ETHICS,

INTEGRITY AND APTITUDE

 CHAPTER 1: ETHICS AND MORALITY
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
• Ethical teachings have been an integral part of Indian education system since ages. Our ancient literature is full
of lessons on ethics and morality.
• The process of imparting ethical learning used to commence in the lap of mother because she served the role
of first teacher.
• Parents, kith and kin, peers and neighbours used to play an important role in the process of socialisation of an
individual in the past but the life has undergone rapid transformations during the last half a century. Ethics are
a requirement for human life. It is our means of deciding a right course of action.
In the past for most people and even for many people today, an objective moral standard that is binding on all
people for all times exists. While there might be disagreement on what the standard was, most acknowledged
that there was a “right” choice. But in the last half-century, there has been considerable erosion in the idea that
a standard exists or is even needed. For many, decisions about what is right and wrong are complete personal
and completely subjective: what is right for me may not be right for you. Such thinking asserts that whatever an
individual deems morally acceptable is acceptable for that person. To judge that is often considered unacceptably
intolerant and such randomness is often justified in the name of liberalism.

WHAT IS ETHICS?
• Etymologically the term “ethics” correspond to the Greek word “ethos” which means character, habit,
customs, ways of behaviour, etc.
• Ethics is also called “moral philosophy”. The word “moral” comes from Latin word “mores” which signifies
customs, character, behaviour, etc. Thus, ethics may be defined as the systematic study of human actions from
the point of view of their rightfulness or wrongfulness, as means for the attainment of the ultimate happiness.
It is the reflective study of what is good or bad in that part of human conduct for which human has some
personal responsibility.
• In simple words ethics refers to what is good and the way to get it, and what is bad and how to avoid it. It refers
to what ought to be done to achieve what is good and what ought not to be done to avoid what is evil.
• As a philosophical discipline, ethics is the study of the values and guidelines by which we live. It also involves
the justification of these values and guidelines. It is not merely following a tradition or custom. Instead it
requires analysis and evaluation of these guidelines in light of universal principles. As moral philosophy, ethics
is the philosophical thinking about morality, moral problems, and moral judgements.
• Ethics is a science in as much as it is a set or body of reasoned truths organised in a logical order and having its
specific material and formal objects. It is the science of what human ought to be by reason of what one is. It
is a rational science in so far as its principles are deduced by human’s reason from the objects that concern the
free will. Besides it has for its ulterior end the art by which human may live uprightly or comfortably to right
reason. It is a normative/regulative science in as much as it regulates and directs human’s life and gives the
right orientation to one’s existence.
• Ethics is also theoretical and practical. It is theoretical in as much as it provides the fundamental principles on
the basis of which moral judgements are arrived at. It is practical in as much as it is concerned about an end to
be gained, and the means of attaining it. Ethics is sometimes distinguished from morality. In such cases, ethics
is the explicit philosophical reflection on moral beliefs and practices while morality refers to the first-order
beliefs and practices about good and evil by means of which we guide our behaviour (e.g. music and musicology).
However, in most cases they are referred to as having the same meaning.
Ethics is not merely a set of ‘codes’. Ethics certainly deals with moral codes yet one cannot identify ethics to moral
codes. Ethics is not primarily to restrict one’s behaviour, rather to help one to find what is good and how to get
it. The obligatory character of ethical norms derives from the very purpose of ethical enquiry, i.e. to discover the
most ultimate principles of explanation or the most ultimate reasons why one ought to do anything.

WHAT ETHICS IS NOT?

It is helpful to identify what ethics is NOT:
• Ethics is not the same as feelings. Feelings provide important information for our ethical choices. Some
people have highly developed habits that make them feel bad when they do something wrong, but many
people feel good even though they are doing something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is
uncomfortable to do the right thing if it is hard.
• Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, but ethics applies to everyone. Most religions do
advocate high ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face.
• Ethics is not following the law. A good system of law does incorporate many ethical standards, but law can
deviate from what is ethical. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it.
Law can be a function of power alone and designed to serve the interests of narrow groups. Law may have a
difficult time designing or enforcing standards in some important areas, and may be slow to address new
problems.
• Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Some cultures are quite ethical, but others become corrupt
or blind to certain ethical concerns (as the United States was to slavery before the Civil War). “When in Rome,
do as the Romans do” is not a satisfactory ethical standard.
• Ethics is not science. Social and natural science can provide important data to help us make better ethical
choices. But science alone does not tell us what we ought to do. Science may provide an explanation for what
humans are like. But ethics provides reasons for how humans ought to act. And just because something is
scientifically or technologically possible, it may not be ethical to do it.
• Ethics is not an art. Ethics does not teach us an art as to how to lead a moral life. Rather it helps us to justify
rightness or goodness which can lead to the supreme goal of human life that is to realize the summum bonum
of human life. So, ethics is not a means to the highest ideal of human life. But, like the practical science, art
is also a means for obtaining a goal. So, ethics is neither a practical science nor an art. Art especially deals
with acquisition of skill to produce objects, while morality deals with motive, intention, purpose and choice
which are considered right or wrong in the light of goodness. Therefore, morality consists of goodness, which
is really an intrinsic end.

