ENGINEERING ETHICS
Comprehensive Study Notes
UNIT III & UNIT IV
Safety · Risk · Workplace Ethics · Globalization · Codes of Ethics
Academic Year 2025–26
Syllabus Overview
Unit Topics Covered
III Safety definition, Safety & risk, Risk analysis, Safe exit, Risk-benefit analysis, Challenger case
study, Power plants, Collegiality, Collective bargaining, Confidentiality, Conflict of interests,
Occupational crime, Human rights, Employee rights, Whistle blowing, Intellectual property rights
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IV Globalization, MNCs, Environmental ethics, Computer ethics, Weapons development, Engineers as
managers/consultants/expert witnesses/advisors, Moral leadership, Codes of ethics, Engineering
Council of India, Codes in Business Organizations
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UNIT III — Safety, Risk & Workplace Ethics
1. Safety — Definition & Concept
Safety is the condition of being protected from harm, danger, or risk. In engineering, safety refers to the design
and operation of systems such that the risk of harm to persons, property, or the environment is kept within
acceptable limits.
Key Definitions:
Absolute Safety A state where all risks are eliminated — theoretically impossible.
Relative Safety An acceptable level of risk determined by society, regulation, or engineering judgment.
Safe Design Designing products/systems so that hazards are eliminated or controlled at source.
Aspects of Safety:
• Physical safety — protection of life and health
• Environmental safety — protection of natural ecosystems
• Financial/operational safety — continuity of function
• Data/information safety — protection of sensitive data
2. Safety and Risk
Risk is the probability of an undesirable event occurring multiplied by the severity of its consequences.
Risk = Probability of Harm × Magnitude of Harm
Types of Risk:
• Voluntary Risk — risks accepted willingly (e.g., driving a car, extreme sports).
• Involuntary Risk — risks imposed without the person's consent (e.g., air pollution).
• Individual Risk — probability of harm to a specific person.
• Societal Risk — potential for large-scale or collective harm.
• Residual Risk — risk remaining after safety measures are applied.
Relationship between Safety and Risk:
Safety and risk exist on a spectrum. Increasing safety means reducing risk; no engineering system achieves
zero risk. Engineers must balance cost, practicality, and acceptable risk levels. Society's tolerance for risk
influences standards and regulations.
3. Risk Analysis
Risk analysis is the systematic process of identifying hazards, estimating the probability and severity of harm,
and determining acceptable risk levels.
Steps in Risk Analysis:
1. Hazard Identify all potential sources of harm (checklists, HAZOP, FMEA).
Identification
2. Exposure Determine who/what is exposed and to what extent.
Assessment
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3. Consequence Estimate the severity of harm if hazard is realised.
Analysis
4. Probability Estimate the likelihood of the hazardous event occurring.
Estimation
5. Risk Estimation Combine probability and consequence (Risk = P × C).
6. Risk Evaluation Compare estimated risk against acceptable criteria.
Tools Used in Risk Analysis:
• HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Study) — Identifies deviations from design intent.
• FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis) — Examines failure modes and their effects.
• Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) — Top-down deductive approach to failure.
• Event Tree Analysis (ETA) — Forward-looking analysis of event sequences.
• Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) — Numerical estimation of risk levels.
4. Assessment of Safety and Risk
Risk assessment combines risk analysis with value judgments about acceptability. It answers: Is this risk
acceptable? What must be done to reduce it?
ALARP Principle (As Low As Reasonably Practicable):
• Risks should be reduced until the cost of further reduction is grossly disproportionate to the benefit.
• Three zones: Unacceptable, ALARP (tolerable if managed), Broadly Acceptable.
Criteria for Acceptable Risk:
• Regulatory standards and legal requirements
• Industry codes and standards (ISO, ANSI, BIS)
• Comparison with background/societal risk
• Public perception and stakeholder input
5. Safe Exit
Safe Exit refers to the provision of safe and clear escape routes and procedures for people to leave a
hazardous area or situation in an emergency.
Engineering Applications:
• Emergency exit routes in buildings, aircraft, and ships.
• Emergency shutdown systems (ESD) in chemical plants and nuclear reactors.
• Failsafe mechanisms — systems that default to a safe state on failure.
• Evacuation planning and drills in industrial facilities.
Design Principles for Safe Exit:
• Multiple independent exit paths to avoid single points of failure.
