Key concepts in ELT
Deductive vs. inductive After ‘discovering’ a rule for themselves in this
language learning way, they can be asked to formulate it for the class.
Deductive reasoning applies a general rule to
particular instances while inductive reasoning Such procedures, though involving inference from
involves inference from the particular to the examples, have been labelled ‘modified deductive’
general. Language learning is most clearly because there is explicit formulation of the rule
deductive when a teacher gives an explicit before practice. Where the rule is explicitly
statement of the rule, which the students then apply formulated, either by the teacher or the students,
to examples. The term ‘inductive’ most obviously after the students have been guided to work it out
applies when a child learns its first language by through practice, the label ‘modified inductive’ has
inducing the rules from exposure to the language in been used to distinguish this from a purely
use. A deductive approach is most closely inductive approach in which the rule is left implicit.
associated with the grammar–translation method of The common denominator with this range of
teaching languages, while an inductive approach is techniques is the fact that the students are actively
considered characteristic of audiolingualism, where engaged mentally, which is not only motivating but
meaning and grammar were not explicitly explained is believed to lead to more thorough learning.
but induced from carefully graded exposure to and
practice with examples in situations and From one lesson to another, and throughout the
substitution tables. same lesson, a teacher may switch approach.
Feedback on errors, for example, could take the
In the grammar–translation method, the focus on form of either telling the student the rule or guiding
rules was conscious and explicit. In him to work it out himself. Students are likely to
audiolingualism, learning of the rules could be understand and remember better what they have
either conscious or unconscious (depending on worked out for themselves; on the other hand, when
what the learner was thinking about) but they were time is short or it is difficult for the students to
not explicitly formulated. In between these two work out the rule themselves, a deductive approach
approaches, there is a range of techniques, may be more appropriate.
commonly called ‘discovery’ or ‘guided discovery’
techniques, in which explicit focus is combined Jacqueline Gollin, University of Edinburgh
with inference from examples. These techniques
vary according to whether explanation of the rules Further reading
takes place before or after practice and according to Fortune, A. 1992. ‘Self-study grammar practice’.
the degree of guidance the students are given in ELT Journal 46/2: 160–71.
working out the rules. Howatt, A. P. R. 1984. A History of English
Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
Frequently, in the presentation stage, the teacher Press.
establishes a context or situation and elicits Krashen, S. D. and H. W. Seliger. 1975. ‘The
appropriate language, asking concept questions to essential contributions of formal instruction in adult
check understanding of form, meaning, and use. Or second language learning’. TESOL Quarterly 9/2:
he or she might put two contrasting items on the 173–83.
board and elicit the difference in meaning between Larsen-Freeman, D. 1991. ‘Teaching grammar’ in
them. The procedure is direct and teacher-fronted, M. Celce-Murcia (ed.): Teaching English as a
but by eliciting the rule rather than telling the Second or Foreign Language (2nd edn.). New
students, the teacher introduces an element of York: Newbury House/Harper and Row.
discovery learning, albeit heavily guided. At other Stern, H. H. 1983. Fundamental Concepts of
times the students may work more independently of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
the teacher in pairs or groups, engaged in a Press.
problem-solving approach to new language. They Stern, H. H. 1992. Issues and Options in
might be asked to find all the different ways of Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University
referring to the future in a text, or to work out the Press.
differences in form and meaning between sets of
contrasting sentences.
88 ELT Journal Volume 52/1 January 1998 © Oxford University Press 1998
The author Asia. She has taught in Europe, Thailand, Japan,
Jacqueline Gollin is a teaching fellow at the and New Zealand. She is interested in teacher
Institute for Applied Language Studies, University development, the teaching of grammar, and the
of Edinburgh, where she is involved with teacher analysis of lexicogrammatical features of written
training courses, and is co-ordinator of courses for discourse.
contract groups from the Far East and South East
Key concepts in ELT 89