ETHICS AND RELIGION

• Ethics has no necessary connection with any particular religion. However, it is sometimes argued that without
God or religion, ethics would have no point; and therefore insofar as God or religion is in question, so is ethics.
This is evidently unacceptable.
• Although belief in God or religion can be an added reason for our being moral, it is not necessary to relate
it to God or to any religion. The fact that ethics exists in all human societies shows that ethics is a natural
phenomenon that arises in the course of the evolution of social, intelligent, long-lived mammals who possess
the capacity to recognize each other and to remember the past behaviour of others.
• Critics of religion such as Marx and Nietzsche saw religion as a profound source of social conformity, as a
means of maintaining the status quo and keeping people confined to their existing social and economic
positions. Yet there is another face of religion, one which suggests that religion may be a profoundly liberating
force in individual’s lives and an important force for social change.
 ETHICS AND LAW
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that aims to answer the basic question, “What should I do?” It’s a process
of reflection in which people’s decisions are shaped by their values, principles and purpose rather than
unthinking habits, social conventions or self-interest.
• The law is different. It’s not a morality in the strict sense of the word because, at least in democratic
nations, it tries to create a private space where individuals can live according to their own ethical beliefs
or morality. Instead, the law tries to create a basic, enforceable standard of behaviour necessary in order
for a community to succeed and in which all people are treated equally.
• Because of this, the law is narrower in focus than ethics or morality. There are some matters the law will
be agnostic on but which ethics and morality have a lot to say.
• For example, the law will be useless to you if you’re trying to decide whether to tell your competitor their
new client has a reputation for not paying their invoices, but our ideas about what’s good and right will
still guide our judgement here.
There is a temptation to see the law and ethics as the same – so long as we’re fulfilling our legal obligations we
can consider ourselves ‘ethical’. This is mistaken on two fronts.
• First, the law outlines a basic standard of behaviour necessary for our social institutions to keep functioning.
For example, it protects basic consumer rights. However, in certain situations the right thing to in solving a
dispute with a customer might require us to go beyond our legal obligations.
• Secondly, there may be times when obeying the law would require us to act against our ethics or morality.
A doctor might be obligated to perform a procedure they believe is unethical or a public servant might believe
it’s their duty to leak classified information to the press. Some philosophers have argued that a person’s
conscience is more binding on them than any law, which suggests to the letter of the law won’t be an adequate
substitute for ethical reflection.
Similarities between Ethics and Laws
• In general, laws are made based on moral values of a particular society.
• They describe the basic behavior of human beings. In another word, laws represent the minimum standards
of human behaviors, that is, ethical behavior.
• Besides, both laws and ethics are systems
which maintain a set of moral values and
prevent people from violating them. They
both provide people guidelines of what
may do or what may not do in certain
situations.
• In a word, they exist in a purpose of
making people benefit from being
members of a well-regulated society.
Differences between Ethics and
Laws
• Firstly, ethics comes from people’s
awareness of what is right and what is
wrong while laws are written and
approved by governments. It means that
ethics may vary from people to people
because different people may have different opinions on a certain issue, but laws describe clearly what is
illegal no matter how people arguing.
• To some extent, ethics is not well defined but laws are defined and precise. Ethics can also be distinguished
 by looking at whether people are being punished after they violate the rules. Nobody will be punished when
they violate ethics; but whoever violates laws is going to receive punishment carried out by relevant
authorities. Besides, an action can be illegal, but morally right.
• For example, in ancient China, some people rob properties from rich people, and give it to poor people, and
it is considered to be morally right but be illegal. Similarly, an action that is legal can be morally wrong. For
instance, some people spend thousands of dollars on their pets while some poor people on the street cannot
have enough food. Moreover, some laws are nothing to do with ethics, like cars should go on the left side of
roads. Lastly, ethics emphasizes more on positive aspects while laws are more concerned with negative
actions.
In conclusion, ethics and laws and closely related since laws represent minimum ethical behaviors of human
beings; but they are distinct from many aspects. Ethics provides people guidelines on how to behavior in order to
create a peaceful society; but laws carry out restrictions through punishment. Sometimes ethics and laws do not
necessarily have any overlap, but these two combined define how people should behavior in the society.