• Clear signage, lighting, and communication systems.
• Exit routes free from obstruction at all times.
• Automatic triggering of alarms and shutdown procedures.
6. Risk-Benefit Analysis
Risk-benefit analysis is a method of weighing the potential risks of an action or technology against the expected
benefits to determine whether to proceed.
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Risks to Consider Benefits to Consider
Health and safety risks to users/workers Economic gains, employment creation
Environmental damage Social welfare and improved quality of life
Financial losses from failure Technological advancement
Reputational and legal liability National security and strategic value
Steps in Risk-Benefit Analysis:
• Identify all feasible alternatives.
• Estimate risks (probability × consequence) for each alternative.
• Identify and quantify benefits for each alternative.
• Compare net risk vs. net benefit.
• Make a decision, documenting the rationale.
7. Safety Lessons from 'The Challenger'
Background: On January 28, 1986, the Space Shuttle Challenger broke apart 73 seconds after launch, killing
all 7 crew members. The cause was the failure of O-ring seals in a solid rocket booster joint in cold weather.
Key Facts:
• Engineers at Morton Thiokol warned NASA about O-ring performance at low temperatures.
• Launch temperature was 36°F — far below the safe operating range of O-rings.
• Management overruled engineering concerns and approved the launch.
• The Rogers Commission investigation revealed systemic organisational failures.
Safety Lessons Learned:
1. Communication Technical warnings must flow freely upward without being suppressed by management
pressure.
2. Engineer's Duty Engineers have a professional obligation to insist on safety, even when management
disagrees.
3. Organisational A culture of 'groupthink' or normalisation of deviance can be fatal.
Culture
4. Risk Acceptance Repeated safe launches in suboptimal conditions must not be misread as proof of
safety.
5. Documentation Safety concerns must be formally documented and not overridden verbally.
6. Whistleblowing Engineers like Roger Boisjoly who raised concerns are moral exemplars.
Roger Boisjoly wrote a prescient internal memo warning of O-ring failure risk months before the disaster — he is
celebrated as an ethical exemplar in engineering.
8. Case Study: Power Plants
Power plants — whether thermal, nuclear, or renewable — present significant safety and risk management
challenges. Key case studies include:
Chernobyl (1986):
• A flawed reactor design and operator error caused an explosion and fire releasing radioactive material.
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• Lessons: need for fail-safe design, transparent reporting, proper operator training.
Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984):
• Methyl isocyanate gas leaked from Union Carbide plant, killing thousands.
• Lessons: importance of community right-to-know, maintenance of safety systems, corporate
accountability.
Fukushima Daiichi (2011):
• Earthquake and tsunami caused reactor meltdowns despite post-Chernobyl safety upgrades.
• Lessons: design for extreme scenarios, independent regulatory oversight, emergency preparedness.
General Safety Requirements for Power Plants:
• Multi-layer containment and redundancy in critical systems.
• Regular risk assessments and safety audits.
• Independent regulatory bodies with enforcement powers.
• Transparent reporting of incidents, near-misses, and anomalies.
9. Collegiality and Loyalty
Collegiality refers to the mutual respect, cooperation, and support among professional colleagues. It is a core
virtue in professional ethics.
Aspects of Collegiality:
• Sharing knowledge and expertise freely.
• Giving credit to others' contributions.
• Constructive peer review and critique.
• Mentoring junior colleagues.
• Collaborating rather than competing destructively.
Loyalty means faithfulness to employers, colleagues, and the profession. However, loyalty has limits — it does
not require engineers to follow unethical orders.
Types of Loyalty:
Agency Loyalty Serving an employer's legitimate interests faithfully.
Attitude Loyalty A genuine commitment to an organisation's mission and values.
Professional Commitment to the standards and ethics of the engineering profession.
Loyalty
When Loyalty Conflicts with Ethics:
Loyalty to an employer does not justify actions that harm the public, clients, or the environment. Professional
loyalty to ethical standards must take precedence over blind organisational loyalty.
10. Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining is the process by which employees negotiate with employers — through trade unions or
professional associations — regarding wages, working conditions, hours, and other employment terms.
Relevance to Engineers:
• Engineers are increasingly unionised in public sector roles (e.g., BHEL, ONGC).
• Collective bargaining protects engineers from arbitrary decisions on pay and conditions.
• Professional engineering associations may act as bargaining agents.
