INTRODUCTION
Biomolecules are complex organic substances produced by living organisms. They form the
structural and functional basis of life.
They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, vitamins, enzymes, and hormones.
Every life process—growth,
respiration, reproduction—depends on biomolecules. Chemistry helps us understand their
structure, bonding, reactions, and importance.
1. CARBOHYDRATES – DETAILED EXPLANATION
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances that produce them on
hydrolysis. They are the most abundant organic
substances in nature. They serve as the primary source of energy for humans.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. Monosaccharides:
• Cannot be hydrolyzed further.
• General formula: (CH2O)n.
• Types based on:
- Number of carbon atoms: triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose.
- Functional group: aldoses, ketoses.
Glucose:
• Most abundant monosaccharide.
• Prepared industrially from starch by hydrolysis.
• Exists in open-chain and cyclic forms.
• Shows mutarotation (change in optical rotation due to interconversion of α and β forms).
Fructose:
• Ketohexose.
• Found in fruits and honey.
B. Oligosaccharides:
• Give 2–10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• Disaccharides are most important.
Sucrose:
• α-D-glucose + β-D-fructose.
• Non-reducing due to absence of free aldehyde/keto group.
Lactose:
• Glucose + galactose.
• Reducing sugar.
Maltose:
• Formed by partial hydrolysis of starch.
C. Polysaccharides:
• Long-chain polymers of monosaccharides.
• Examples:
- Starch (plant storage food)
- Cellulose (structural material in plants)
- Glycogen (animal storage food)
2. STRUCTURE OF GLUCOSE – EXTENDED NOTES
Open chain structure:
• Proposed by Fischer.
• Glucose contains an aldehyde group and five hydroxyl groups.
Cyclic structure:
• In aqueous solution, glucose cyclizes to form hemiacetal ring.
• Forms α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose.
Mutarotation:
• Change in rotation due to equilibrium between α and β forms through open-chain aldehyde form.
Selected reactions of glucose:
• Reduction: Glucose → Sorbitol.
• Oxidation:
- Mild oxidation: Gluconic acid.
- Strong oxidation: Saccharic acid.
• Esterification: Forms penta-acetates.
These reactions prove presence of 5 –OH groups and 1 –CHO group.
3. AMINO ACIDS – VERY DETAILED
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They contain an amino group (–NH2) and a
carboxylic acid group (–COOH)
attached to the same carbon atom (α-carbon).
Properties:
• Zwitter ion formation: In water, amino acids exist as dipolar ions: +NH3—CHR—COO–.
• Amphoteric nature: Act as both acids and bases.
• Optical activity: All except glycine are optically active.
Classification:
A. Based on nutrition:
• Essential: Must be taken in diet (e.g., valine, leucine).
• Non-essential: Synthesized in the body (e.g., alanine, glycine).
B. Based on structure:
• Acidic amino acids: Aspartic acid, glutamic acid.
• Basic amino acids: Lysine, arginine.
• Neutral amino acids: Serine, threonine.
4. PROTEINS – COMPLETE NOTES
Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are the most important
biomolecules for structure and function.
Peptide bond:
• –CO–NH– linkage formed by condensation between amino acids.
Classification:
1. Fibrous proteins:
• Long, thread-like.
• Insoluble in water.
• Examples: Keratin, collagen.
2. Globular proteins:
• Spherical, soluble.
• Examples: Enzymes, hormones, antibodies.
Structural levels:
A. Primary: Linear chain.
B. Secondary: α-helix and β-pleated sheet.
C. Tertiary: 3D folding.
D. Quaternary: More than one polypeptide.
Denaturation:
• Loss of biological activity due to heat, pH change.
5. ENZYMES – EXTENDED
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions.
Properties:
• Highly specific.
• Work at biological temperature and pH.
• Affected by inhibitors and activators.
Mechanism:
A. Lock & Key model:
• Substrate fits perfectly into enzyme's active site.
B. Induced Fit model:
• Enzyme adapts itself for substrate binding.
Factors affecting activity:
• Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors.
6. VITAMINS – COMPLETE NOTES
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for proper metabolism.
Fat-soluble vitamins:
• A, D, E, K.
• Stored in liver.
• Excess intake may cause toxicity.
Water-soluble vitamins:
• B-complex and C.
• Excreted in urine.
• Must be taken regularly.
Deficiencies:
• A → Night blindness.
• C → Scurvy.
• D → Rickets.
• B12 → Pernicious anemia.
7. NUCLEIC ACIDS – DNA & RNA
Nucleic acids control heredity and protein synthesis.
Components:
• Nitrogenous base: Purines (A, G), Pyrimidines (C, T, U).
• Pentose sugar: Ribose or deoxyribose.
• Phosphate group.
DNA:
• Double helix.
• Base pairing: A–T, G–C.
• Carries genetic information.
RNA:
• Single-stranded.
• Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.
• Helps in protein synthesis.
8. HORMONES – DETAILED
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands.
Types:
• Peptide hormones (insulin)
• Steroid hormones (estrogen)
• Amino acid–derived hormones (adrenaline)
Functions:
• Growth regulation
• Metabolism control
• Reproduction
• Stress response