STUDY OF ETHICS
Ethics comprise three major areas of study within itself. These
are :
1. Meta-ethics 2. Normative ethics 3. Applied ethics

Meta-Ethics
• Meta-ethics deal with the theoretical meaning and
reference of moral propositions, and how their truth
values (if any) can be determined.
• It investigates where our ethical principles come from,
and what they mean. Are they merely social
inventions?
• Do they involve more than expressions of our
individual emotions? Meta- ethical answers to these
questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the
will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments and
the meaning of ethical terms themselves.
Normative Ethics
• Normative ethics focuses upon the practical means of
determining a moral course of action.
• It takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at
moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct.
• This may involve articulating the good habits that we
should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the
consequences of our behaviour on others.
Applied Ethics
• Finally, applied ethics concern with what a person is
obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation
or a particular domain of action.
It involves examining specific controversial issues, such as
• abortion • infanticide
• animal rights • environmental concerns
• homosexuality • capital punishment
• nuclear war
By using the conceptual tools of Meta-ethics and normative ethics, discussions in applied ethics try to resolve
these controversial issues.

WHAT IS MORALITY?
Ethics ought to be distinguished from morality which refers to human conduct & values. Ethics presupposes the
existence of morality. The morality of society is related to its customs and law of society. The morality
encompasses the rules of human behaviour/human conduct and values within a particular socio-cultural
environment.
Social Norms
Morality refers to the social norms and values that guide both individuals and their interaction with their fellow
human beings and communities, and with their environment. In all of these types of interaction there are
important values at stake; rules and norms that are to protect these values; duties implied in social roles and
positions that can foster these values and further these rules; and human virtues or capabilities that enable us to
act accordingly. These moral factors are usually interwoven with religious practices and social power structures.
Political Institutions
Morality cannot be legislated but behaviour can be regulated. Judicial decrees may not change the heart, but they
can restrain the heartless. Personal morality is influenced by institutions, public discourse, and the unconscious
embodied dispositions gathered from many sources over a lifetime. Thus, people are unconsciously moral most
of the time. At times, conflicts occur between the inner morality and either institutional morality, public discourse,
or both. At those times a person must stop and employ ethics to reconcile the competing moralities.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORALITY AND ETHICS?

Ethics and morals seem to appear similar on the face of it, but if one analyzes deeply, there is a subtle difference.
• Ethics define the code that a society or group of people adhere to, while morality delves into the right and
wrong at a much deeper level, both personal and spiritual.
• Moral is related to issues of right or wrong and to how individuals should behave.
Therefore Morality means standards of conduct that are accepted as right. It is based on personal conscience
rather than what the law says.

DIMENSION ETHICS MORALS

What are they? The rules of conduct recognized in respect Principles or habits with respect to
to a particular class of human actions or a right or wrong conduct. While
particular group or culture. morals also prescribe dos and
don'ts, morality is ultimately a
personal compass of right and
wrong.
Where do they come from? Social system - External Individual - Internal
Why we do it? Because society says it is the right thing to Because we believe in something
do. being right or wrong.
Flexibility Ethics are dependent on others for Usually consistent, although can
definition. They tend to be consistent change if an individual's beliefs
within a certain context, but can vary change.
between contexts.
 The "Gray" A person strictly following Ethical A Moral Person although perhaps
Principles may not have any Morals at all. bound by a higher covenant, may
Likewise, one could violate Ethical choose to follow a code of ethics as
Principles within a given system of rules in it would apply to a system. "Make
order to maintain Moral integrity. it fit"
Origin Greek word "ethos" meaning"character" Latin word "mos" meaning
"custom"
Acceptability Ethics are governed by professional and Morality transcends cultural norms
legal guidelines within a particular time and
place