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Ethical Dimensions:
• Balancing individual freedom with collective solidarity.
• Ensuring safety and public welfare are not bargaining chips.
• Strike action by engineers raises special concerns when public safety is at risk.
11. Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the ethical and legal obligation to protect information shared in professional relationships from
disclosure to unauthorised parties.
Types of Confidential Information:
• Trade secrets, proprietary processes, and formulas.
• Client data, design specifications, and financial information.
• Personal data of employees and customers.
• Government and defence-related classified information.
When May Confidentiality be Broken?
• When disclosure is necessary to prevent serious harm to the public or individuals.
• When required by law or a court order.
• With the informed consent of the information owner.
• To protect the engineer's own legal rights.
Confidentiality vs. Public Safety: If an engineer discovers a serious safety defect, the obligation to protect
public safety may override confidentiality. This is a central tension in engineering ethics.
12. Conflict of Interests
A {B('conflict of interest')} arises when an engineer's personal interests (financial, personal, or professional)
could improperly influence their professional judgment and decisions.
Examples:
• An engineer approving a supplier where they hold shares.
• A consultant working for two competing firms simultaneously.
• An inspector certifying a family member's project.
• Accepting gifts or hospitality from contractors.
Managing Conflicts of Interest:
Disclosure Declare the conflict to all relevant parties immediately.
Recusal Remove yourself from the decision-making process.
Institutional Follow organisational codes and ethics policies.
Policies
Independent Assign the decision to an impartial third party.
Review
13. Occupational Crime
Occupational crime refers to illegal acts committed by individuals during the course of their professional duties
for personal gain. It is also called white-collar crime in professional settings.
Types Relevant to Engineering:
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• Fraud — Falsifying test results, safety certifications, or reports.
• Bribery & Corruption — Accepting payments to approve substandard work.
• Embezzlement — Misappropriating project funds.
• Intellectual Property Theft — Stealing proprietary designs or software.
• Price Fixing — Colluding with competitors to set artificial prices.
Prevention:
• Strong internal audit and compliance frameworks.
• Whistleblower protection mechanisms.
• Professional codes of ethics with enforcement.
• Criminal penalties under law.
14. Human Rights
Engineering activities must respect the fundamental {B('human rights')} of all persons — including the right to
life, health, a safe environment, and freedom from exploitation.
Key Human Rights Relevant to Engineering:
• Right to a safe and healthy working environment.
• Right to clean water, sanitation, and energy.
• Right to privacy (data protection in software engineering).
• Right to non-discrimination in hiring and promotion.
• Right to freedom from forced or child labour in supply chains.
UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2011): Companies and engineers must respect
human rights and remedy harms even when states fail to enforce them.
15. Employee Rights
Employee rights are the entitlements of workers in their employment relationship, protected by law, contract,
and professional ethics.
Key Employee Rights:
Right to Safe Work Work in conditions free from unnecessary hazards.
Right to Privacy Protection from unwarranted surveillance or disclosure of personal data.
Right to Fair Pay that is just, equitable, and non-discriminatory.
Compensation
Right to Participate Involvement in decisions affecting their work and safety.
Right to Organise Membership in unions or professional associations.
Right to Refuse Refuse work that poses immediate and serious danger.
Right to Due Fair procedures in disciplinary and dismissal matters.
Process
Engineer-Specific Considerations: Engineers should not be compelled to certify designs they believe are
unsafe. Professional integrity requires the right to dissent from unethical directives.
16. Whistleblowing
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Whistleblowing is the act of exposing wrongdoing, unethical conduct, or illegal activity within an organisation to
an internal authority or to the public/media.
Types of Whistleblowing:
Internal Reporting misconduct to a supervisor, ethics officer, or internal body.
External Reporting to a regulatory agency, professional body, or media.
Open Whistleblower identified by name.
Anonymous Identity concealed — more common but harder to investigate.
Justification for Whistleblowing (De George's Criteria):
• The harm to be prevented is serious and significant.
• All internal channels have been exhausted without success.
• The engineer has documented evidence of wrongdoing.
• Disclosure will actually prevent the harm.
• The harm outweighs personal and organisational risks.
Protection for Whistleblowers:
• India: Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2014.
• USA: Sarbanes-Oxley Act, False Claims Act.
• EU Whistleblower Protection Directive (2019).
Roger Boisjoly (Challenger) and Frank Serpico (NYPD) are classic whistleblower exemplars.
17. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Intellectual Property (IP) refers to creations of the mind — inventions, designs, literary works, symbols, names
— that are protected by law.
Types of Intellectual Property:
Type What it Protects Duration
Patent Inventions, processes, machines 20 years
Copyright Software, literature, art, music Author's life
+ 60 years
(India)
Trademark Brand names, logos, slogans 10 years,
renewable
Trade Secret Confidential business information Indefinite
(while
secret)
Industrial Aesthetic aspects of products 10–15 years
Design
Engineering & IPR:
• Engineers must not use patented technology without licence.
• Employer typically owns IP created during employment (check contract).
• Open source software has specific licensing obligations (GPL, MIT, Apache).
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• Plagiarism of designs or code is an ethical and legal violation.
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UNIT IV — Globalization, Ethics & Professional Roles
1. Globalization
Globalization is the process of increasing interconnection of economies, societies, cultures, and governance
systems across the world through trade, technology, and communication.
Dimensions of Globalization:
• Economic — Free trade, global supply chains, multinational corporations.
• Technological — Sharing of knowledge, R&D;, and innovation across borders.
• Cultural — Spread of values, norms, and practices.
• Environmental — Global commons (atmosphere, oceans) and shared ecological risks.
Ethical Issues in Globalization:
• Exploitation of cheap labour in developing countries.
• 'Race to the bottom' in environmental and safety regulations.
• Tax evasion by multinationals through offshore havens.
• Cultural imperialism — imposition of dominant cultures.
• Transfer of hazardous industries to countries with lax regulations.
Positive Aspects:
• Technology transfer and development of infrastructure in emerging economies.
• Increased access to global markets for local products.
• Raising living standards through economic growth.
2. Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
A Multinational Corporation (MNC) is an enterprise that controls production or service operations in more than
one country (e.g., GE, Siemens, Samsung, TCS).
Ethical Obligations of MNCs:
• Apply consistent safety and environmental standards in all countries of operation.
• Respect local laws, cultures, and human rights.
• Pay fair wages and avoid exploitative labour practices.
• Engage with local communities through corporate social responsibility (CSR).
• Be transparent and accountable in financial dealings.
Ethical Dilemmas for Engineers in MNCs:
• Should an engineer apply home-country safety standards when host-country standards are weaker?
• Should an engineer participate in a project that harms the local environment even if legal?
• How to handle bribery when it is culturally normalised in the host country?
Ethical Stance: Engineers should follow the higher of the two standards — host-country law or
home-country/international best practice — when they conflict.
3. Environmental Ethics
Environmental ethics is the branch of ethics that examines the moral relationship between humans and the
natural environment, and the obligations engineers and organisations have toward the ecosystem.
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Ethical Theories Applied to the Environment:
Anthropocentrism Nature has value only insofar as it benefits humans.
Biocentrism All living things have inherent moral value.
Ecocentrism Ecosystems and species have intrinsic value independent of human use.
Sustainable Meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
Development theirs (Brundtland, 1987).
Key Environmental Obligations of Engineers:
• Minimise pollution, waste, and resource consumption in designs.
• Conduct Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for major projects.
• Design for recyclability and end-of-life disposal.
• Comply with environmental laws (e.g., Environment Protection Act, 1986 in India).
• Report environmental violations, even under pressure not to.
Key Principles:
• Precautionary Principle — When an action risks environmental harm, precautionary measures should
be taken even if causation is not scientifically proven.
• Polluter Pays Principle — Those who pollute should bear the cost of remediation.
• Intergenerational Equity — Obligation to preserve resources for future generations.
4. Computer Ethics
Computer ethics is the study of ethical issues arising from the development and use of computer technology,
software, and information systems.
Core Issues in Computer Ethics:
Privacy Right to control personal data; issues of surveillance and data mining.
Intellectual Software piracy, open-source licensing, code ownership.
Property
Security Obligations to protect systems from hacking, malware, and data breaches.
Accuracy Responsibility to ensure software produces correct results (safety-critical systems).
Access Digital divide — ensuring equitable access to technology.
Freedom of Balancing expression with harm prevention online.
Speech
AI Ethics Algorithmic bias, autonomous decision-making, accountability of AI systems.
Professional Codes for Computing:
• ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.
• IEEE-CS/ACM Software Engineering Code of Ethics (1999).
