacent to the surf zone, currents are gener-
beach. Using this assisting wave action, the diver should ated by approaching waves (and surf), bottom contours
swim toward the beach. Divers should continue swim- and irregularities, shoreline geography, and tides. When
ming, periodically checking for oncoming waves, until waves approach the shore at an angle, a long-shore cur-
making contact with the bottom. Once bottom contact is rent is generated that flows parallel to the beach within
made the divers should crawl out of the surf zone on hands the surf zone. Long-shore currents are most common
and knees onto the beach. along straight beaches. The current velocity increases
When approaching a gradual sloping beach with no with breaker height, increasing angle of the breaker to
surf, the diver should remove his fins, stand and start the shore, increasing beach slope, and decreasing wave
walking (shuffling) toward the beach as soon as he reaches period. The velocity of long-shore currents seldom
waist-deep water. When exiting with a float, divers should exceeds 1 knot (0.5 m/s). Wave fronts advancing over
position them down current or push it ahead to avoid non-parallel bottom contours are refracted to cause con-
becoming entangled in the towline. vergence or divergence of the energy of the waves. In
The following points concerning scuba equipment are areas of convergence, energy concentrations form barri-
highly recommended when entering through the surf: ers to the returning backwash, which is deflected along
the beach to areas of less resistance. These currents turn
• Keep equipment hydrodynamically streamlined. seaward in concentrations at locations where there are
• Minimize extraneous gear such as cameras, clip- “weak points,” extremely large water accumulations,
boards, etc. gaps in the bar or reef, or submarine depressions perpen-
• Secure all gear as tightly as possible, both personally dicular to shore, and form a rip current through the surf
and in boats. (see Figure 12.2).

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-9

 Heavy arrows indicate direction of wave approach; dashed lines represent path of currents, while direction is shown by light
arrows. E = entry; X = exit

FIGURE 12.3
Shore Types and Currents

The large volume of returning water has a retarding ocean beach without considering these factors. Hypotheti-
effect on the incoming waves. Waves adjacent to the rip cal beach configurations, wave approaches, and current
current, having greater energy and nothing to retard them, diagrams are shown in Figure 12.3 to aid divers in plan-
advance faster and farther up the beach. Rip currents may ning beach entry dives.
transport large amounts of suspended material. A knowl-
edgeable and experienced diver can use rip currents as an 12.2.4 From a Coral Reef
aid to swimming ashore. A swimmer caught unsuspectingly Diving operations on a reef should be planned to take
in a rip current should ride the current and swim to the side, place at high tide when water covers the reef. Walking on a
rather than swim against the current. Outside the surf zone reef is hazardous and may damage the fragile reef flora and
the current widens and slackens, which permits the diver to fauna. Footing is uncertain as reefs are generally pocked
enter the beach at another location. Rip currents usually with holes, and areas that look solid may break under a
dissipate a short distance seaward of the surf zone. diver’s weight.
Most shorelines are not straight. Irregularities in the
form of coves, bays, and points affect incoming waves, NOTE
tidal movements, and current patterns. When preparing Coral shoes or hard-sole neoprene boots should be
for beach entries and exits, a diver should take wave worn around coral.
approach, shoreline configuration, and currents into
account. Entries and exits should be planned to avoid high In some instances, there may be an area of the shore
waves and to take advantage of current movements. side of the reef where water is deep enough for swimming.
Divers should avoid dives that require swimming against In this case, the outer side of the reef will break up the wave
the current and should not undertake a dive from an action sufficiently to allow passage over the inside calm

12-10 NOAA Diving Manual

area without difficulty. If a channel can be located that will exiting the water and should remain around the diver’s
allow passage through the reef, the diver should follow it, wrist in case he falls back into the water during exiting.
submerged, if possible, into deep water. If a satisfactory pas-
sage cannot be located, the diver should approach the edge 12.4 DIVING FROM A SMALL BOAT
of the reef, wait for a wave to pass, and slip over. A small boat is probably the most common surface-
support platform used by divers with self-contained
12.3 DIVING FROM A STATIONARY equipment. Configurations and types of small boats vary
PLATFORM greatly and range from small inflatable boats to larger
Diving from a pier or platform rather than directly solid-hulled vessels. The type and magnitude of the div-
from shore offers many advantages. Deep water can be ing operation, environmental conditions, distance off-
entered without having to traverse a surf line, rocks, or shore, number of personnel, amount of support
other obstacles. Also, if the dive site is under or close to a equipment, etc., will dictate the type and size of vessel.
pier, surface-supplied diving equipment can be used. In For operations near shore, or for scuba diving in relative-
addition, all required equipment can be transported by ly calm water, a small 14 – 18 feet (4.3 – 5.5 m) outboard
vehicle directly to the dive site. motorboat is commonly used. More extensive offshore
diving operations require a larger vessel with adequate
WARNING deck space and seaworthiness. A boat used as a platform
PRIOR TO ENTERING THE WATER FROM A FIXED should be:
STRUCTURE, DIVERS SHOULD ENSURE THAT AN
ADEQUATE MEANS OF RETRIEVAL AND EXIT FOR • Equipped with a means for divers to enter and exit
THEMSELVES AND/OR AN ACCIDENT VICTIM IS the water easily and safely
AVAILABLE. • Seaworthy and not loaded beyond the capacity rec-
ommended by the manufacturer for the expected
Ladders should be used to get as close to the water water conditions
as possible before entry. Any approved feet-first entry • Operated by a professional crew trained in boat han-
technique, such as giant-stride, can be used safely for dling
heights up to 10 ft. (3.0 m). Immediately prior to enter- • Large enough to accommodate all members of the
ing, the diver should carefully check for floating debris or dive party, the diver’s life-support equipment, and
submerged obstructions. Floating debris is common any special equipment being used in support of the
around a pier, and pilings often rot or break off just dive
below the waterline. Divers should not jump into an area • Sheltered from the sun, cold, or inclement weather
that has not been examined beforehand or where the while at and enroute to and from the dive site
water is not clear enough to see to the depth of the • Equipped with ship-to-shore communications
intended entry. • Maintained properly and in good repair
If the dive is conducted from an ocean pier or other • Carrying a diver’s flag, oxygen resuscitator, first aid
high platform and no ladder is available, heavy gear can kit, and drinking water
be lowered into the water and divers can make a shore
entry with a snorkel, equipping themselves with scuba at
pierside. If conditions make a shore entry impossible, use
of a small boat is advisable. When swimming under a
pier or platform, divers should be submerged whenever
possible to avoid contact with pilings, cross-supports,
and other potential hazardous objects. Piers and docks
are usually surrounded by discarded debris and lost fish-
ing gear. Care must be taken to avoid cuts, scrapes, and
entanglement.
When exiting the water onto a pier or platform, the
diver should remove his fins prior to climbing the ladder.
The ladder should extend 3 – 4 ft. (0.9 –1.2 m) into the
water. Climbing a ladder with fins is awkward and danger-
ous and should be avoided unless the ladder is designed
specifically for use with fins (see Figure 12.4). Scuba cylin-
ders and other cumbersome equipment should also be
removed and tied securely to a line and be hauled up after
the diver reaches the top of the pier. NOAA recommends FIGURE 12.4
that fins be the last piece of equipment removed before Transom-Mounted Diver Platform

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-11

FIGURE 12.5
Back-Roll Method

• Manned while divers are in the water; an operator is not greater than 3 – 4 ft. (0.9 –1.2 m) as shown in Figure
should be onboard and able to respond to an emer- 12.5. The diver should sit on the gunwale facing the center
gency at all times of the boat with both feet inside, and lean forward to
counterbalance the weight of the equipment. When ready
Small boats used to tend divers can be anchored or to enter, the diver should hold his pressure gauge in one
unanchored. When anchored, the boat should be posi- hand while ensuring that his mask and second-stage regu-
tioned downstream of the site for easy access when divers lator are in place with the other hand, sit up, lean back-
surface, and a surface float should be streamed off the ward, and let the weight of the diving equipment carry
stern. Even anchored boats need to be able to move imme- him over the side.
diately in case an incapacitated diver must be recovered; a A second method of entry is the “giant stride” (feet
buoyed anchor facilitates a quick getaway. The operator in first) method, which is generally used when entering the
the boat should keep a constant watch on the diver’s bub- water from a larger boat with an opening in the gunwale.
bles, and great care should be taken to stay clear of divers if Using this technique, the diver should look straight ahead
the engine is in gear. When tending without an anchor, the or at the horizon and step off into the water. The intent is
operator should drop divers off upstream of the site and to hit the water feet first. Bending at the waist or looking
remain downstream of the divers during operations. Drift down usually results in the diver landing on his face. If the
diving with a surface float provides an effective method for diver must climb over or stand on the gunwale to enter the
keeping the boat in position for pickup. water, another individual should assist the diver.
When entering the water using these methods, the
12.4.1 Entering the Water diver should always hold the face mask firmly in place.
Also, any required equipment that cannot be carried easily
NOTE and safely should be secured to a piece of line hung over
Always examine the water below the point of entry the side, and retrieved after entry.
just prior to entry. As a general rule, the diver should always enter the
water slowly, using the method that will result in the least
Entering the water from a small boat can be accom- physical discomfort and disturbance to equipment. Each
plished safely by several methods. Sitting on the gunwale diver should determine the method best suited to various
and rolling into the water is considered best if the distance water conditions.

12-12 NOAA Diving Manual

12.4.2 Exiting the Water
When preparing to exit the water into a boat, there
are several general rules to follow. While ascending,
divers should look upward continuously to ensure that
the boat or other object is not directly overhead and that
they will not strike it when surfacing. Holding an arm
over the head with a closed fist while rotating 360
degrees during ascent is a good practice.
Upon surfacing, ensure that all divers are accounted
for. Maintain contact with the boat, ladder, or trail/line,
and begin an orderly exit, one diver at a time.

NOTE FIGURE 12.6

Stay well clear of the area directly underneath or Side-Mounted Diver Platform
behind an exiting diver in case he falls back into
the water. The angle between the shaft and the transom should be
35 – 40 degrees.
Probably the most widely used method of returning Positioning the ladder on the transom (the strongest
to a small boat is via a diver ladder. Divers may choose part of the boat) is particularly important in current
to exit the water without removing any equipment. This because the boat partially protects the diver from the force
should only be attempted if the ladder is strong enough of the current and because the diver can climb out of the
to support the total weight. If equipment is removed water parallel to the current. If conventional ladders posi-
prior to climbing the ladder, divers should be assisted in tioned on the side of the boat are used, the current may
removing their cylinders and weight belts by someone in push the boat ladder sideways.
the boat or other divers in the water. Fins should be The ladder should extend about 3 – 4 ft. (0.9 – 1.2 m)
removed last and carried while climbing aboard. below the water’s surface to allow diver access. The ladder
A ladder may be built in many configurations, but should have a handle only on the side next to the motor, so
every ladder should have these general characteristics: the diver can pass unhampered on the other side.
Another method of assisting a diver into a small boat
• Extend below the surface of the water 3 – 4 ft. is the use of a platform rigged to the stern or the side of the
(0.9 – 1.2 m), providing a place for the diver to boat and suspended just below the surface of the water. A
stand and hold on while removing equipment diver can swim onto the platform, sit securely while
• Strong, well built, and capable of being securely removing equipment, and then stand up and step safely
fastened to the side so it will not shift when sub- into the boat. A hand- or arm-hold should be provided. A
jected to the action of the seas and the diver’s portable, easily-stored platform (see Figure 12.6) can be
weight constructed from either wood or metal.
• Wide enough to accommodate the diver comfort-
ably 12.5 FRESHWATER DIVING
• Angled away from the boat to permit easier ascent There are thousands of square miles of freshwater in
• Rungs that are flat and wide and side-rails above the United States. Basic techniques for diving in lakes,
the water for hand-holds rivers and quarries are much like those used in ocean
waters. However, some differences should be noted. For
Modifying conventional ladders to fit small boats is example, depth gauges that are calibrated for seawater den-
unsatisfactory because these ladders are closed on both sity must be corrected to achieve accuracy in freshwater
sides by rung support shafts, are difficult to climb with and vice versa. Buoyancy requirements also are different
equipment, and hang too close to the boat to provide suf- for fresh and salt water.
ficient toe space.
Figure 12.4 shows a ladder that is designed to allow 12.5.1 Great Lakes
a fully-equipped diver to re-enter a small boat without Great Lakes divers need to be aware of the temperature
removing his fins. The most important features of the changes that occur with depth and season. In a typical fresh-
ladder are lack of side supports (open-step design), its water lake, the upper layer (epilimnion) temperature gener-
slope, and its ability to be positioned on the transom of ally ranges between 55 and 75°F (13 and 24C) in late
the boat. With a ladder of the open-step type, divers can summer. However, the waters below the thermocline
use the inner sides of their feet to locate the ladder (hypolimnion) approach the temperature of maximum den-
rungs and can then step onto the rung from the side. sity for freshwater, 39°F (4C). Consequently, divers working