ETHICS, VALUES AND MORALITY

There is no universally accepted definition of values. Values could be defined as: ‘the individual principles or
qualities that guide judgement and behaviour’. However, it is agreed that values mould and inform behaviour.
Value means commonly accepted principles of social behavior and conduct. Kernaghan defines values as those
‘enduring beliefs that influence the choices we make among available means or ends’.
Every day we all face number of moral questions: questions about the morality of our relationships about taking
responsibility for the consequences of our actions. In fact number of questions reminds us of the public decisions
we must make as a society: whether allow live in relationship, whether to provide welfare to unwed -mothers,
whether to provide sexual education in schools.
• We can answer these questions only on the basis of values we believe in. Much of what we are and do,
is determined by our values because our values shape our thoughts, feelings, actions and perceptions.
• ‘’Values’’ is a broad term which includes ethics and morals. Values can be thought of as what is emotionally
valuable to an individual or group. Values underlie ethics and morals.
• “Morals” is more often used to denote underlying principles from which ethics are developed. Norm of human
behavior approved by society is known as moral. Moral in simple word signifies such human actions, decisions
or judgements which do not harm others or aim to enrich oneself at cost of others. If a human action or decisions
is not approved by society, it is treated as immoral.
• “Ethics” is more often used to denote rules of conduct. “Ethical conduct,” for example, is rules-based conduct.
Some scholars also term Ethics as science of morality and certain other determine it as “conduct of an individual
under the light of moral principles.”
For example: A person who values family well-being will develop general morals about acting for the good
of family, and develop ethics about how to contribute to family well-being, and ethics about how not to
harm family.
• Values best answer “why?” Why is the well-being of family important? I’m hurt when my family is hurt. I’m
unhappy when my family is suffering.
• Morals best answer “what?” What is important about the well-being of family? Family is the closest
people to us, and the people we would like to always be able to rely on. If anything happens to me, I would
want to know my family will be there for my children, and if my family is in good state, then they are more
likely to be able to take my children in. I love my family, and if anything happens to them I would want to be
in a position to care for them.
• Ethics best answer “how”: How do you contribute to the well-being of family? Promote strong relationships
by being honest, open and respectful of each other. Make enough money to secure my own life, and have
extra saved up in case of family emergencies. Never lend money to family to avoid possible resentment -
if I have it to give, I will give it without asking repayment.
 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING ETHICS
Today, more than ever, the importance of ethics is felt at every sphere of human living.
• The situation in the present world is characterised by an increasing rate in crime, with no end to such
increase in sight. Besides, the power of traditional religions to inspire moral conduct continues to decline.
• Terrorism, civil wars, industrial pollution, planned obsolescence, misleading advertising, deceptive
labelling, crooked insurance adjusting, unfair wages, crime syndicates, illegal gambling, forced
prostitution, high jacking, match-fixing…so many. The question that one may ask in this precarious situation
is: Are we being sucked into a moral vacuum? Is this our way to the end of ethics?
There are at least three reasons why we should for the study of Ethics:
• First, the study of moral philosophy or ethics our reflection on the ultimate questions of life. The study of
ethics helps a person to look at his own life critically and to evaluate his actions/choices/decisions. It assists
a person in knowing what he/she really is and what is best for him/her and what he/she has to do in order
to attain it.
• Second, the study of moral philosophy can help us to think better about morality. Moral philosophy can
help us to clarify our moral positions when we make judgements. It improves our perspective, and makes it
more reflective and better thought out. It can also improve our thinking about specific moral issues. In our
everyday life we are confronted with situations in which we have to decide what the correct course of action
is and what is to be avoided. Whether we choose to act or to refrain from acting, we are in either case making
a choice. Every decision or choice we make we do so for reasons. However, we should agree that some of
these reasons are better than the others in judging the rightness of the decision or choice. However, there
seems to be a common agreement that we should all strive to do the right thing, to do what is morally
acceptable in a given situation or circumstance. However, the issue of disagreement is over the question of
what exactly is the right thing to do.
• Third, the study of moral philosophy can help us to sharpen our general thinking processes. It trains our
mind to think logically and reasonably and to handle moral issues with greater clarity. Ethics becomes
inevitable as by nature human being is a ‘social’ being, a being living in relationship with other fellow beings
and with the nature around. All actions, whether one is aware of it or not, someway or another affects the
others. In order to make a decision/ judgement one bases himself on a standard of right and wrong even
though the measure may not be the same at all times.
Thus, ethical problems confront everybody. Consciously or unconsciously all of us are every day making moral
decisions. Whether we are aware of it or not, the fact is that we do have ethical attitudes and are taking moral
stances every day of our lives.
IMPORTANCE OF ‘ETHICS IN SOCIETY’
• A lot of people don’t recognize the significance of ethics and how it influences their daily life decision as it
will make the society respect their values more and determining the right decision even in the difficult
situations. The public good will be preferable than self-interest which will increase the caring attitude and
Ioving values in the society as everyone will consider the interest of others and wouldn’t harm them in
any way.
• Today society is full of crime, irresponsibility and dishonesty but imagine if the entire population had no
sense of ethics. The role of ethics in our society is very important because it is the basic beliefs and standards
that make everything run smoothly. Ethics are involved in all organizations and institutions around us whether
it be political, medical, lawful, religious, or social. Ethics are what give us comfort knowing that we live in a
country where we are able to choose. Because we believe our doctors are ethical, we feel certain we can trust
their diagnoses.
• Ethics give us comfort that the business deal will not fall through. In today’s society, laws and contracts are
enforced to make sure that the business deals are fair and that the both people will hold up their end of the
deal. Without any application of ethics, our society would be one of dishonesty and uncertainty.
WHY ETHICS AND MORALITY FOR A CIVIL SERVANT?
• Ethics, integrity and better governance are core principles of the Indian administration and the Indian Civil
Service. Civil servants prepare and take decisions directly affecting the citizens; they conceive policies;
conduct, negotiations; determine the use of various public resources and have access to sensitive information.
The citizens are entitled to expect ethical behaviour and integrity from them.
• The gist is that the public administrators are the “guardians” of the’ administrative state. Hence they are
expected to honor public trust and not violate it. Two crucial questions here are: “why should guardians be
guarded?” And “Who guard the guardian?”
• The administrators need to be guarded against their tendency to misconceive public interest, promote self-
interest, indulge in corruption and cause subversion of national interest and they need to be guarded by the
external in situations such as the judiciary, legislature, political executive, media and, civil society
organisations, These various modes of control become instrument of accountability. In such cases ethics guide
the administrators and show the light when darkness prevails in decision making.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN GOVERNMENT
• As a democratic nation, a political system can only function properly if its citizens are actively engaged
in the democratic process. If, however, citizens come to believe that politicians and governments are
generally unethical or corrupt, they might develop a strong sense of apathy towards their democracy.
This, in turn, may result in people withdrawing from democratic participation altogether. (You may have
heard comments such as: “Why bother voting? They are all crooks anyway.”)
• Ethics in Government can play an important role in ensuring this does not happen. By setting out clear
rules that public officials must abide by, and by holding persons accountable when those rules are broken,
citizens can have confidence in their elected representatives and political system. It goes without saying
that there will always be scandals that violate ethics. However, citizens can take some comfort in knowing
that when unethical behaviour does occur, appropriate actions are taken to punish the person(s)
responsible.
• Ethics government if properly enforced, can be a valuable means for protection against government
waste and ensuring effective public administration. Such a code can prohibit many of the activities that
lead to waste, including theft by public officials and use of government property for private gain. It can
also address issues such as bribery and conflicts of interest; activities that can lead public officials to
sacrifice the public interest in the administration of programs and services for private gain and benefit.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN BUSINESS
Ethics concern an individual’s moral judgements about right and wrong. Decisions taken within an organisation
may be made by individuals or groups, but whoever makes them will be influenced by the culture of the company.
The decision to behave ethically is a moral one; employees must decide what they think is the right course of
action. This may involve rejecting the route that would lead to the biggest short-term profit. Ethical behaviour and
corporate social responsibility can bring significant benefits to a business. For example, they may:
• Attract customers to the firm’s products, thereby boosting sales and profits
• Make employees want to stay with the business, reduce labour turnover and, therefore increase productivity.
• Attract more employees wanting to work for the-business, reduce recruitment costs and enable the company
to get the most talented employees
• Attract investors and keep the company’s share price high, thereby protecting the business from takeover.
Unethical behaviour or a lack of corporate social responsibility, by comparison, may damage a firm’s reputation
and make it less appealing to stakeholders. Profits could fall as a result.