• BCS (British Computer Society) Code of Conduct.
5. Weapons Development
Engineers working in defence and weapons development face unique ethical challenges, balancing national
security with humanitarian concerns.
Ethical Arguments FOR Weapons Development:
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• National security and defence are legitimate state functions.
• Deterrence can prevent larger-scale conflicts.
• Precision weapons may reduce collateral civilian casualties compared to older systems.
• Engineers who don't develop better weapons may cede the field to less ethical actors.
Ethical Arguments AGAINST:
• Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) threaten indiscriminate harm.
• Arms exports to authoritarian regimes enable human rights violations.
• Engineers bear moral responsibility for foreseeable harmful uses of their work.
• International humanitarian law (Geneva Conventions) prohibits certain weapons.
Ethical Stance: Engineers must refuse to participate in the development of weapons that violate international
law or are designed for mass civilian casualties. They should support transparency in arms exports.
6. Engineers as Managers
Many engineers move into management roles. This transition creates additional ethical responsibilities — both
toward employees they manage and toward the organisation.
Unique Responsibilities of Engineer-Managers:
• Making decisions that balance cost, schedule, and safety — not allowing commercial pressures to
override safety.
• Providing engineers under their supervision with conditions to perform ethical work.
• Representing technical realities accurately to non-technical senior management.
• Supporting whistleblowers rather than retaliating against them.
• Not directing engineers to violate professional codes of ethics.
Ethical Challenges:
• Pressure to cut corners on safety to meet deadlines.
• Performance appraisals that penalise ethical dissent.
• Divided loyalty between organisational goals and professional obligations.
7. Consulting Engineers
Consulting engineers provide independent professional engineering advice to clients for a fee. They owe
duties to clients, but also to the public and the profession.
Ethical Obligations of Consulting Engineers:
• Maintain independence of judgment — avoid bias toward client preferences.
• Disclose all conflicts of interest before accepting an engagement.
• Only undertake work within their area of competence.
• Maintain client confidentiality, subject to public safety exceptions.
• Charge fees that are transparent and equitable.
• Not accept commissions from suppliers or contractors (kickbacks).
Key Principle: The consulting engineer's primary obligation is to the public safety and welfare, not to
maximising client satisfaction. If client instructions would endanger the public, the engineer must refuse.
8. Engineers as Expert Witnesses
Engineers often testify in courts, tribunals, or arbitrations as {B('expert witnesses')} — providing technical
opinion to assist judges and juries.
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Duties of an Expert Witness:
• Duty is to the court, not to the party that retained them.
• Opinions must be objective, impartial, and within the area of expertise.
• Must not overstate certainty or withhold contradictory evidence.
• Must clearly distinguish between fact and professional opinion.
• Must update opinions if new evidence emerges.
Ethical Issues:
• Hired-gun syndrome — giving favourable opinions for high fees.
• Advocacy bias — unconsciously adopting the retaining party's position.
• Providing opinions outside genuine area of expertise.
Sanctions: Dishonest expert evidence can lead to professional discipline, perjury charges, and exclusion from
future court testimony.
9. Engineers as Advisors in Planning & Policy Making
Engineers play critical roles as technical advisors to governments, regulatory bodies, and planning authorities.
Key Roles:
• Providing technical analysis to inform infrastructure, energy, and environmental policy.
• Participating in environmental impact assessments and feasibility studies.
• Advising on technical standards and building codes.
• Serving on public commissions and inquiry panels.
Ethical Obligations as Advisors:
• Provide honest, evidence-based advice even when politically inconvenient.
• Communicate uncertainty and limitations of technical knowledge clearly.
• Engage diverse stakeholders, including marginalised communities.
• Declare conflicts of interest before providing advice.
• Respect democratic processes — advisors inform decisions, not dictate them.
10. Moral Leadership
Moral leadership in engineering means leading by ethical example, fostering cultures of integrity, and making
principled decisions even under pressure.
Characteristics of Moral Leaders:
• Integrity — consistency between stated values and actions.
• Courage — willingness to speak up against unethical conduct.
• Fairness — equitable treatment of all stakeholders.
• Empathy — genuine concern for the wellbeing of employees and public.
• Transparency — honest communication, especially about failures.
• Accountability — accepting responsibility for decisions.
Role of Moral Leaders in Engineering Organisations:
• Creating safe reporting environments where concerns are heard, not punished.