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-13

below the thermocline, which averages 60 ft. (18.3 m) in water originates from seepage in the surrounding water
these lakes in late summer, must adjust their buoyancy and table. For this reason, the water is usually low in nutri-
use thermal protection. ents and significantly colder than water in areas primari-
During the winter months, the water temperature in the ly fed by runoff.
Great Lakes ranges between 32°F (0C) near the surface and As the water near the surface warms during the sum-
39°F (4C) on the bottom. During this period, a significant mer months, a sharp thermocline is created that must be
portion of the Great Lakes is ice-covered. Occasionally, taken into account when dressing for a quarry dive. Quar-
divers are required to work under 2–16 inches (5.1– 40.6 cm) ries are used frequently as dump sites for old cars and a
of ice to make observations, collect samples, or to maintain variety of junk, and quarry divers must be aware of
scientific equipment. Diving under ice is particularly haz- becoming snagged on sharp metal or monofilament line,
ardous, requires special techniques and equipment, and especially when the sediment is stirred up and visibility is
should only be undertaken by divers with specialized train- reduced.
ing. Divers and surface-support personnel operating in the
lakes may be subjected to atmospheric temperatures of -30°F 12.6 OPEN-OCEAN DIVING
(-34C), with wind-chill factors approaching -100°F (-73C). Oceanographic research occasionally requires observ-
Underwater visibility in the Great Lakes ranges from ing and sampling pelagic organisms directly in the open
about 100 ft. (30.5 m) in Lake Superior to less than 1 ft. ocean instead of collecting specimens using such conven-
(0.3 m) in Lake Erie. Visibility is influenced by local pre- tional techniques such as Niskin® bottles, grabs, or nets.
cipitation and runoff, nutrient enrichment, biological activ- However, because open-ocean (also termed blue-water)
ity, local bottom conditions, and diver activity. Significant diving does not provide a fixed frame of reference, divers
seasonal variations also occur in these waters. performing open-ocean dives may become disoriented
From September to December, storms and severe wave because they have a reduced awareness of depth, buoyan-
conditions can be expected in the Great Lakes. Divers cy, current, surge, other divers, marine organisms, and
working offshore at these times must use sturdy vessels and occasionally, even of the direction to the surface (Heine
monitor weather forecasts. Because swift currents may be 1985). Special techniques have been developed to aid the
encountered in rivers and straits connecting with the lakes, diver operating in the open ocean to carry out scientific
Great Lakes divers must use considerable caution and be tasks safely.
properly trained in the techniques of diving in currents. Open-ocean diving is usually done from a small boat
to facilitate diver entry, exit, and maneuverability, and to
12.5.2 Inland Lakes minimize “sail” area, which reduces drift and the conse-
Other lakes in the United States vary from clear moun- quent dragging of divers through the water. Even when
tain lakes with low sediment input to reservoirs, sediment- operations are being conducted from a large vessel, a
laden lakes, and glacial lakes, which usually have a milky small boat should be used to tend the divers because wind
appearance. When planning a lake dive, bottom terrain is and surface currents often carry a larger boat away from
as important a consideration as underwater visibility. Lakes the actual dive site.
may have vertical rocky sides, rocky outcrops, ledges, and Open-ocean dive teams generally consist of a boat
talus slopes, or they may be sedimentary and composed pri- operator (who remains in the boat), a safety diver, and as
marily of old farm land. Algal blooms often occur in lakes many as four or five divers. After reaching the dive site, a
during the warmer months and may completely block the downline about 100 ft. (30.5 m) long, loaded with 5 – 10
light, even at shallow depths. Thermoclines also occur, and pounds (1.9 – 3.7 kg) of weight and knotted at specific
temperature and underwater visibility may vary greatly. depths, is passed from the boat through a surface float and
Old cables, heavy equipment, electric cables, rope, lowered to serve as a safety line for the divers (see Figure
fishline, fishing lures, and even old cars are often found on 12.7). This line is then secured to the surface float and to
lake bottoms. Many lakes have never been cleared of trees, the small boat. A 4 ft. (1.2 m) sea anchor is frequently
barns, houses, water towers, and other objects. The bottom used to reduce drift caused by wind; the anchor can be
sediment of lakes is easily stirred up, as is sediment that attached to a loop in the downline at the surface float or to
has settled on lake-bottom trees or brush. Divers should a separate float to keep it from collapsing and sinking if
stay off the bottom as much as possible and move slowly the wind dies. To mark the dive site, it is useful to drop a
when forced to work on the bottom. small open jar of fluorescein dye into the water. The verti-
cal column of dye emitted as the jar ascends will be dis-
12.5.3 Quarries torted by currents, giving a visual display of the current
Artificial water systems such as reservoirs and flood- pattern in the water column.
ed strip mines, gravel pits, or stone quarries are popular Because of the absence of any visible reference and the
spots for diving. In some areas, they represent the only inherent danger of drifting away or down, all open-ocean
place for diving, and in other regions they are used pri- divers are tethered at all times to the safety line via an
marily for diver training. Quarries are usually deep; the underwater trapeze. The trapeze can be configured from

12-14 NOAA Diving Manual

 Surface Attendant

Elastic Cord Damper

Tethered Support Boat
10 ft. (3 m)

Safety Diver
33 ft. (10 m)

Weights

Working Divers

FIGURE 12.7
Down-Line Array for Open-Ocean Diving

any bar or ring that accepts clips and shackles easily. Fig- freely through the metal loop on the end of the swivel clip
ure 12.8 shows examples of four types of trapezes that have (see Figures 12.8, 12.9); these clips are attached to the
been used for this type of diving. trapeze, which is located near the safety diver. Thus, as a
In conventional diving, buddy divers swim together; diver swims away from the safety diver, the tether pays out
in open-ocean diving, however, the safety diver serves as smoothly, and, when the diver returns, the tether retracts
the buddy diver for all of the divers on the team and vice as the weight sinks. In conditions of low visibility, tether
versa. As shown in Figure 12.7, all divers are tethered to lines can be shortened by tying a knot on the weight side of
the trapeze by means of lines approximately 30 – 50 ft. the tether, thus shortening the length available to pay out.
(9.1 – 15.2 m) long; the length of the line depends on the The other end of the tether should be connected to the
underwater visibility and the task being undertaken. To diver’s buoyancy compensator or to a separate harness. If
avoid kinking, tethers should be braided lines. A good the quick-release shackle is attached to the diver’s buoyan-
rule of thumb is to restrict the length of the tether to cy compensator or harness (rather than to the tether), it can
about 50 – 75 percent of the nominal underwater visibili- be released by pulling it away from the diver’s body, which
ty distance (Heine 1985). The exception to this rule is the ensures that it will release.
safety diver’s tether, which should only be about 3 ft.
(0.9 m) long.
Because tethers of a fixed length tend to droop and WARNING
become tangled, they should be designed to remain taut at TETHERS SHOULD NOT BE ATTACHED TO A
all times, which also facilitates line-pull signaling. This can DIVERÕS WEIGHT BELT BECAUSE DITCHING OR
be achieved by weighting the end nearest the safety diver LOSING THE BELT WOULD ADD EXCESSIVE
with a 4 – 8-ounce fishing weight. The tether then passes WEIGHT TO THE TRAPEZE ARRAY.

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-15

FIGURE 12.8
Four Multiple Tether Systems (Trapezes)

12-16 NOAA Diving Manual

 If scientific or diving equipment is hung on the
downline, it can be attached to the line at the appropri-
ate depth as the line is deployed, which makes it unnec-
Surface Float
essary for the divers to carry the equipment. Any
Equipment
equipment hung on the downline should be positioned
Line
Gear Tethers Sea Anchor above the trapeze and safety diver, and the weight of the
equipment must not be so great that it overweights the
Wave Damper downline. Divers working below the trapeze must be
careful to avoid entanglement in the weighted tethers,
which would envelop the safety diver in a cloud of bub-
Extra Bag Depth Marker bles and reduce his ability to see. If a second line is
deployed for equipment, it must be separated clearly
from the safety line and should not be used as an attach-
ment for tethers.
Racks
Trapeze
In addition to diving, safety, and scientific equipment,
most open-ocean divers carry a shark billy. According to
experienced open-ocean divers at the University of Califor-
nia at Santa Cruz:

Twenty percent of all open-ocean dives performed by our

group in the central north and south Pacific gyre systems
and the eastern tropical Pacific were aborted due to the
Weighted persistent presence of sharks, specifically oceanic white tip
Flopper Stopper
sharks. In all cases they were spotted first by the safety
diver. This underscores the value of the safety diver and a
routine abort plan and the utility of the shark billy
(Heine 1985).
FIGURE 12.9
Tethered Shot Lines Divers generally work in an area upstream of the
trapeze, which allows them to collect fresh, undisturbed
samples, and to stay in a single area in sight of the safety
diver. As they perform their tasks, the divers scan their
Before starting a open-ocean dive, all equipment must be
surroundings and make visual contact with the safety
checked, and the divers must all be sure that they understand
diver. The safety diver constantly monitors the surround-
the diving signals, especially the line-pull signals, that will be
ings, checks for sharks, keeps an eye on the divers and the
used. The safety diver enters the water first, but all of the
downline, and generally monitors the progress of the dive.
divers usually descend down the line together to connect the
During the course of the dive, the safety diver maintains
pivot ring to the vertical line and to prepare the tethers. Dur-
contact with the divers by periodically tugging on the
ing the dive, the safety diver monitors the tethers, keeps a
divers’ tethers to ensure they are responding to pull signals
lookout for hazards, and supervises the dive. The safety diver
appropriately. If a diver requires minor assistance, the
maintains visual contact with the other divers and can attract
safety diver signals another diver to go to his aid. Before
their attention by pulling on their tethers. The boat operator
the safety diver becomes involved in helping another
can signal the safety diver by pulling on the vertical line. In
diver, he must first signal another diver to act as the tem-
this way, the entire team can communicate and be alerted to
porary safety diver. There must always be someone acting
ascend at any time during the dive. A good practice is to
as safety diver (Heine 1985).
have each diver run the tether through the palm of one hand
As with any specialized diving, open-ocean diving
so that the line pulls can be detected easily. The safety diver
requires individualized training and practice. Dive masters
can move the pivot ring up and down the vertical line to any
should consult a specialized open-ocean diving manual for
of the knotted stops, as required, and can thus control the
further details about this type of diving.
maximum depth of all the divers. The safety diver can also
terminate the dive or send any diver up if the situation war-
rants such action. Divers can ascend at will by signaling their 12.7 CORAL REEFS AND
intent to the safety diver, unclipping their tethers at the pivot FRINGING REEFS
ring, and ascending the vertical line to the boat. It is impor- As part of dive planning from shore, small boat or
tant that the divers hold the downline when ascending so that large boat, access to a reef system, entry and exit condi-
they do not drift away from the boat. tions need to be considered. In areas of high tidal range,

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-17

the changed tidal level between entry and exit time must be almost effortlessly achieve long dive tracks. Drift diving
taken into account; divers can find themselves with a very in currents should be tended by a maneuvering boat that
long and difficult walk over jagged live coral at low tide. monitors a float or series of floats carried along by each
During the course of the dive, visual contact should be dive team. Where divers wish to remain at a particular
maintained between divers because the use of tethering location, rope techniques are essential. Diving down an
ropes in the coral environment is not always practical. anchored line is often necessary; however, heavy exertion
The seaward face of a coral atoll is a barrier or fring- may be required to maintain position against the current.
ing reef containing all of the hazards attached to diving
around coral elsewhere. In addition, there are several NOTE
hazards particular to this environment. The primary dan- Heavy exertion swimming against a strong current
ger is that of very rough seas suddenly rising up at the increases breathing rates and air consumption.
reef edge where an eroding margin gives way to a sudden
vertical drop. This is because the face of a reef is charac- When diving into a current from an anchored boat,
teristically steep, plunging away to great depths from the platform, or other fixed position, tethered divers face the
shallow coral reef bank. This steep slope, which is often risk of being swept to the surface due to additional drag on
undercut as a result of local changes in sea level, acts as their umbilical or downline. Additional risks include being
a wall to the movement of water; and even without much carried away from the dive site and topside support. Once
wind, breakers can suddenly form on the reef margin on the surface, non-tethered divers should drift or swim
with the impingement of swells that can otherwise be with the current angling toward the shoreline or pick-up
undetected on the open-sea surface. If divers are down boat, rather than attempting to swim against the current.
on the reef face, they can become involved in the under- Drifting along the surface in rivers is not necessarily
water surge associated with the disruption of sea swell at dangerous, unless a hazard exists downstream as divers can
the reef face, in addition to becoming suddenly usually be located quickly. Separation at sea, however, can
enmeshed in rough seas upon surfacing at the pick-up present more significant problems as divers on the surface
boat. are hard to locate from a small boat. Divers working in open
Most injuries around reefs involve cuts and abrasions sea conditions should carry signaling devices
from the extremely sharp surfaces of the growing coral; such as flares and or a safety sausage or per-
edge of shell can be as sharp as a knife. Dead coral is not as sonal flotation and location device to increase
sharp or abrasive. Use of protective clothing and gloves is their visibility. This can also be used as a lift
advised, regardless of the water temperature. A secondary bag or life ring for two persons (see Figure
hazard is that sharks are commonly found in the deeper 12.10).
water off the reef face. Reef sharks are attracted by the Water movement at sea can be complex
same rough water that is responsible for disturbing the for divers. The surface current may be quite
coral at the margin of the reef and attracting an abundance different than current encountered at depth in
of prey. both velocity and/or direction. Tracking
Many coral and fringing reefs are given a level of statu- divers from a boat by following bubbles is usu-
tory protection by governments. This may take the form of ally ineffective in areas of high current/waves;
protecting corals or other specific groups of organisms, and divers should tow or drift with a surface float
general permits are often required for scientific collection to indicate their location. Support boats
or research, imposing certain bag limits or prohibitions of should be equipped with a diver recall device
certain collecting methods. An entire area may be con- in addition to other safety-related gear.
tained within a marine park or sanctuary over which a
range of rules and regulations applies. As part of dive plan- NOTE
ning, the nature of any restrictions or permit requirements A manned mobile pick-up boat should
applicable to this area should be ascertained prior to div- be used when diving in currents.
ing. Visual observation may be the only technique permit-
ted in certain restricted areas. Each diver should be as hydrodynamic as
possible to be least affected by water drag.
12.8 FAST CURRENT Masks should be low volume and snorkels
Water flow is considered to be extreme for divers should be held in a knife strap or pocket as the
when it is moving at a rate faster than a diver can com- current drag on a snorkel affixed to the mask
fortably swim into, commonly about one knot or less. strap can pull a mask off. Short, broad fins are
Fast currents can cause some difficulties, but also allow more manageable than long, speed-swimming
drift diving, where the divers move with the current.
Drift diving is particularly useful for surveying restricted FIGURE 12.10
sea lochs where tidal floods and ebbs allow divers to Personal Flotation and Location Device