WHY BE MORAL?
Not few are the people who ask this question: Why should we be moral? Why should we take part in the moral
institution of life? Why should we adopt a moral point of view?
In every human person there is a deep desire for good. Human being by nature tends to good – summum bonum.
Each man/woman desires what is best for himself/herself. The ethical principles and moral practices help one to
attain what is best. It helps a person to perfect himself/herself as amoral being. Morality has to do more with
one’s interior self than the practice of some customs or set rules. Viewed from this point, morality is a deep
down desire in human person and is something to do with the very nature of human person. The rational nature
of human person makes him/her aware of certain fundamental principles of logical and moral reasoning. This
means that there is not only a subjective aspect to every human action but also an objective one that prompts
human person to base himself/herself on certain common principles.
We also find that for the functioning of any society we need certain rules and regulations. The conditions of a
satisfactory human life for people living in groups could hardly obtain otherwise (neither a “state of nature” nor
a “totalitarian state”). The institutions which are designed to make life easier and better for humankind, cannot
function without certain moral principles. However, here the question of individual freedom can also come in.
How far the society can go on demanding? Should it not respect the freedom of the individual? Is morality made
for man or man is made for morality?
Morality is a lot like nutrition. Most of us have never had a course in nutrition or even read much about it. Yet
many of us do have some general knowledge of the field, of what we need to eat and what not. However, we also
make mistakes about these things. Often thinking of the good a particular diet can do in the long run for our health,
we may go for it although it may bring no immediate satisfaction. So too is our moral life. While nutrition focuses
on our physical health, morality is concerned about our moral health. It seeks to help us determine what will
nourish our moral life and what will poison it. It seeks to enhance our lives, to help us to live better lives. Morality
aims to provide us with a common point of view from which we can come to agreement about what all of us ought
to do. It tries to discover a more objective standpoint of evaluation than that of purely personal preference.

*********
 CHAPTER 2: DIMENSION OF ETHICS
Ethical behaviour is in essence a balancing act of satisfaction of the expectations and demands of various
interfacing stakeholders. What constitutes ethical behaviour and what are the sources to determine ethical
conduct have been explained differently by different schools of thought. Let us now critically examine of these
theories related to the sources or the determinants of ethics.