• Modelling ethical decision-making in public and under pressure.
• Building diverse, inclusive teams that bring multiple perspectives to decisions.
• Advocating for adequate resources and time to meet safety standards.
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11. Codes of Ethics
A Code of Ethics is a formal document that articulates the ethical principles, values, and obligations that
members of a profession are expected to follow.
Functions of Codes of Ethics:
• Inspire members to uphold high professional standards.
• Educate new engineers about professional responsibilities.
• Provide guidance in resolving ethical dilemmas.
• Protect the public by setting minimum standards of conduct.
• Enable disciplinary action against unethical members.
• Enhance public trust in the profession.
Common Elements in Engineering Codes:
Principle Typical Provision
Public Safety Hold public safety paramount above all other considerations.
Competence Practice only in areas of competence; pursue CPD.
Honesty Be truthful in all professional statements and representations.
Fairness Treat all persons equitably and without discrimination.
Sustainability Design for environmental protection and sustainable use of resources.
Confidentiality Protect clients' proprietary information.
Conflict of Disclose and avoid conflicts of interest.
Interest
12. Engineering Council of India (ECI)
The Engineering Council of India (ECI) is a national body established in 2003 to set standards for engineering
education and practice in India and to promote engineering ethics and professionalism.
Key Functions of ECI:
• Accrediting engineering education programmes in India (working with NBA).
• Promoting standards for the engineering profession.
• Fostering ethical practice and professional development.
• Representing Indian engineering interests at international forums (e.g., APEC, IPEA).
• Issuing 'Chartered Engineer' recognition under the APEC Engineering framework.
ECI Code of Ethics — Key Provisions:
• Engineers shall hold public safety, health, and welfare paramount.
• Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.
• Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honour, integrity, and dignity of the
engineering profession.
• Engineers shall not knowingly engage in business or professional practices of a fraudulent, dishonest, or
unethical nature.
• Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional
reputation of others.
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Other Indian Engineering Bodies:
• Institution of Engineers (India) — IEI — oldest professional engineering body in India (1920).
• AICTE — All India Council for Technical Education; regulates technical education.
• BIS — Bureau of Indian Standards; develops and enforces technical standards.
13. Codes of Ethics in Business Organizations
Beyond professional engineering bodies, individual business organisations develop their own codes of ethics
(also called codes of conduct) to guide employee behaviour.
Elements of an Organisational Code of Ethics:
• Statement of core values (integrity, respect, innovation, sustainability).
• Specific rules on conflicts of interest, gifts, and hospitality.
• Anti-bribery and anti-corruption policies.
• Data privacy and information security obligations.
• Whistleblower mechanisms and protections.
• Commitment to equal opportunity and non-discrimination.
• Environmental and social responsibility commitments.
Implementation Mechanisms:
Ethics Training Mandatory orientation and periodic training on the code.
Ethics Hotlines Anonymous reporting channels for suspected violations.
Ethics Officers Dedicated compliance officers to investigate reports.
Disciplinary Clear, fair procedures for investigating and sanctioning breaches.
Process
Board Oversight Ethics committee at board level for accountability.
Examples of Corporate Codes:
• TATA Group — Code of Conduct emphasises trusteeship, integrity, and fairness.
• Infosys — Code covers confidentiality, conflicts of interest, and respect in the workplace.
• BHEL — Emphasises public accountability, transparency, and anti-corruption.
Quick Revision Summary — Key Concepts
Topic One-Line Definition
Safety Protection from harm within acceptable risk limits.
Risk Probability × Magnitude of harm.
ALARP Reduce risk until further reduction is grossly disproportionate.
Challenger O-ring failure due to cold; management overruled engineers — 7 lives lost.
Whistleblowing Exposing wrongdoing to protect the public, within ethical limits.
IPR Legal rights over inventions, software, brands, and creative works.
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MNCs Must apply the higher of home/host country ethical standards.
Environmental Precautionary, polluter-pays, and intergenerational equity principles.
Ethics
Computer Ethics Privacy, security, accuracy, access, and IP in computing.
Expert Witness Duty to court, not client; objective and impartial opinion.
ECI India's national engineering council; promotes ethics and accreditation.
Codes of Ethics Formal documents guiding professional conduct and public safety.
© 2025–26 | Engineering Ethics Study Notes — Unit III & Unit IV | For academic use only. Prepared for examination
revision.
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