12-18 NOAA Diving Manual

fins, and adjustable heel strap fins are better than full-foot
fins as they can be more easily refitted and secured. Instru-
ments should be low profile and snag resistant as the diver is
often swept into weeds and ropes. Diver-tending lines
should be used on all dives in fast-moving waters.

12.9 CAVE DIVING

Cave diving is a specialized form of diving that can be
performed in both inland freshwater and ocean “blue holes.”
To scientists, caves offer new laboratories for research. In
cave diving, the emphasis should be placed on developing the
proper psychological attitude, training in specialized tech-
niques and life-support systems, dive planning, and the selec-
tion of an appropriately trained buddy diver.

WARNING
ONLY EXPERIENCED AND SPECIALLY TRAINED
FIGURE 12.11
DIVERS SHOULD UNDERTAKE CAVE DIVING.
Typical Safety Reel
OPEN-WATER EXPERIENCE IS NO SUBSTITUTE
FOR CAVE-DIVING TRAINING.
instruction in line safety, the elements of buoyancy con-
The cave-diving environment is alien to humans, trol, buddymanship, dive planning, equipment handling,
because it involves both the underwater environment and and dive theory. Four basic rules for cave-diving safety
the limited access, limited visibility, confined-space envi- that must be followed by every diver are:
ronment typical of caves. It is sobering to realize that sever-
al hundred fatalities have occurred in underwater caves in 1. Always use a continuous guideline to the surface.
the last decade. Examples of the special hazards that may 2. Save two-thirds of the total air supply for returning
be encountered in cave diving are: to the surface.
3. Carry at least three lights during the dive.
• The absence of a direct and immediate ascent route 4. Carry a redundant scuba regulator and any other
to the surface equipment the direct malfunction of which could
• The sometimes instantaneous loss of visibility cause a fatality.
because of silting or failure of the diver’s light
• The entanglement and impact hazards associated A common hazard in cave diving is the presence of
with being in a confined, enclosed space silt. To minimize silting, cave divers must be specially
trained to swim horizontally and to maintain proper buoy-
These and other factors all have an effect on the psy- ancy at all times.
chological composure of divers and their ability to cope A safety reel and line are the diver’s link to the surface
with stressful situations. Improperly trained divers, and survival. Several kinds of line are used for safety and
unaware of the hazards unique to cave diving, often navigation. Temporary lines are the most commonly used
panic and drown when they encounter situations that are and consist of a safety reel and line carried by the divers. A
in fact normal for the cave-diving environment. It is suitable safety reel should feature a line guide, drum, buoyan-
imperative that divers develop the proper psychological cy chamber, a good turn ratio, and be capable of carrying
attitude before they consider conducting a cave dive. approximately 400 ft. (122.0 m) of 1/16 inch (1.6 mm), 160-
Completion of a standard scuba-diving course does not pound (59.7-kg) test to 1/8 inch (3.2 mm), 440-pound (164.3-
prepare a diver for the special challenges faced in cave kg) test, braided nylon line. The reel should be neutrally
diving. buoyant, compact, and rugged (see Figure 12.11). Large reels
Before taking a course in cave diving, the diving stu- and lines create extra drag for the diver and require extra
dent must have enough open-water experience to feel psy- exertion.
chologically comfortable under water. Because their lives When running a safety line, the diver with the reel
may one day depend on the quality of instruction should maintain tension. A light should be fastened to the
received, anyone contemplating taking such a course line for easy recognition, and safety wraps should be made
should select one taught by an experienced and nationally approximately every 25 ft. (7.6 m). The line should be cen-
certified, cave-diving instructor. A good cave-diving tered in the cave as much as possible. The reel diver is first
course should include pre-screening of potential divers, at in and last out. The buddy is responsible for unwrapping
least 100 hours of training in underwater work, and the safety wraps on leaving the cave and for providing light

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-19

for the diver tying and untying the line. Physical contact constant contact so essential in cave diving. For further
with the line should be avoided except when visibility information about cave diving, readers should write to the
decreases. In some cases, cave divers will use permanent National Association of Cave Diving, Box 14492,
lines for mapping or to permit a more complete exploration Gainesville, Florida 32604, or the National Speleological
of a cave. Novices should use temporary lines and should Society’s Cave Diving Section, 3508 Hollow Oak Place,
not attempt to follow permanent lines unless they have a Brandon, Florida 33511.
thorough knowledge of the cave. The technique for laying Websites: NACD ([Link]
and retrieving a safety line is unique to cave diving and NSS ([Link]
should be practiced until it becomes second nature because
it could save one’s life in a total silt-out, where there is a 12.10 COLD-WATER DIVING
complete loss of visibility. It is important to remember that Diving in cold water presents several equipment prob-
in cave diving the safety line is not to be used to pull one’s lems not found in warmer waters — the major difficulty
self along the line, but only as visual and, if necessary, tac- involving the regulator. Many single-hose scuba regulators
tile aid during transit. have a tendency to freeze in the free-flow position after
Standard cave diving life-support systems should approximately 20 – 30 minutes of extreme cold-water expo-
include: sure. However, several models designed to resist freezing
are available. The older double-hose regulators rarely
• Double cylinders developed this freezing problem.
• Double manifolds with captured O-rings
• Two regulators NOTE
• Submersible pressure gauge An early sign that freeze-up is about to occur is the
• Buoyancy compensator with power inflator hose presence of ice crystals on the tongue. Should this
• Depth gauge occur, the dive should be aborted immediately.
• Watch
• Decompression tables Second-stage freeze-up is generally caused by moisture
• Wet or dry suit in the exhaled breath, which then condenses and freezes on
• Safety reel with line cold metal parts prior to entering the water.
• Lights First-stage demand regulators are also susceptible to
• Compass freeze-up for the same reasons when used at temperatures
• Slate below 39°F (4C). Freeze-up depends on the ambient tem-
• Pencil perature, rate of gas flow, relative pressure drop, the diam-
eter and shape of the various passageways inside the
The larger-capacity double-cylinder arrangement recom- demand valve, and the moisture in the breathing gas.
mended for cave diving has an “ideal” or double-orifice man- Another cold-water diving problem is that the diver’s
ifold. This system manifolds two cylinders together with a mask is more likely to fog in cold water. A non-irritating
common gas supply and uses two regulator adapters. If one defogging agent applied to the mask before diving, or par-
regulator fails, that regulator may be secured while the sec- tially flooding the mask and flushing the faceplate will
ond regulator continues to function without interruption and relieve this condition temporarily.
with access to both gas cylinders. One of the regulators also In practice, freeze-up problems normally start before
should have a 5-ft. (1.5-m) hose so that divers may share their entering the water when divers test their demand valves in a
gas supply when maneuvering out of tight situations. sub-zero environment. Ice crystals may form instantly inside
Although the need for lighting in cave diving is obvi- the first stage valve and act as sites for further ice formation
ous, the lighting taken on cave dives is often not adequate during the dive. Moisture in the diver’s exhaled breath may
for safety. Each diver must carry at least three lights, with produce instant second stage freeze-up. Water is either above
the brightest being at least 30 watts. Backup lights can be of or at the point of freezing and, if breathing from the regulator
lower wattage, but they must also be dependable and of is postponed until under water, the high heat conductance of
high quality. All cave-diving equipment must be checked water will normally keep the demand valve above freezing.
and rechecked by each member of the dive team before
submersion to ensure proper functioning, ease of opera- NOTE
tion, and diver familiarity. During this time, the smooth When diving in freezing or near freezing tempera-
operation of backup equipment should also be verified and tures, it is highly recommended to submerge before
the dive plan should be reviewed. breathing from or purging the demand valve.
The maximum recommended number of cave divers
per team is three. Larger groups may not be able to handle Since rate of gas flow is crucial to determining
the integrated “buddymanship” necessary to maintain the whether the demand valve will freeze, a slow, normal

12-20 NOAA Diving Manual

breathing pattern should be adopted. Rapid inflation of the head can be reduced by wearing a second, well-fitted
dry suits and/or buoyancy compensators, in addition to neoprene hood over the regular suit hood. With a properly
free-flowing of regulators, must be avoided since they are fitted suit and all seals in place, a diver can usually be kept
likely to contribute to freeze-up. When freezing is likely, warm and dry, for short periods.
cylinders should be filled with breathing gas that is as dry If divers and members of the surface-support crew fol-
as possible. Special dehydrating agents in the final filter low certain procedures, the adverse effects of cold-water
cartridge can be employed. exposure can be greatly reduced. Suits should be main-
If the first stage of the regulator has a chamber that tained in the best possible condition, dry-suit underwear
communicates directly with the water, an anti-freezing cap should be kept clean and dry, and all seals and zippers
can be used. This protective cap may be filled with an should be inspected and repaired (if necessary) before the
antifreeze solution to prevent freeze-up of the internal com- dive. Protection from the elements should also be provid-
ponents. Many newer regulators utilize silicon-filled cham- ed to prevent chilling and loss of body core temperature
bers on the first stage to prevent freeze-up. However, such prior to entering the water. During the dive, divers should
preventative measures do not protect against freezing exercise as much as possible to generate body heat.
inside the second stage of the regulator. Dives should be terminated immediately if the diver
A full-face mask has the inherent problem that a diver begins to shiver involuntarily or experiences a serious loss
will necessarily commence breathing before entering the of manual dexterity. Once involuntary shivering begins,
water, and, thereby, run the risk of initiating a freeze-up the loss of dexterity, strength, and ability to function accel-
problem. It is good practice to avoid prolonged periods of erates. After leaving the water, cold-water divers are often
breathing from the mask on land; it should be the last piece fatigued, and, because heat loss from the body continues
of equipment donned before the diver enters the water. even after removal from cold water, they are susceptible to
Many plastic and rubber components, especially seals hypothermia. Facilities must be provided that allow the
and O-rings, become brittle at low temperatures. They may diver to remove any wet clothes or suits, dry themselves,
crack, shatter, or break easily, and are most susceptible and don warm clothing, as soon as possible, to regain lost
when chilled or frozen. Equipment should be assembled, body heat. During cold water operations that require repet-
and seals seated, in a warm environment, prior to exposure itive dives, the diver must be completely re-warmed
to cold air or the dive. Following each dive, all equipment between dives. Supervisors should be aware that an appar-
must be inspected carefully to ensure proper function. ent feeling of warmth can be deceptive and should adjust
Keeping the diver’s body warm is the most important dive schedules accordingly.
requirement in cold-water diving (see Figure 12.12). Adequate rest and nutrition are essential to providing
Although the standard foamed-neoprene wet suit has been cold-water divers with the energy necessary for this type of
used in 29°F (-2C) water for dives lasting longer than an diving. A diver should have a minimum of 6 – 8 hours of
hour, it is doubtful whether divers on these dives are com- sleep before a dive. Care must be taken to avoid dehydra-
fortable or thermally safe. A major drawback of wet suits is tion, which can interfere with the body’s thermal regulato-
that, when the dive is over, the diver is wet and will contin- ry mechanism. Careful planning is of the utmost
ue to lose body heat even after leaving the water. The loss importance in all cold-water diving.
of material thickness with depth drastically reduces the effi-
ciency of any foam neoprene suit when diving much below
60 ft. (18.3 m). WARNING
Two types of diving dress have been used successfully IF A DIVER IS EXTREMELY COLD, ADJUST THE
under severe thermal conditions: the hot-water wet suit, DECOMPRESSION SCHEDULE TO THE NEXT
which provides a continuous supply of preheated water to LONGER TIME.
the diver, and the dry suit, which utilizes diver-controlled air
and dry undergarments to provide insulating capability. 12.11 DIVING UNDER ICE
Except for the hot-water wet suit, no dry or wet suit provides In addition to the problems and limitations of diving in
complete protection of the diver’s hands for long periods. As cold water, there are specific precautions that must be
the extremities become cold and dexterity is lost, the diver taken when diving under ice. Diving under ice is extremely
becomes less efficient, and the dive should be terminated. hazardous and should be done only by experienced divers
Hands should be protected with gloves or mittens with the who have been specially trained.
fewest possible digits; the loss of manual dexterity associated Most ice diving is done from large and relatively flat
with the use of gloves or mittens is overridden by the added surface-ice sheets that are stationary and firmly frozen to
warmth they provide. Rewarming chilled hands or filling the the shore. Even at locations many miles from the nearest
gloves or mittens with warm water just before the dive pro- land, these ice caps often offer a stable working platform.
vides temporary comfort and warmth. However, diving from drifting or broken ice is dangerous
The use of heavy, insulating socks under the boots of a and should only be done as a last resort. When the ice cap
wet or dry suit will help keep the feet warm. Heat loss from is solid, there is no wave action to the water; however,