SUPERNATURALISM (GOD-BASED ETHICS)

This theory believes that the ethics depend on God. It teaches that:
• The only source of moral rules is God.
• Something is good because God says it is.
• The way to lead a good life is to do what God wants.
Can God be the Ultimate Source of Good?
Throughout history one puzzle has made it difficult to base ethics on God:
• Is a thing good because God desires it? Or Does God desire a thing because it is good?
• The Ancient Greek philosopher Plato concluded that God desires a thing because it is good. God’s desire
doesn’t make a thing good - the thing would be good regardless of God.
• If Plato is right then the supernaturalism theory is pretty unhelpful, because it doesn’t reveal what makes
something good or bad.
• God’s desire would be at best a useful way of discovering what is good and what is bad, but wouldn’t tell us
anything more than that.
And here’s another problem:
• If God desired something that everyone thinks is bad - would that make it good?
Problems with this Approach
Ethical atheists and supernaturalism
• If supernaturalism is true, how can atheists behave in a consistently moral way?
• If religion is the only basis of ethics, it would seem that people who have no faith can have no basis for their
moral judgements, and nowhere to turn for guidance on how to live. But atheists do behave in a consistent
moral way, so where do such people get their morality from?
• And since atheists and believers totally disagree on the foundations underpinning moral rules, it’s surely
strange that they so often agree on matters of right and wrong - since they have no common basis for moral
judgements, any agreement on moral rules must be coincidence.
One response the supernaturalist might offer is that the atheist does derive his or her ethics from God, even
though they are unaware of it. The supernaturalist might say that not believing in God does not mean the atheist
would have no awareness of a God-based ethics, and hence their agreement can be explained despite the
atheist’s different beliefs.
Constructionism devalues God-based ethics
Some who are observant followers of a religion accept that God is a human construction and not a supernatural
being. If this is so, then God-based ethics are no different from humanly constructed ethics based on cultural
traditions and rituals.
Different Gods leads to moral disagreement
Since there are many different religions, with different understandings of God and different moral codes, God-
based ethics is bound to produce moral disagreement. God-based ethics provides no way of dealing with
ethical conflicts between different religions.
Is fearing God a basis for good behaviour?
People may follow the rules of God-based ethics because they are fearful of being punished by God in this life or
in some afterlife. Many theologians teach that a fear- and power-based relationship with God is an inappropriate
relationship to have with a loving God and leads to a bad spiritual life. Many theologians and ethicists argue that
such a relationship with God provides a bad model for human power and family relationships. People may follow
the rules of God-based ethics simply because they wish to behave in a way that pleases God. This is a more
helpful model for human power and family relationships.
How to discover what is good?
Even if people accept that things are good because God desires them they still face the problem of discovering
what God desires. Strictly speaking this does not count against Supernaturalism as an intellectual position – it may
be just be accepted that moral truths are hard to discover - but it does highlight the difficulties.
There are several ways in which believers try to find out God’s will in ethical matters:
• Reading scripture - both to see what God says, and to find relevant examples.
• Listening to religious teachers.
• Prayer and meditation.
• Seeing what is consistent with God’s general advice on how to live.
• Listening to the inner, God-driven, voice.
• Discussion with teachers and followers of the religion concerned.
Many religious people use a combination of these in their approach to moral problems. It is accepted by many
believers that the ways of discovering God’s will set out above don’t give direct access to God’s will, but involve
working through intermediaries. Hence the information is passed through social, cultural, religious and
psychological filters that can distort it.
Many hold that God’s will is only directly known through revelation: God actually communicating his/her will to
the person concerned. However, revelation as a source of ethics still presents a problem for certainty: how is the
person to know that the revelation they have received has actually come from God.

CONSEQUENTIALISM (RESULTS-BASED ETHICS)

The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy gives a plain and simple definition of consequentialism: “Of all the things a
person might do at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with the best overall consequences”.
Consequentialism is based on two principles:
• Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act.
• The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act.
It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma: A person should choose the action that maximises
good consequences. And it gives this general guidance on how to live: People should live so as to maximise good
consequences.
Problems with Consequentialism
Different forms of Consequentialism
• Utilitarianism states that people should maximise human welfare or well-being (which they used to call
‘utility’ - hence the name).
• Hedonism states that people should maximise human pleasure.
• Other forms of consequentialism take a more subtle approach; for example stating that people should
maximise the satisfaction of their fully informed and rational preferences.
In practice people don’t assess the ethical consequences of every single act (that’s called ‘act consequentialism’)
because they don’t have the time. Instead they use ethical rules that are derived from considering the general
consequences of particular types of acts. That is called ‘rule consequentialism’. So, for example, according to rule
consequentialism we consider lying to be wrong because we know that in general lying produces bad
consequences.