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-21

 Normal Body Temperature 98.6¡F (37C)
Unprotected Diver Resting
Average Skin Temperature 93¡F (34C)

Unprotected Diver
Uncomfortably Cold 88¡F (31C)
Working
Shivering 86¡F (30C)
Diver Will
Unprotected Overheat
Diver
Comfortable Unprotected
During Diver at Rest
Moderate Chills in
Work 1Ð2 Hours

Wet or Dry Suit

DiverÕs
Underwear
or Wet suit
Required

Pain 60¡F (16C)

Dry Suit
Required
Over 60 ft.; Wet Suit for
Short Duration Dives Less
Than 60 ft. (18.3 m)

Unprotected Diver
Death Within One Hour 40¡F (4C)

Hot Water Suit

Deep Sea Suit or Variable
Volume Dry
Suit Required Freshwater
Freezing Point
Seawater

Protection Usually Needed

Heated Suit

FIGURE 12.12
Water Temperature Protection Chart

12-22 NOAA Diving Manual

 line should be tied to the diver (not to the equipment)
and the other end should be tied firmly to a large station-
ary object on the surface. Excursions under ice should be
well planned, and the distance traveled under the ice
away from the entry hole should be kept to a minimum;
under normal circumstances, this distance should be
limited to 90 ft. (27.4 m). Longer under-ice excursions
make it difficult for the diver to get back to the entry
hole in an emergency and increase the difficulty of
searching for a lost diver. If divers must travel long dis-
tances under the ice, additional holes should be cut for
emergency purposes.
Large marine mammals are very possessive about the
breathing holes they use in the ice. Confrontation in such
circumstances must be avoided at all costs, and marine
mammals should generally be avoided, unless experiments
or observations of them are being carried out under con-
trolled conditions.

WARNING
DIVERS LOST UNDER THE ICE SHOULD ASCEND
TO THE OVERHEAD ICE COVER IMMEDIATELY,
MAINTAIN POSITIVE BUOYANCY, RELAX AS MUCH
AS POSSIBLE TO CONSERVE AIR, AND WAIT FOR
ASSISTANCE. DO NOT CONTINUE TO SEARCH FOR
THE ENTRY HOLE.

To aid the diver to return to the entry hole, a bright

FIGURE 12.13
light should be hung just beneath the surface. For night
Diver Tender and Standby Diver in Surface Shelter
diving under ice, this light is a necessity; it is usually the
only item required beyond those used in day-time opera-
tions. However, since cold water shortens the life of batter-
divers must constantly be on guard because the current ies, homing beacons and strobes should be checked before
beneath the entry hole can change quickly and dramatical- use. Because direct ascent to the surface is impossible when
ly without producing any noticeable effect on the surface. under the ice, a rapid means of determining direction often
In most cases, the absence of wave action produces good is critical. In shallow water, detours are often necessary to
underwater visibility, although under ice-diving operations, circumvent the “keels” (thickened areas) built up beneath
conducted in areas characterized by river runoff or heavy the ice. Also, because of the absence of waves, there are no
plankton, may be associated with conditions of reduced ripple patterns on the bottom to aid in orientation. For
visibility. these reasons, the use of a tether is absolutely mandatory
To enter the water through ice, divers should first for under-ice diving.
drill a small hole through the ice at the site to determine If there is a failure in an ice diver’s primary breathing
ice thickness and water depth. If conditions are satisfacto- system, the diver should switch to the backup system, noti-
ry, the area around the site should be cleared of snow and fying the buddy diver, and proceed immediately to the sur-
the size of the entry hole determined. A hole three by five face with the buddy diver. Because buddy breathing is
ft. (0.9 by 1.5 m) allows three fully dressed divers to be difficult in cold water, all divers should practice buddy
accommodated at one time. If no shelter is used, a trian- breathing before making excursions under the ice. Octopus
gle-shaped hole works best. regulators should not be used in cold water as substitutes
In all diving operations under ice, there should be for buddy breathing because the first stage of these regula-
one surface tender for each diver and at least one standby tors may freeze up. Special cylinder, valve, and regulator
diver (see Figure 12.13). While the diver is in the water, options are readily available and provide alternate buddy
the tender must be attentive both to the diver and to the breathing options. Refer to Section 12.10 for additional tips
surface conditions, such as deteriorating weather, or on limited-access diving techniques.
moving ice. Tenders should be briefed on the diver’s If a diver’s exposure suit tears or floods, the diver
tasks, so that they will understand the diver’s movements should surface immediately, regardless of the degree of
and be able to respond quickly in an emergency. A safety flooding, because the chilling effects of frigid water can

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-23

cause thermal shock within minutes. Surface-supplied div- entangled, it is important to remember that kelp is designed to
ing is becoming more popular in under-ice operations withstand the pulling forces of wind, wave, and currents and,
because it eliminates the need for safety lines, navigation consequently, the tensile or stretching strength of the plant is
lights, and provides unlimited air. The full-face masks or very great. Divers wishing to break a strand of kelp should
helmets of most surface-supplied diving systems provide fold it to develop a sharp angle in the stipe. Nicking the kelp
additional protection for the diver’s face and also provide with a sharp object will separate the kelp easily; however, cau-
the capability for diver-to-diver and diver-to-surface com- tion must be exercised when using sharp objects such as
munication. These added features must be weighed care- knives to avoid inadvertently cutting other critical equipment
fully against the burden of added logistical support items. The easiest way to get free is to remain calm and to pull
required to support surface-supplied diving. Using dry suits the strands away carefully with a minimum of movement.
and new thermal underwear now available, the surface- When working from a boat, it is best to anchor in an
supplied diver can spend long periods under the ice in rela- opening so that the wind or current will drift the boat back
tive safety and comfort. on the anchor line to a second opening in the kelp. Divers
If an ice dive operation is scheduled to last for more may also anchor outside the kelp and swim in to do their
than one to two days, a tent or shed should be constructed work. If the boat is anchored in the kelp, the anchor will be
over the entry hole (see Figure 12.13). Such a shelter will full of kelp that must later be removed.
protect both surface-support personnel and divers from the Training in kelp diving is necessary to master entry
wind and, together with a small portable heater, can pro- and exit skills. Entry through the kelp is best accom-
vide relative comfort in the severest of diving conditions. plished by finding a thin area and making a feet-first, feet-
together entry, rather than a headfirst, or backroll entry
12.12 KELP DIVING that could easily lead to entanglement. It is important to
Kelp is found in dense beds along many of the colder get through the canopy and into the open water between
and temperate coasts of the world. In the United States, the stipes. Once through the surface canopy, the diver can
these plants are found along the shore regions of the west swim with comfort in the forest-like environment. As the
coast. Kelp beds or forests are widely diversified, both diver swims along, it is important to watch for the light
geographically and as a function of depth and tempera- areas that signal the thinner areas of the kelp bed. Surfac-
ture. Different varieties grow in different zones and sup- ing slowly permits a diver’s exhaust bubbles to assist in
port an incredible variety of sea life. Kelp will attach itself making an opening. When the diver approaches the sur-
to practically any substrate (i.e., rock, concrete, steel, face, the arms should be raised over head so that any kelp
wreckage, etc.) and will often form a tree-like structure, that may be encountered may be moved to the side easily
the base of which is a rootlike holdfast that provides a as the diver moves upward into the hole that has been
secure anchor and a home for many organisms. Hollow opened. Once on the surface, the diver should stay in the
floats or pneumatocysts are found at the base of the vertical position and should not turn around; this helps
blades and fronds on many of the larger, longer kelp avoid entanglement.
plants. These floats cause the fronds to float up and keep The diver who wishes to travel on the surface of a
the stipes relatively upright. The floating fronds form a kelp bed to get back to the shore or to the boat has several
canopy when they have grown sufficiently to reach the choices. If the diver is sufficiently skilled, it is easy to use a
surface. In many instances, this rapidly growing canopy series of breath-hold dives to move in steps to the desired
becomes very dense and can be several feet thick on and location. Each step requires the diver to surface through
near the surface. The canopy will usually have thin spots an opening in the kelp and to take a breath or two in
or openings located randomly throughout the area, and preparation for the next step. Another useful technique,
these thin spots or openings provide entry and exit points often called the Kelp Crawl, resembles the “Dog Paddle”
for divers. These thinner areas are easily seen from below and involves keeping the body on the surface above the
the surface because the light penetration is greater; in kelp canopy. This technique involves reaching across the
addition, as a diver positioned under such a light area kelp in an extended position and grasping the kelp. Using
exhales, the rising bubbles usually float the kelp outward a narrow flutter kick, the diver presses himself down as his
to form an opening that is sufficiently large to enable the body is pulled over the kelp canopy. It is important to pre-
diver to surface. Care should be exercised when the sent a streamlined surface to the kelp, since anything that
diver’s head is out of the water, because the kelp may extends out from the body will probably snag. Swim fins
float back and fill the hole surrounding the diver. with adjustable heel straps should have the loose end of
Although the kelp will not actually wrap itself around the the strap inside rather than outside of the buckle. Taping
diver, divers who twist around and struggle may become the loose end of a strap to the main portion of the strap is
entangled. also a good solution. Wearing a diving knife on the inside
Equipment that is not relatively streamlined can snag and of the calf rather than anywhere on the outside of the body
tangle in the kelp and cause problems. If the diver becomes is also a snag reducer. Kelp divers should remember that

12-24 NOAA Diving Manual

they want to move through or over the kelp in a stream- partially to the darkness. This will facilitate the detection
lined fashion and that inflated buoyancy compensators, of any surface light coming into the passageways and thus
game bags, and tools of all kinds should be organized to aid in the identification of possible exit paths.
present minimal interference. Because of depth, twin scuba cylinders, together with a
Divers should also remember that because kelp floats, pony bottle with a separate regulator, are recommended as
it may be used as flotation if needed. In windy conditions, standard wreck-diving equipment. In some instances, a
divers should approach a small boat from downwind to spare air supply and regulator should be placed outside the
avoid being pressed against the boat by the kelp and wreck. These precautions are necessary in case the diver
becoming entangled. becomes entangled, or if unplanned decompression is
Various forms of kelp may grow together so that the needed. During wreck diving, entanglement may be caused
taller kelp, such as Macrocystis, may be found growing over by objects such as monofilament fishing line, fish nets, col-
a forest of Pelagophycus (elk kelp). This second, lower lapsed bulkheads, overheads, or narrow spaces. The
canopy of kelp will further reduce the light level, but will amount of equipment carried by the diver should be kept to
be easier to swim through than the surface canopy. All kelp a minimum. As in other confined space environments,
beds are influenced by wind, currents, and surge, and gauges, lights, and other support items must be secured to
major beds may disappear from surface view in a swift cur- prevent snagging on obstacles, but readily available when
rent because they are held down at an angle. This has its needed. Although a diver inside a wreck may be tempted
advantages because the kelp will stream with the current to breathe in the air pockets produced by previous divers,
and thus may be used as a navigational aid during the dive. this practice should be avoided because the partial pressure
Achieving comfort and efficiency in kelp diving is the of oxygen in these pockets is usually quite low, and hydro-
result of training and practice. Having a buddy diver along gen sulfide may be present.
who is equally well trained is also extremely important. Diving dress should be appropriate for the ambient
temperature. In temperate conditions, dive skins or cover-
12.13 WRECK DIVING alls are recommended as protection from scratches, scrapes
Wreck diving subjects the diver to many of the same and/or stinging organisms. Extreme caution must be taken
hazards as those found in cave or ice diving (see Sections not to snag the suit or equipment on the sharp objects com-
12.9, 12.11). In the past 20 years, wreck diving has evolved monly found in wrecks, such as decayed wooden decks or
into an activity requiring both specialized equipment and corroded metal bulkheads; these are frequently overgrown
training, particularly in the case of deep-wreck diving. by algae, coral, barnacles, or other marine growth, and
Regardless of purpose (harvesting, artifact collecting, photog- may not be readily visible. Divers must not remove or dis-
raphy, or exploring), wreck diving may involve the diver turb historical artifacts unless authorized.
entering the wreck. The act of penetrating the enclosed space
of the wreck necessitates additional equipment and training. 12.14 NIGHT DIVING
Most intact wrecks are at depths in excess of 80 ft. Night diving exposes the diver to an entirely different
(24.4 m), because those in shallower water have been aspect of the underwater world. Marine life may be more
destroyed either by storms or removed by humans because or less abundant and appear to be different colors than is
they were navigational hazards. the case during the day. Areas that are familiar to the diver
After arriving on the bottom at the wreck site, the first during the day may appear changed to the extent that ori-
team of divers must check the anchor of the support boat entation and locating familiar landmarks may be difficult
for security and then ensure that the anchor line will not even with good artificial light. Accordingly, special precau-
chafe. The path into a wreck usually has fair to good visi- tions and extra planning are required for night dives.
bility. On the return trip, however, visibility may be Anchoring is especially critical at night. The boat must
reduced dramatically because the divers have stirred up silt be secure before the diver enters the water (except when
and ferrous oxide (rust) from the walls and exposed steel liveboating, in which case other steps are appropriate). It is
plates. The reduced visibility and the confusion and anxi- also important at night to have correct marking lights that
ety caused by the many passageways, entrances, chambers, are clearly visible to other vessels, in addition to a light the
bulkheads, and tight spaces require that wreck divers use a divers can see under water. A chemical light (cylume) or
penetration line such as a braided, 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) small strobe light attached to the anchor line or downline is
nylon line on a reel. The line should be tied off at the recommended.
wreck’s entrance, payed out during entry, and reeled in The boat should not be left unattended with personnel
during return. If the line is lost or cut, the diver should in the water. An operator should be onboard and able to
pause, allow the silt to settle, and regain his composure respond to an emergency immediately. Predive checks are
before attempting to return to the surface. Placing the particularly important at night, because the limited visibili-
faceplate of the underwater light into the silt will reduce ty precludes even a cursory inspection of equipment once
the ambient light level and allow the diver’s eyes to adapt in the water. Night diving in fog or heavy rain should be

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-25

avoided because it is easy for the diver to lose sight of the members must be able to anticipate the actions of other
lights on the dive boat or those carried by other divers. divers without being able to observe them.
Each diver should carry a reliable diving light with a
charge sufficient to last longer than the time anticipated for Dive
the dive. A second light is advisable, because light failure is Safety: The decision whether to use a lifeline to the
common. The light should be secured to the diver in a man- surface will depend on the circumstances. A lifeline can be
ner that permits the illumination of watches, gauges, or very effective for scientific diving at night. It gives the
navigational aids. A chemical light should be taped to the diver a psychological boost and, more importantly, it gives
snorkel or cylinder valve for underwater and surface visibili- him a line of communication with topside. In the event of
ty, in case the dive lights fail. The entire night-dive team difficulties, it gives support personnel a direct route to the
should be careful to maintain dark adaptation before and diver.
during the dive. Every effort should be made to avoid shin- Light: Many divers are surprised, the first time they
ing diving lights directly into the eyes of fellow divers or dive at night, at the amount of light under water. The
crew members, both before and during the dive. Once in moon and stars are the main source of this light and, once
the water, it is easy to keep track of a buddy’s light at night; the diver has obtained night vision, visibility can be quite
however, one diver may occasionally lose another because good without artificial light. Despite the possibility of good
the glare of the light being held prevents seeing the buddy’s underwater vision, each diver must still carry at least one
light. In this case, the divers should turn off or otherwise underwater light. Good quality, lightweight underwater
shield their lights momentarily, adjust their eyes, locate the lights are readily available. Excellent emergency lights are
buddy’s light, and then immediately turn their lights back the chemical “Cyalume®” or “cool lite” light stick, as well
on. as battery-powered lights. These work equally well under
If a team is left with only one light, the dive should be water and topside, and are unaffected by pressure at least
terminated. Lights may also be used to signal the surface; to 165 ft. (50.3 m) depth.
sweeping the light in a wide arc over the head is the stan-
dard “pick me up” signal. At night, a whistle or chemical Postdive
flare should also be carried in case of light failure. Safety: Locating and recovering divers at night is not
Shore entries are more hazardous at night because always easy. Extra care should be taken, especially if
such features as rocks, algae, holes, waves, and rip currents decompression is involved. Thought should be given to
are not easily seen. Entries from boats, piers, and other sur- rehearsing diver-recovery procedures during the day.
face platforms require special caution so that the diver Clothing: Adequate windproof protection should be
avoids hitting objects on or below the surface. available for divers leaving the water to keep the chill away
If a shore exit requires a particular approach because and to allow them to continue participating in the scientific
of in-water obstacles, two shore lights in a line can serve as aspects of the project.
a navigational aid for divers. When possible, experienced
night divers should be buddied with novice night divers. NOTE
Making the entry at dusk rather than at night reduces some Decompression diving is more hazardous at night
of the problems of night diving. Whenever possible, the than during the day and should be avoided. To be
area to be dived by night should first be dived by day to conducted safely, night decompression dives need
provide the divers with entry and exit experience. considerable advance planning.

Predive In night decompression diving, lights marking the

Lights: Adequate light should be available for the sur- decompression line are necessary to ensure that the divers
face team to safely achieve their objectives. Lights carried conduct their in-water decompression near the dive boat or
by the divers and lights used to mark entry and exit points, other platform. Divers operating in a decompression mode
provide position and range, and mark the surface cover should not swim out of sight of lines or lights that will guide
boat. When using flashlights, avoid shining them around as them back to the decompression line and dive platform.
it upsets night vision. Be sure that lights used in the course
of the dive are not confused with navigational markers. 12.15 DIVING IN DAMS AND RESERVOIRS
Markers: Jack stays, marker panels, and guides should Hydroelectric dams across rivers in the northwest Unit-
be rigged to aid the diver in complex situations. For less ed States incorporate bypass and collection systems for the
complicated operations, a simple shot-line or mainline protection of migrating fish species such as salmon and steel-
leading directly to the site will often suffice. head trout (see Figure 12.14). Because fish-passage research
Briefing: The diving team should be briefed thoroughly is conducted at many of these dams, NOAA and other sci-
on the task, including routes to and from the site, leaving entist/divers are often required to inspect, maintain, install,
and entering diving platforms, and safety procedures. Brief- or retrieve research gear such as flow meters, and fish-guid-
ing is more important than on day dives as the dive-team ance and passage devices. If time and circumstances permit,

12-26 NOAA Diving Manual

 FIGURE 12.14
Cross Section of a Typical Hydroelectric Dam

a shutdown and de-watering of turbine intakes, gatewells, Depth is always a primary factor in diving and clearly
and fish ladders is the safest and most efficient manner for must be considered when diving in and around dams.
performing work on dam bypass and collection facilities. Depending on where the dives are to be performed at dams,
However, safe and efficient diving operations can be per- depths can vary greatly and can be quite deep.
formed within and on the upstream and downstream faces Water temperatures may vary from slightly above
of dams, even when these are still operating. The agency freezing in winter to almost 80ºF (27C) in summer. Divers
operating the dam typically supplies a diving inspector to should be protected from the elements before diving and
coordinate such dives, because strict coordination between during surface intervals in both warm and cold seasons,
divers and the powerhouse operations staff is mandatory to because of the potential for heat exhaustion or hypother-
ensure proper clearances for turbine shutdown and flow-gate mia. Most research diving at dams occurs during the spring
closures. overflow when rivers swell from rains and melting snow
and fish migrations occur. The spring runoff produces low
12.15.1 Diving at Dams underwater visibility, i.e., 0 – 2 ft. (0 – 0.6 m), from silt car-
The safety aspects of diving at dams are comparable ried by flooding waters. In warmer months, algae blooms
to those involved in cave, wreck, and over-bottom diving, may also cause low underwater visibility. Even in clear
and many of the same procedures are used in dam diving. water, the sediment disturbed by divers reduces visibility so
Predive planning by the dive team with dam personnel that the small amount of natural light penetrating the
will help ensure a safe diving operation. If such operations gatewells is reduced. Although diving lights are only mini-
are undertaken at altitudes in excess of 300 feet for dives mally effective, the problems associated with low visibility
deeper than 145 fsw (actual depth) or 1,000 feet for all at dams can be overcome by careful planning, studies of the
dives, special altitude diving procedures must be institut- blueprints and plans of the dam, and familiarization with
ed. the research devices to be used during the dive. Objects can
Four major conditions must be considered when plan- be recognized by touch and orientation can be maintained,
ning dives at dams are: even in zero underwater visibility, if the diver is familiar
both with the gear and with the dam’s structures. The veloc-
1. Depth ity of the flow and the force of the suction through screens
2. Water temperature or orifices at dams can be eliminated or controlled by coor-
3. Visibility dinating the diver’s actions carefully with dam-operations
4. Flow velocities personnel before the dive.

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-27

 When bypass systems become fouled or clogged by river or through large rectangular orifices located at the base of
debris, divers sometimes are required to enter dam gatewells the baffle wall. When diving in pools between baffle walls,
to clear the system’s orifices. The hazards of gatewell diving flows as high as 8 feet per second (fps) (2.4 mps) may be
can be reduced by taking adequate precautions to ensure encountered in areas directly in line with the orifices, but
that the influence of suction, caused by the large hydrostatic may be as low as 1 fps (0.3 mps) to either side or above the
head, is avoided at the orifice. Diving procedures are much line of the orifice. By using safety lines and exercising cau-
the same as those for umbilical diving, whether the diver is tion, diving tasks may be performed in much the same man-
using surface-supplied air or scuba cylinders. At a mini- ner as they are conducted when diving amid pools and
mum, a tender line to the diver should be used for contact boulders in rivers with relatively fast currents.
and signals, although hardwire communication is preferred.
A diver cage should be provided to transport the diver to WARNING
and from the orifice level and the intake deck of the dam, WHEN DIVING TASKS MUST BE PERFORMED ON
and a safety diver is required. Figure 12.15 shows a diver THE UPSTREAM FACE OF A DAM, TURBINES
ready to be lowered into a dam gatewell. Procedures to shut AND/OR SPILLWAY GATES MUST BE SHUT DOWN.
down the bypass system immediately, in the event of an
emergency, should be coordinated with the dam-operations
controller, before the dive. Adjacent units should also be shut down for safety and
Work on fish ladders (see Figure 12.16) should be per- to reduce flows near a work station. Divers can be trans-
formed during off-season when the number of upstream ported to and from the level of work and to the intake deck
adult fish runs is low and the water flows can be cut off for a of the dam by means of a diver cage and crane. A boat or
period of time, which permits the task to be completed in the floating platform is also useful for the standby diver and
open air. On rare occasions, this is impractical and diving is equipment. Diving on the downstream face of a dam is
the only way to complete the task. Flows in fish ladders handled similarly; flows are shut off to avoid sweeping the
appear quite turbulent when viewed from above; however, diver downstream.
baffles or weir walls are regularly spaced perpendicular to Divers should avoid water contaminants, such as
the flow, and the water flows either over the top of each weir spilled petroleum or lubrication products used in the

FIGURE 12.15
Line-Tended Diver Lowered into Dam Gatewell FIGURE 12.16
Fish Ladder