VIRTUE ETHICS/CHARACTER BASED ETHICS

A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances
Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral character of the person carrying
out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of particular actions. Virtue ethics not
only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions, it provides guidance as to the sort of
characteristics and behaviours a good person will seek to achieve. In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the
whole of a person’s life, rather than particular episodes or actions.
A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who possesses and lives the virtues
It’s a useful theory since human beings are often more interested in assessing the character of another person
than they are in assessing the goodness or badness of a particular action. This suggests that the way to build a
good society is to help its members to be good people, rather than to use laws and punishments to prevent or
deter bad actions. But it wouldn’t be helpful if a person had to be a saint to count as virtuous. For virtue theory to
be really useful it needs to suggest only a minimum set of characteristics that a person needs to possess in order
to be regarded as virtuous. “...being virtuous is more than having a particular habit of acting, e.g. generosity. Rather,
it means having a fundamental set of related virtues that enable a person to live and act morally well.”
Principles Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics teaches:
• An action is only right if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry out in the same circumstances.
• A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously.
• A person acts virtuously if they “possess and live the virtues”.
• A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs to live well.
Most virtue theorists would also insist that the virtuous person is one who acts in a virtuous way as the result of
rational thought (rather than, say, instinct).
The three questions
The modern philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre proposed three questions as being at the heart of moral thinking:
• Who am I?
• Who ought I to become?
• How ought I to get there?

SUBJECTIVISM (RELATIVISM)
Subjectivism teaches that there are no objective moral truths out there. There are no objective moral facts.
Therefore ‘murder is wrong’ can’t be objectively true.
Many forms of subjectivism go a bit further and teach that moral statements describe how the speaker feels about
a particular ethical issue. Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude the speaker holds on a
particular issue. So if I say “Lying is wrong”, all I’m doing is telling you that I disapprove of telling lies.
Some forms of subjectivism generalise this idea to come up with: “Moral statements are just factual statements
about the attitude normal human beings hold on a particular issue”. And this may ultimately lead us to this
conclusion about moral truths: “Moral judgements are dependent on the feelings and attitudes of the persons
who think about such things”.
Good Points of Subjectivism
• Reflects the subjective elements of morality: It reflects the close relationship between morality and people’s
feelings and opinions - indeed it can cope with the contradictory moral views we often find ourselves
wrestling with.
• Reflects the evaluative elements of moral statements : Moral statements in everyday life make judgements
(“lying is wrong”), factual statements (“cats have fur”) don’t.
• Shows that moral judgements communicate dis/approval : It reflects the communication of approval and
disapproval that seems to go along with the everyday making of moral statements.
• May clarify what people are arguing about : Subjectivism may enable people disagreeing over the rightness or
wrongness of some issue to see that the real dispute is not about objective truth but about their own preferences.
• Reflects the persuasive intentions behind ethical discussions : Subjectivism may also enable people
engaging in moral argument to realise that they are not arguing about objective truths but trying to persuade
their opponent to adopt their point of view.
Bad Points of Subjectivism
The problem with subjectivism is that it seems to imply that moral statements are less significant than most people
think they are - this may of course be true without rendering moral statements insignificant.
“If I approve of something, it must be good”
• Subjectivism seems to tell us that moral statements give information only about what we feel about moral
issues.
• If the simplest form of subjectivism is true then when a person who genuinely approves of telling lies says
“telling lies is good” that moral statement is unarguably true. It would only be untrue if the speaker didn’t
approve of telling lies.
• So under this theory it seems that all the speaker has to do to prove that lying is good is to show lots of
evidence that they do indeed approve of lying - perhaps that they tell lots of lies and feel good about it,
indeed are surprised if anyone criticises them for being a liar, and that they often praise other people for
telling lies.
• Most people would find this way of approaching ethics somewhat unhelpful, and wouldn’t think it reflected
the way in which most people talk about ethical issues. Moral statements seem more than statements about
feelings
• By and large if a person says something is wrong we usually get the message that they disapprove of that
something, but most of us probably think that the other person is doing more than just telling us about their
feelings.
How can we blame people if moral truths are always subjective?
• If moral statements have no objective truth, then how can we blame people for behaving in a way that ‘is
wrong’, i.e. if “murder is wrong” has no objective truth, then how can we justify punishing people for murder?
• One answer is that we can justify punishment for murder on the basis of the objective truth that most normal
people in society disapprove of murder. If we do this, we should not pretend that our justification is based
on anything other than the majority view.