12-28 NOAA Diving Manual

routine operation and maintenance of dams, or the pump. Loose lines, hoses, straps, cylinder pressure
gaseous by-products generated by underwater cutting gauges, and other gear should not be used or should be
and welding. These contaminants can become concen- well secured to avoid being sucked into unscreened
trated in confined areas such as gatewells, where the pumps or wound around impeller shafts. Because of the
water level may be 15 – 20 ft. (4.6 – 6.1 m) below the need for mobility in and around a pump site, a buddy
deck of the dam. Before starting or continuing a dive, team with scuba gear is the preferred method of diving
any contaminant discovered should be eliminated from at pump intakes. Low underwater visibility, ranging
the dive site. from 0 – 6 ft. (0 – 1.8 m), is found in the lower Columbia
and Snake rivers, and this distance increases to 15 ft.
12.15.2 Diving at Water Withdrawal and Pumping Sites (4.6 m) in the upper Columbia River. If large pumps are
The impact of water withdrawal on populations of operating and the visibility is exceptionally low, the dive
juvenile fish in the Columbia Basin of the northwest Unit- should be aborted.
ed States is a major concern to fisheries agencies. Water is Divers should enter the water carefully feet first,
withdrawn from the Columbia and Snake rivers via pumps because pump sites are notorious for the presence of debris,
and siphons, and is then used for irrigation, industrial rocks, snags, and pieces of sharp metal, all of which pre-
applications, drinking water, thermal cooling, fish and sent a hazard to divers, their suits, and any loose equip-
wildlife propagation, and other domestic needs. Before ment. In addition, because there is less scuba diving
water can be withdrawn from these rivers, the U.S. Army activity in inland waters than in oceans, inland boaters
Corps of Engineers requires that those seeking permits to tend to be less familiar with “diver down” signal flags and
install and operate water withdrawals must install fish-pro- their meaning. Pump-site divers should descend and
tective facilities. Periodically, divers are required to inspect ascend close to the pump-site structure or the shoreline.
fish screens at water-withdrawal sites to monitor the condi- Surface personnel should watch for boating traffic and hail
tion of the screening and the status of compliance with it with a loudspeaker to inform boaters that divers are oper-
established screening criteria. ating under water.
Several basic types of water-withdrawal sites are
common: 12.16 RIVER DIVING
Rivers throughout the world vary in size, turbidity,
• A vault-like structure with a screened underwater and in the terrain through which they flow; diving condi-
opening; some vault-like structures may have trash- tions vary with the river. Any river should be studied
rack bars in front of the fish screening thoroughly and conditions known before the dive is
• A pier-like structure set out from the shoreline that planned. Current velocities vary across a river. Near the
supports turbine pumps inner bank of a meander the water can be almost slack,
• A combination pier/vault created by closing in the whereas on the outer bank, water flow can be very rapid.
area under a pier with driven sheet piling or other Lateral turbid water shear zones occur. Log jams may be
material a hazard, as are submerged objects such as sharp rocks,
• A simple arrangement of a pump or siphon with a trees, limbs, old cars, barbed wire, and the ever-present
single intake line extending below the low-water ele- monofilament fishing lines, nets, and lures. Rapids or
vation steep profiles are hazardous because a diver may be
slammed against a rock or other submerged object and
A stable work boat serves as the best diving platform sustain serious injury or be held by the current.
for accessing most withdrawal sites. Some sites with River diving has a number of special aspects for which
enclosed fish screens must be accessed by ladder or small the diver should be prepared. For example, divers who grab
crane. For such a diving task, weight belts, masks, and fins the bottom to stop and look at an object should hold their
are lowered by lines to the divers once they are in the face masks to prevent them from being torn off by the cur-
water; this procedure is reversed after the dive. rent. Divers should be aware that more weights are required
Diving in and around pump intakes can be per- when diving in currents than in quiescent water, and they
formed safely if certain hazards are recognized and the should plan their dives accordingly. Where there is consid-
necessary precautions are taken. In general, intake erable surface current, diving in large holes may be done
velocities are not high enough to present a suction haz- by dropping directly to the bottom. At some distance
ard, although pumps should be shut down, if possible. below the surface, the diver may be surprised to find either
To perform an inspection during the pumping season, no current or one flowing slightly toward the head of the
however, the approach velocities may have to be mea- hole. Divers should also remember when working with
sured while the pumps are operating. Surface-supplied lines, tethers, or umbilicals in any type of current that the
equipment should only be used when diving on sites drag on these lines greatly hampers a diver’s ability to trav-
with operating pumps, when the tender or another diver el and may carry the diver to the surface. They also create
can tend the umbilical or line to keep them away from an entanglement hazard.

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-29

 In a swift river current, entering the water can be diffi- A. Closeup View of a Creeper
cult. One technique is to attach a line about 20 ft. (6.1 m)
long to the anchor with a handle (similar to those used by
water skiers) on the other end. The divers can grasp the han-
dle and descend by making appropriate changes in body posi-
tion, which lets the current do most of the work. Descent can
also be made by using the anchor line, but this requires con-
siderably more effort. Divers always need something to hold
onto because of the difficulty of moving across the bottom in
fast currents. One helpful device is shown in Figure 12.17
(Gale 1977). This device, referred to as a creeper, is used by
lifting and moving the corners forward at alternate turns, as
shown; it can also serve as a diver’s anchor. Large rocks or
sharp drop-offs along river bottoms may create enough turbu-
lence downstream to disorient a diver. In such a situation,
the diver should move hand-over-hand along the bottom, or
use a creeper, because the current is less on the bottom. This
B. Creeper in Use
technique can be used even on sand or gravel bottoms.
Another difficulty sometimes encountered in fast-flow-
ing streams or rivers is the blocking of light by bubbles. In or
under white water, it may be almost dark. Rivers carrying
large amounts of sediment, either normally or as a result of
recent rains, are also extremely dark. Using underwater
lights is not much help in turbid waters because the light is
reflected or blocked by the particles suspended in the water.
When working in rivers where the waters are reasonably
clear, but the bottom is easily stirred up, divers should work
upstream against the flow. Any sediment that is disturbed
will flow downstream, away from the direction of travel,
which allows the diver to work in much greater visibility.
River diving near low-headed dams presents additional
hazards because the hydraulic action created by such dams
creates currents with the potential to pull boats and swimmers
back toward the dam from downstream. River divers who are
required to work without lines in waters near low-head dams,
waterfalls, or rapids with significant dropoffs should work on FIGURE 12.17
the bottom and stay as clear of the affected area as possible. Creeper

12.17 DIVING FROM A SHIP

As in all diving operations, diving from a large ship
requires comprehensive planning before the dive or series initiated and maintained so that the intent of the diving
of dives. Because operating a ship represents a significant operations is well understood and can be carried out as
investment, all logistical factors involving personnel, safely as possible.
equipment, weather, etc., should be thoroughly considered It is highly desirable for the captain to have prior
in dive planning. knowledge of diving techniques and procedures, although
this may not always be the case. When diving from a ship,
NOTE the following personnel requirements should be considered
When diving from NOAA ships and the ship is being before beginning a cruise.
used as a surface-support diving platform, the shipÕs Divemaster: Divemasters are responsible for all aspects
captain has the final decision in any matter pertaining of the diving operation. They schedule all dives, designate
to the vessel; however, the divemaster has the final divers, and dive teams. They discuss the operational neces-
decision in matters concerning diving. sities with the captain and, as required, work as a diver
under the supervision of a temporary dive master.
12.17.1 Personnel Science Coordinator: In conjunction with the divemas-
It is imperative that close communication between the ter and the captain, the science coordinator formulates and
divemaster, the captain, and the science coordinator be ensures that the scientific goals of the diving mission are

12-30 NOAA Diving Manual

achieved. On a regular basis throughout the cruise, these remoteness of the dive location, a portable double-lock
goals are re-evaluated and, when necessary, revised. chamber may need to be located at the immediate dive site.

12.17.2 Use and Storage of Diving and Related NOTE

Equipment Dives conducted in remote areas without any
A suitable diving locker should be designated and used recompression capability should closely adhere to
for storing diving equipment. The designated area should conservative profiles.
be clean, well ventilated, adequate in size, and equipped so
that diving equipment can be hung up to dry. The diving
locker should be kept locked when not in use, and the key Safe execution of the dive depends upon the proper
should be kept with the divemaster. handling of the mother ship before, during, and after the
During predive planning, the stock of backup diving dive (Coale, Michaels, and Pinto, as cited in Heine 1985).
gear should be assessed. Equipment easily lost, such as Typically, any object remaining in one place for a period
knives, weight belts, etc., should be stocked in excess so of time, such as sediment trap arrays, productivity arrays,
divers can be re-equipped quickly. Spare replacements for or ships, will attract sharks. For this reason, open-ocean
critical life-support items such as regulators should be diving near such objects is not recommended. The bridge
available on board. and the mess-deck personnel should be instructed to
Air compressors play an important role in a shipboard refrain from dumping garbage or pumping bilges in the
diving operation. The compressor should be positioned vicinity of the dive; fishing is also not permitted near the
with intake toward the bow of the ship, which will swing site. If the ship has been on station for some time before
into the wind while at anchor, away from engine exhausts initiation of a dive, the ship should steam away from the
of main, auxiliary, and/or any other engines. In addition, station for a distance of at least 5 miles (8 km) so that the
compressor intakes must be free of fume contamination boat can be launched in cleaner water. To minimize the
from paint lockers, gasoline, solvents, and preservatives sonic attraction of sharks to the divers, the mother ship
being used by scientists. should be instructed not to come closer than 1/2 mile (0.8
Cool running of the compressor requires good ventila- km) to the dive location.
tion; in hot climates, the compressor should be run at night.
Oil-lubricated compressors should have some type of 12.17.4 Diving While Under Way
oil/water separator built into the system. It is also desirable Divers may occasionally be required to make underwa-
to have a filtration system column that eliminates CO, CO2, ter observations on towed equipment or instruments that
hydrocarbons, oil, water, and other contaminants, in accor- can not be made from a stationary platform or the surface.
dance with breathing air specifications. All NOAA diving Because this type of operation is inherently more dangerous
air compressors are tested for air quality every six months. than other diving operations, only divers trained in the
unique aspects of diving under tow should participate.
12.17.3 Safety Considerations The safest way to dive on towed systems is with the
When a large ship is selected for a diving platform, it is use of a small dive-support boat. The boat is loaded with
generally because the diving must be conducted at a con- equipment and personnel and separated from the towing
siderable distance from shore or in a remote region. When vessel before the start of the tow. After the system is
the distance is beyond the range of rapid emergency assis- deployed, the small boat moves the divers in position to
tance or transport, the divemaster should have preplanned enter ahead of the towing cable. The divers, after enter-
procedures for prompt, adequate treatment onboard ship ing, should take a position to either side of the projected
and, when necessary, evacuation to a destination where path of the approaching cable and submerge as it nears.
further treatment can be obtained. They should drift back and maintain visual or hand con-
The divemaster should contact all sources of emer- tact with the cable until the equipment is reached. The
gency assistance and rapid transport close to the dive site small boat should take a position behind and just to the
and should determine the round-trip range of emergency side of the towed system where the operator can maintain
transport vehicles, including distances and times from a watch for exhaled bubbles, signal floats, and surfacing
shore to the dive site and back to the nearest recompression divers.
chamber. On cruises out of the rapid emergency assistance Another way to make this type of dive is to enter from
or transport range, especially where decompression or the towing vessel. It is essential that great care be taken
repetitive diving is scheduled, a recompression chamber when entering from a moving ship. A spot should be
and trained, qualified chamber personnel should be selected on the side of the ship well aft and, if possible, aft
onboard the ship. The possibility of decompression sick- of the ship’s propeller(s). The diver should never enter the
ness, gas embolism, or an emergency free ascent requiring water directly off the stern, because the propeller(s) and the
immediate surface recompression cannot be discounted. ship’s movement through the water cause turbulence that
Depending on the complexity of the dive operation and could result in diver disorientation or equipment problems.

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-31

 A step-out, feet-first entry is recommended from a of a passing wave. A depth gauge that is clearly visible to the
moving ship. This allows the diver to achieve maximum sled pilot must be attached to the sled, so that he can maintain
distance from the side of the ship. Extra caution should be depth or make necessary depth changes slowly. The dive sled
exercised when entering from a deck that is high off the also facilitates the use of a hard-wire communication system
water. Divers should enter the water in succession; the between divers and the surface, which can increase the safety
interval between entries should be long enough to avoid and efficiency of some trawl diving operations.
diver collisions but short enough to prevent the divers from By using separate tow lines, divers can observe small
being too widely separated in the water. The diver support trawls and other moving gear without direct contact, which
boat should take the same position as mentioned above might affect the system. A dive sled can also be used for
and stand by to assist and pick up the divers. this purpose and, with the addition of a water shield (coun-
Diving within the influence of a trawl or other devices terpart to a windshield on land), will provide more protec-
towed from vessels under way is hazardous. The hazards tion and less work for the divers.
include entrapment within the net, fouling, and being Divers making observations while hanging directly
forced against bottom obstructions. If the device is moving onto the trawl can move to different parts of the trawl by
slowly, 1.5 knots (0.8 m/s) or less, the diver may be able to pulling themselves hand-over-hand. However, trawls with
swim along side for short periods. At speeds up to 3 knots a stretched mesh size of 2 inches (5 cm) or less are difficult
(1.5 m/s), divers may hold onto larger nets without seri- to hang onto and may necessitate the use of hand-held
ously distorting them. Both of these methods require the hooks to enable the diver to move about.
diver to be in good physical condition and trained in this Trawl divers must be alert to possible dangers in the
special form of research diving. Scientists who plan to dive path of a bottom trawl. Some underwater obstructions
near capturing systems should undertake special training may cause the trawl to stop momentarily and then to
dives that simulate conditions likely to be encountered. surge ahead with great force. Large objects may be lifted
The simplest way to reach the trawl is to descend on and carried into the path of the divers. If any of the
the towing cables (High 1967). This descent technique pro- diver’s extremities get ahead of the bottom trawl, the
vides a direct route to the net with minimum energy expen- diver is in imminent danger because severe injury would
diture. During the descent, care must be taken to avoid result from being pinned between parts of the net and an
jamming broken cable strands into the diver’s hand. Cau- obstruction.
tion must also be observed as divers approach the turbulent Jellyfish present a hazard to trawl divers and can seri-
water behind the otterboards, especially when the otter- ously reduce their ability to function safely under water.
boards are in contact with the bottom. Clouds of sediment When jellyfish are abundant, it is impossible for towed
stirred up by the otterboards can obscure portions of the divers to avoid contact with them. The problem increases
bridles between the otterboards and the net, so divers may when jellyfish are strained through the trawl’s webbing,
have to feel their way along the bridle. When visibility is which causes divers to be showered with hundreds of jelly-
good, 25 feet (7.6 m) or better, experienced divers can fish pieces. To avoid being stung, trawl divers must dress
swim inboard of the otterboards, just within the path of the in full-length suits, hoods, gloves, boots, and full-face
oncoming trawl, and wait for the bridles to clear the sedi- masks whenever large numbers of jellyfish are present.
ment cloud or for the net to appear. Hazards and diver difficulties increase if active nets or
Another way to get from the surface to the trawl is their components are moving at great speed. During the
with a dive sled (Wickham and Watson 1976). Divers are early retrieval of purse seines, the net components (web-
transported to the sled tow line by small boat. After enter- bing, purse-rings and purse-line) move slowly. Toward
ing the water, the sled pilot positions himself in alignment the end of the pursing and net retrieving sequence, howev-
with the control side of the sled; the dive buddy (passenger) er, these components move quickly through the water.
goes to the other side of the tow line and gives the pilot Under these conditions it is essential that there be an
about a 20 ft. (6 m) lead. They board by grabbing a control emergency signaling method and that the divers stay out
surface or the sled frame, trailing back, and sliding into of the bight of the line or the immediate path of the gear.
position. After boarding is complete, the pilot releases the In the event divers are carried into a trawl from
dive-control restraints and takes control of the sled. The which they cannot extricate themselves, they must cut an
divers descend to the trawl and, depending on the size of exit through the web. Since trawls usually have a heavier
the trawl or purpose of the dive, observe it from the sled or web in the aft portion (cod-end), an escape opening
land the sled on the trawl and tie it to the trawl webbing should be cut forward in the top of the trawl body. The
(see Figure 12.18). With the sled tied off, both divers can escape opening should be triangular in shape with the
move onto the trawl to conduct their work. At the end of apex pointing forward and the two sides, with 90 degrees
the dive, the divers reboard the sled, release the tie-downs, of separation, cut diagonally back about three ft. (0.9 m).
and ascend to the surface. Water flow will help to open the triangular webbing flap.
When using a dive sled, divers must be particularly care- The diver’s buddy should assist the trapped diver through
ful to maintain proper breathing techniques to prevent an the opening and be ready to free gear that snags in the
embolism from occurring if the sled suddenly rises as a result meshes.

12-32 NOAA Diving Manual

FIGURE 12.18
Divers on a Trawl

WARNING taut between points and then cutting the line. The tied end
DIVERS WORKING AROUND TRAWLS MUST will remain with the trawl until retrieval, when the line can
CARRY A SHARP KNIFE ATTACHED TO HIS BODY be removed and measured. To more accurately measure
SO THAT IT WILL NOT BECOME ENTANGLED. the horizontal spread of a trawl (distance from wing to wing
across the front opening), a marked stainless steel measur-
Vessel course and speed changes normally pose no ing cable is used. The cable is stretched across the mouth of
additional hazard to trawl divers. Often, changing speed the trawl, with one end attached to the first hanging on one
can be used as a simple signal between vessel personnel wing and the other end run through a small pulley attached
and divers. As speeds rise above 3 knots (1.5 m/s), divers to the first hanging on the opposite wing. The cable is
will have difficulty holding their mouthpieces in place and pulled taut across the net by one diver, while the other diver
keeping their face masks on. At higher speeds, they may records the spread measurement. Trawl vertical opening
lose their grip and be forced off the net. When stopped, (distance between the headrope and footrope) can be mea-
the net settles slowly, becoming slack gradually rather than sured with a measuring rod and short distance measure-
suddenly. In this situation, divers should be cautious of a ments can be made accurately with a fiberglass tape
sudden start which might entangle them in a line or web- measure.
bing. Divers working from a sled adjacent to the trawl
may be forced against it in a turn. Trawl divers must be [Link] Equipment for Diving While Under Way
trained so that they know where they are in relation to any Equipment used for diving on moving gear should be
part of the trawl, even when only a small portion of the net simple and streamlined for reduced drag. A primary consid-
is visible in turbid water. eration in gear selection and rigging for this type of diving is
To determine gear efficiency, it is necessary to measure that the gear should not have any incorporated or attached
trawls under tow. A number of measuring tools have been features that might become snagged or entangled in the
adapted or designed specifically for measuring trawls. The towed gear. Adjustable belts and straps should be snugly fit-
measuring tools selected for use when studying a trawl will ted so that buckles and snaps do not become a snagging
depend on trawl size and the degree of accuracy required. problem and the possibility of premature release is reduced.
An estimate of the distance between two points on a trawl To prevent cylinder loss in the case of a cylinder band com-
can be made by pulling low-stretch polypropylene twine ing undone as a result of gear entanglement, a lanyard is

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-33

attached between the cylinder and the back pack or buoyan- [Link] Communications for Diving While Under Way
cy compensator. Loose ends of fin straps should be inside of Trawl divers rely on standard hand signals plus a few
the strap, next to the ankle, to prevent the flopping strap or specialized signs to communicate with each other; but, com-
buckles from entangling in the towed gear. Wherever possi- munications with the surface, while necessary, are much
ble, straps that do not have to be adjusted for each dive more challenging than in other types of diving operations.
should be securely taped to prevent them from pulling out. Hard-wire communications can be established when a dive
Regulators with second-stage breathing resistance sled is used, but are nearly impossible to set up when divers
adjustments work best for diving under tow. Non- descend directly to the towed system. Wireless communica-
adjustable second stages often free-flow as a result of tion systems have improved over recent years and may be
increased water flow through ambient ports and increased applicable for some towed diver operations. Regardless of
pressure on the diaphragm. With an adjustable second whether other communication methods are used, simple
stage, the diver can adjust for the increased diaphragm color-coded float communications should be included on all
pressure without compromising breathing comfort. towed dives. At a minimum, there should be one color-
Because of the possibility of regulator mouthpiece coded float to signal an emergency and another to signal
damage or separation and the awkwardness of buddy divers ascending attached to the towed system. Additional
breathing under tow, an octopus second stage should be floats can be added to signal the vessel to make changes in
included as standard equipment for towed diving. Either speed, direction, system depth, etc. The vessel can commu-
an in-line octopus that attaches between the BC inflator nicate to the divers with changes in towing speed or course
and the low-pressure inflator hose or a combination octo- direction. It is absolutely essential that the response to an
pus/inflator works best. These alternate breathing systems emergency float signal be preplanned and understood by all
provide the towed diver easy access and reduced entangle- personnel engaged in the project.
ment potential over a separate octopus that might end up Towed divers can use a lift bag and reel as an ascent
dangling at the diver’s side. Because of the increased likeli- signal. This is advisable on deeper dives where a slow
hood of sand and debris entering into the towed diver’s ascent and a safety stop can create a large separation
octopus, a thorough cleaning, possibly including partial between divers and the towing vessel. The towed diver
disassembly, is recommended after diving. should also carry an acoustic signalling device attached in-
Other equipment and hoses should be securely line to their low-pressure inflator hose for signaling the
attached and stowed away. The diver’s gauge console diver support boat at the surface. Other surface signaling
should be easily accessible, but tucked away so that it does devices that may be necessary for some towed diving oper-
not become entangled when not being checked. If snorkels ations include signal flares, smoke canisters, signaling mir-
are deemed necessary, they should not be worn on the rors, and marker dye.
mask strap, but should be stowed in such a way that they
do not become an entanglement problem. 12.18 PINNACLE AND SEAMOUNT DIVING
The knife is a very important piece of safety equipment Pinnacles are ocean features found worldwide in both
for the towed diver especially when diving on trawls. coastal and oceanic situations. They are characterized by
Knife selection is partly dependent on intended use, but their relatively flat tops and steep sides. They include
should include a good cutting edge as the main selection rocks of both sedimentary and igneous origin, often pos-
criteria. Since stainless steel blades do not hold a sharp sessing coral heads of particular interest to physical and
edge well; a sharp serrated edge may better serve the pur- chemical oceanographers, geologists, and biologists. Their
pose. How the knife is attached to the diver is dependent isolated situations offer interesting community and genetic
on its size. Larger knives are worn on the diver’s calf and studies.
should be strapped to the inside of the calf to reduce entan- Steep sides, often rugged topography, and swirling cur-
glement problems. Smaller knives can be attached to the rents hinder anchoring or establishing a downline on pin-
forearm or to the BC where they may be more easily nacles. Care must be taken to ensure the anchor finds
accessed. A folding knife that can be stored away in the bottom and is not dragged over the edge.
sleeve of a wet suit or the accessory pocket of a BC is a In oceanic operations, divers can be swept from view
nice back-up to the primary knife. very quickly. Large ships tend to swing at anchor and are
Towed divers must have exposure suits with thermal generally unsuitable as a diving platform. Divers must be
qualities superior to those necessary for regular dives. tended from a small boat, and lookouts should be posted
Rapid movement through cold water will quickly chill on the larger vessel as currents increase the uncertainty of
divers, reducing their efficiency and exposing them to the where a diver will surface.
dangers of hypothermia. Dry suits are excellent for use in Water clarity in the vicinity of seamounts is usually
water temperatures below 60°F (16C); however, additional extremely good; however, judgment of depth can be decep-
drag on towed divers may preclude the use of these suits tive. To assist and maintain proper depth, the downline
when high mobility is desired. may be marked for depth reference.

12-34 NOAA Diving Manual

 Pinnacles, and particularly seamounts in deep water All equipment should be kept as simple as possible to
areas, usually attract sharks. Divers are advised to carry a reduce potential problems of breakdown and maintenance. If
shark billie, during open-ocean diving, and to exercise complex equipment is essential, the fullest possible inventory
extreme caution. of replacement parts and repair tools should be on hand, and
members of the team should be able to make the repairs.
12.19 DIVING IN REMOTE LOCATIONS In remote areas, backup medical, rescue, and recom-
AND ON COASTS OF DIFFICULT pression facilities are generally unavailable. Therefore,
the diving operation must be conducted with a unrelent-
ACCESS
ing concern for safety to ensure that these emergency ser-
A remote area is one where the population density and
vices will not be required. The risk and consequences of
boat traffic is so low that the occupant of a diving boat
decompression sickness (DCS), and the reduced availabil-
stranded away from the main base would have little chance
ity of therapy, are a vital consideration and dictate con-
of being picked up or receiving assistance of any kind.
servative diving practice. In order to respond effectively
Equally, a base camp is regarded as isolated when it would
to potential DCS incidents, detailed plans must be estab-
take days rather than hours to get an injured person to a
lished in advance. Prior to the commencement of any
medical treatment facility. Under these conditions, forward
remote diving operation, it is recommended that the
planning and anticipation of problems are of the utmost
emergency response plan be proven by a dry run to test
importance.
communications, transport availability, and every other
Even when a dive site is not remote from human habi-
aspect of the emergency procedures.
tation in a geographical sense, it may have difficult or lim-
Portable recompression facilities are desirable, but the
ited access from the landward side due to cliffs, dune
cost and logistics requirements may be prohibitive. In-
fields, desert, strong currents, or wave action. The main
water recompression therapy is not advisable. NOAA and
concern of a divemaster is the ability to deal with an emer-
the U.S. Navy have developed treatment tables and tech-
gency situation involving an injured diver. With difficult or
niques for in-water recompression with 100% oxygen. This
restricted landward access, a diving operation is usually
technique is only allowed under certain circumstances and
undertaken from the seaward side by boat. Should seaward
requires specific equipment and training. When diving
access be restricted as well, emergency planning must be
without recompression facilities, surface oxygen therapy
carried out in advance. Arrangements should be made in
for suspected DCS is advised.
advance with government agencies or private interests that
may provide logistical support in an emergency. Even in
very remote locations, radio, and/or satellite communica- 12.20 DIVING IN LOW AND
tion can be established with a diving-support center. ZERO VISIBILITY
A member of the team should have specific responsi- The diver’s ability to navigate accurately is reduced in
bility to ensure that the boats contain working flares, dye low-and zero-visibility conditions. There is a danger that
markers, a hand-held compass, survival packs, drinking the diver will, unknowingly, put himself in a hazardous
water, and other items as determined for the region and situation from which extrication will be difficult without
logistics. There should always be a stock of food on board. assistance from another diver or from the surface. Specimen
It is now standard operating procedure to include portable collecting in these conditions can also introduce hazards to
VHF radios, portable telephones, and a GPS on even the divers and their assistants (e.g., geologists with hammers,
smallest boats and inflatables. and biologists with nets or core samplers). The presence of
There should be at least two serviceable boats on the dive potentially dangerous marine animals can also increase
site, except when operating close to base. When operating a hazards in low-visibility situations.
single boat, a spare engine should be carried. For longer trips, In addition to the presence of a standby diver, it is recom-
two boats should travel in convoy. Radio contact should be mended that there be, instantly available, fully rigged emer-
maintained between boats and the base camp at predeter- gency breathing gear (i.e., scuba cylinder and regulator).
mined intervals, in addition to potential emergency calls. Divers may become fouled and are, thus, in danger of exhaust-
Keep within anchor depth wherever feasible, especially ing their air supply before they can be removed to safety.
when there is an off-shore wind or tide, and carry a sea Conservative planning relative to bottom time and air
anchor. When anchoring on reefs, remember that a fouled consumption should be considered. Lifelines are useful in
anchor is likely, and plan for enough spare diving time to quiet water, or where an unencumbered ascent can be
allow a diver to free the anchor. made. The presence of a shot line, sampling gear, and cur-
The inventory of medical supplies should be far more rents, all contribute to the risk of snagging the lifeline.
extensive than would normally be the case for a project in Divers must proceed with caution and maintain con-
an area less remote. At least one member of the team at tact with the lifeline. In extreme conditions, the lifeline
each dive site should be trained and qualified as a diver- may be surface-tended to permit signaling to and from the
medic (DMT). diver. In currents with poor bottom visibility, divers should

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-35

descend feet first on the downline during the bottom third ferent practices. This section specifically deals with diving
of the descent. The depth gauge must be monitored during in and around floating enclosures.
low-visibility ascent to ensure that the proper rate of ascent Floating enclosures are usually made from three types of
is not exceeded. A sharp knife must be carried on low-visi- material: sheet plastic (i.e., polythene, PVC); closely-woven
bility dives, and it should have a saw-tooth upper edge. material (i.e., plankton net, sail cloth); and fishing net. Usual-
Knives, as well as other hand tools, should be on a lan- ly, the sheet plastic and the closely-woven material are used
yard, so they will not be lost. for scientific experiments, while fishing net is used predomi-
Diver-held lights allow for precise aiming of light nantly in the manufacture of sea cages for aquaculture. Ideal-
beams. The type of light and the decision whether it should ly, the plastic and closely woven fabric enclosures will be
be held or mounted on a helmet or other equipment, should relatively rigid, fixed-volume systems, while the net enclo-
be left to the discretion of the personnel involved. Different sures are usually loosely constructed.
solutions will undoubtedly suit different divers, projects, The basic design of each system is comprised of a flota-
and conditions. Spot-point lights are just as useful in low tion collar, a container supported by the collar, and a moor-
visibility as they are at night. It is strongly recommended ing system. The flotation device varies according to the
that inexperienced personnel be trained in advance for low- design; in the larger systems, it usually doubles as a service
visibility conditions. Using a face mask darkened with platform. In this case, the flotation collar will be substantial
translucent plastic, a trainee can experience conditions that and reasonably stable. Moorings can be independent, but,
approximate low-visibility operations, while allowing for frequently, several enclosure systems are interconnected by
close supervision under normal daylight diving conditions. chain or rope, to a common anchor.
Diving in enclosures is usually associated with deploy-
12.21 NOXIOUS GAS IN BOTTOM WATER ment, maintenance, and dismantling. Entanglement and
Noxious gases such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, becoming trapped between adjacent systems are the particu-
and methane commonly occur in anoxic halos from con- lar dangers. A sharp knife with a serrated edge must be car-
centrations of fecal matter under fish cages and mussel ried, and should be worn on the forearm or the inside of the
rafts, as well as in areas of sewage settlement or low water leg. It is advisable for divers unfamiliar with the system to
flow. Hydrogen sulfide may be absorbed through the skin, initially dive with someone who is familiar with the system.
and can diffuse into a mask through the material. Divers should be fully briefed on the layout and design of
Although it has been recommended that divers wear full the system before entering the water. Since most enclosures
dry suits and positive-pressure masks when diving in the are supported from the surface, the diver often has to
vicinity of noxious gases, wet suit diving practices, with approach the equipment from below. Divers should be
extra postdive cleaning, have been found sufficient. Cau- aware that the escape route in an emergency may require a
tion should be exercised in taking samples of sediments or descent before heading for the surface.
water where dissolved noxious gases are suspected,
because, when these “de-gas” at atmospheric pressure, 12.22.2 Diving Around Enclosures
potentially significant volumes of explosive gas may be When diving around enclosures, becoming tangled in
expelled (see Chapter 13). the ropes and associated equipment is the greatest risk. Net-
ting, especially larger mesh material, can be especially dan-
12.22 ARTIFICIAL, EXPERIMENTAL, AND gerous, particularly when unsupported or otherwise loose.
UNUSUAL SITUATIONS When handling netting under water, extreme care must be
Increasingly, diving is being carried out in situations taken and the diver should always attempt to face the net-
that range from commercial/scientific (fish tanks, shellfish ting in order to minimize the risk of entangling the regulator
rafts, etc.) to the scientifically bizarre (e.g., studying algae yoke screw. This is probably the most vulnerable part of the
growth in nuclear-reactor cooling tanks). In addition to diving equipment and is the most inaccessible to an entan-
diving hazards generally associated with in-water struc- gled diver. Wearing a buoyancy compensator jacket with
tures, divers must be advised of potential contaminants cylinder attached (e.g., stab-jacket) is less safe than using a
associated with aquaculture pens and rafts. separate backpack that can be removed without having to
remove the buoyancy compensator. Where possible, it is
12.22.1 Fish Tanks, Cages, Farms, Shellfish Rafts, Diving advisable for one diver to stand off from the apparatus and
Within Bio-Rich Enclosures and Containers be ready to disentangle the buddy diver. Strong scissors or a
Large containers are being used with increasing fre- serrated knife should also be carried since they may be more
quency by scientists and fish farmers. While diving proce- effective than a sharp-edged knife for cutting slack netting.
dures in large, dammed impoundments and land-based The base of the enclosures often has heavy weights,
tanks should take into account the special recommenda- which serve to tension ropes, etc. The locations of these
tions for diving in confined spaces and culverts, many should be known and care should be exercised to avoid
enclosures deployed in open water require somewhat dif- cutting them free accidentally. When swimming beneath

12-36 NOAA Diving Manual

the entire system, the diver should ensure that there is aware of such a possibility, since the collapse tends to happen
plenty of clearance. Ropes held taut by such weights make without warning, particularly when the diver is working at
useful handholds for the diver and can be used in con- the base of the system. In such a situation, swimming is diffi-
trolled ascents and descents. cult, but escape is easy, either by hand hauling up the shot
With shifting wind, current, and often large numbers line, or by careful use of a buoyancy compensator, or inflat-
of fish in net cages, the irregular movement of the cage net, able dry suit. In an extreme situation, the diver should be pre-
and the shadow it casts can be disorienting to the divers. pared to cut an emergency exit through the enclosure wall.
Care must be taken to maintain an external point of refer-
ence, even if it is only a compass bearing. 12.22.4 Reactor Shielding Tanks
At the surface, it is often necessary to use diving Diving in reactor shielding tanks is only performed
equipment when servicing enclosures. These structures are after the reactor has been de-fueled, or prior to fueling a
most vulnerable to wave action, particularly at the point reactor, when there is no danger from excessive heat. Most
where flexible material is attached to a rigid framework. activities involve inspections and repair, and are mostly of
Before diving, an evaluation of the sea state must be made, a commercial diving operation.
and, where several enclosures are linked, care must be The only hazard is from residual radioactivity. Levels
taken to avoid being trapped between the floating support must be monitored continually using a dosimeter carried
structures. In some cases, a surface attendant should stand by the diver. A dipped dosimeter is often used in planning
by to prevent the units from coming too close together. the course of a dive, as it can be placed in positions that the
diver will occupy, thus permitting the radioactivity levels
12.22.3 Diving Within Enclosures of the dive to be measured. All diving is tethered, with a
Diving within enclosures is usually associated with surface attendant in constant voice communication.
repairs or the recovery of dropped equipment. It is inad- Many large, and some small, specialty diving compa-
visable to dive in enclosures narrower than two meters in nies contract this type of service. Scientists wishing to dive
diameter. It is usually impractical to dive in pairs within at these sites should consult with these companies. Ideally,
an enclosure, so a fully dressed standby diver should be a scientist should be able to operate in conjunction with the
ready to respond immediately. In an emergency, it is most company personnel in carrying out the scientific activities
likely that the diver can be freed from the enclosure by under the supervision of a commercial diving company.
cutting the material and escaping through the side of the These are not low-cost diving operations.
enclosure. Even in a normal situation, where no emer-
gency exists, the diver will still need assistance climbing 12.22.5 Oceanographic Engineering and Scientific Diving
out of the enclosure. Oceanographic engineering concerns the development
Normal live-tended protocols must be followed. In addi- of sensor systems and their supporting structures that are
tion to the diver’s own safety line, or preferably, the commu- used for observing and measuring oceanographic phenom-
nications cable, which should be held taut by the surface ena. Ocean scientists and engineers dive using many tech-
attendant, a weighted shot line should be used. Placed down niques common to open-ocean diving to acquire data, to
the center of the enclosure and tied to the support frame- observe, to document instrument-design criteria and per-
work, the shot line serves as a useful reference point and pro- formance, and to simplify and improve the safety of instru-
vides a means of effortless vertical movement for the diver. ment deployment and recovery. Diving has played an
It is frequently difficult and often undesirable to fin active role in the design, installation, or calibration stage of
actively within an enclosure. these oceanographic instruments.
It is possible to repair punctures in watertight enclosures At sea, oceanographic research and data collection are
by clamping the damaged sections between suitably sized now highly automated. In oceanographic research, surface
rigid plates or strips of wood. This will require divers both vessels deploy or tow multiparametric sensors to collect and
inside and outside the enclosure working together. Although analyze data in real time on ship-borne computers. Satellite
enclosure material is usually translucent to some degree, it is and remote-sensor techniques are also used to provide syn-
often difficult for the divers to locate each other on opposite optic pictures of the ocean surface characteristics. Fixed
sides of the enclosure. The best procedure requires the two installations, such as surface or subsurface buoy systems, as
divers making the repair to arrange to rendezvous at some well as drifting devices, drogues, and neutrally buoyant
point on the surface, and then to descend together to the floats, are used to collect ocean data over long periods.
damaged area, keeping in contact by touch through the flexi- In many cases, however, this equipment needs to be
ble wall of the enclosure. A buddy diver for the “outside” placed manually, monitored, or operated by divers who are
diver should stand off and watch the procedure. scientists familiar not only with the water mass, sea bot-
When watertight enclosures are damaged, they usually tom, or biota to  studied, but also familiar with the prin-
collapse. This can create difficulties for anyone diving inside ciples and methodology of the equipment.
the enclosure, since the airlift effect of the exhaust bubbles Divers have proved particularly useful and cost effec-
tends to draw material around the diver. It is important to be tive in deploying and servicing sensors attached to large

Diving Under Special Conditions 12-37

structures moored in open water, such as spar buoys, of lifting equipment by divers are also commonly necessary,
which can be several tens of meters long. In this case, the especially where other equipment is present in the water.
best technique is for divers to fix the measuring equipment The use of diving operations can remove the need for ship-
in the supporting structure on site, utilizing an adjustable board recovery and replacement of scientific equipment.
buoyancy apparatus to provide for “weightless” techniques. Sea deployment of bottom-mounted structures is fre-
Small, commercially available buoyancy compensators for quently required. Divers can observe descent, impact, and at-
light-weight instruments, and lifting bags for heavy objects, rest orientation characteristics of remotely-employed
are commonly used. However, weightless assembly tech- equipment during tests, often using cameras and video equip-
niques are sensitive to depth changes and are difficult for ment placed near rapidly descending apparatus. In order to
even experienced divers to control in operations where avoid potential injury to divers, these tests should be carried
heavy loads can have significant depth variation. Specially out only in excellent visibility, with perfect communication
constructed, automatic, constant-volume buoyancy compen- between divers and the surface. The direct observation of
sators have been developed to provide precise control and equipment placement can be used to improve deployment
better safety. Divers involved in these operations must have technique, and to allow prediction of the manner of place-
demonstrated excellent buoyancy control during training ment in deeper water, where direct observation is limited.
before attempting to handle oceanographic equipment under
water. Where it is necessary for divers to be untethered, a Additional References
safety diver with no other project responsibilities should be For information on extreme cold weather conditions and
positioned with an unobstructed view and tethered, similar the polar environment, refer to:
to an open-ocean diver, with sufficient lateral line to reach
any of the active divers. Signals or communications between • A Guide to Extreme Cold Weather Operations (Naval Safe-
the safety diver and the surface should be established before ty Center, July 1986)
the dive so that the safety diver can inform surface support • Polar Operations Manual S0300-A5-MAN-010 (Naval
personnel immediately of any emergency situation. Coastal Systems Center) (NCSC)
Subsurface buoys in shallow water also can be designed • Guide to Polar Diving (Office of Naval Research, June
to allow divers to check conditions of the measuring sys- 1976
tems under water, and recover and replace the data-acquisi- • UCT Artic Operation Manual NAVFAC P-992 (To
tion unit, or carry out servicing with a minimum obtain a copy of this manual, contact NCSC, Code
interruption of measurement recording. Precise operations 5110.)

12-38 NOAA Diving Manual

The NOAA Diving Manual was prepared jointly by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce and Best
Publishing Company.

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