INTUITIONISM
Intuitionism teaches that there are objective moral truths, and that human beings can find them by using their
minds in a particular, intuitive way.
Intuitionism claims we know that ethical principles are valid and universal by intuition.
• Human beings have a special sense faculty that enables them to perceive directly what is right and what is
wrong. Just as human beings have a sense of taste by which they can distinguish what is bitter from what is
sweet, so too they have a moral faculty to enable them to distinguish what is right from what is wrong. What
brings pleasure to his moral faculty is good and what brings displeasure is evil.
• Another version of intuitionism claims that the ultimate criterion of morality is common sense. People have
principles that they form instinctively but cannot explain. These principles enable them to instinctively or
intuitively feel what is good or what is evil.
Intuitionism teaches three main things:
• There are real objective moral truths that are independent of human beings.
• These are fundamental truths that can’t be broken down into parts or defined by reference to anything
except other moral truths.
• Human beings can discover these truths by using their minds in a particular, intuitive way. Intuitionism does
not mean that all moral decisions are reached by relying on intuition. Intuition enables the discovery of the
basic moral truths, and everyday moral decision-making then involves thinking about the choices available
and making moral judgements in an ordinary sort of way.
However, philosophers object to intuitionism because:
• They don’t think that objective moral truths exist.
• They don’t think that there is a process of moral intuition.
• There’s no way for a person to distinguish between something actually being right and it merely seeming
right to that person.
• If intuitionism worked properly, everyone would come to the same moral conclusions, but they don’t.

DEONTOLOGICAL (DUTY-BASED ETHICS)

Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences of their
actions:
• Do the right thing.
• Do it because it’s the right thing to do.
• Don’t do wrong things.
• Avoid them because they are wrong.
Under this form of ethics you can’t justify an action by showing that it produced good consequences, which is why
it’s sometimes called ‘non-Consequentialist’. The word ‘deontological’ comes from the Greek word deon, which
means ‘duty’.
Duty-based ethics are usually what people are talking about when they refer to ‘the principle of the thing’. Duty
based ethics teaches that some acts are right or wrong because of the sorts of things they are, and people have a
duty to act accordingly, regardless of the good or bad consequences that may be produced. Some kinds of action
are wrong or right in themselves, regardless of the consequences.
Deontologists live in a universe of moral rules, such as:
• It is wrong to kill innocent people.
• It is wrong to steal.
• It is wrong to tell lies.
• It is right to keep promises.
Someone who follows Duty-based ethics should do the right thing, even if that produces more harm (or less good)
than doing the wrong thing. People have a duty to do the right thing, even if it produces a bad result. So, for
example, the philosopher Kant thought that it would be wrong to tell a lie in order to save a friend from a murderer.
If we compare Deontologists with Consequentialists we can see that Consequentialists begin by considering what
things are good, and identify ‘right’ actions as the ones that produce the maximum of those good things.
Deontologists appear to do it the other way around; they first consider what actions are ‘right’ and proceed from
there.
POSITIVE ASPECTS
Emphasises the value of every human being
• Duty-based ethical systems tend to focus on giving equal respect to all human beings.
• This provides a basis for human rights - it forces due regard to be given to the interests of a single person
even when those are at odds with the interests of a larger group.
 Says some acts are always wrong
• Kantian duty-based ethics says that some things should never be done, no matter what good consequences
they produce. This seems to reflect the way some human beings think.
• Rossian duty-based ethics modified this to allow various duties to be balanced, which, it could be argued,
isan even better fit to the way we think.
Provides ‘Certainty’
• Consequentialist ethical theories bring a degree of uncertainty to ethical decision-making, in that no-one
canbe certain about what consequences will result from a particular action, because the future is
unpredictable.
• Duty-based ethics don’t suffer from this problem because they are concerned with the action itself - if
anaction is a right action, then a person should do it, if it’s a wrong action they shouldn’t do it - and providing
there is a clear set of moral rules to follow then a person faced with a moral choice should be able to take
decisions with reasonable certainty.
Deals with intentions and motives
Consequentialist theories don’t pay direct attention to whether an act is carried out with good or bad intentions;
most people think these are highly relevant to moral judgements.
NEGATIVE ASPECTS
Absolutist
• Duty-based ethics sets absolute rules. The only way of dealing with cases that don’t seem to fit is to build
a list of exceptions to the rule.
Allows acts that make the world a less good place
• Because duty-based ethics is not interested in the results it can lead to courses of action that produce a
reduction in the overall happiness of the world.
• Most people would find this didn’t fit with their overall idea of ethics
Hard to reconcile conflicting duties
• Duty-based ethics doesn’t deal well with the cases where duties are in conflict.

FEMINIST ETHICS
• Historically speaking, women have been largely absent from Western philosophy. The classical Greek
philosopher and best-known advocate of virtue ethics Aristotle not only and famously put forward a principled
defence of slavery.
• He also thought that women should play a very special role in society. And the reason was in both cases natural
difference. He wrote as follows, in opposition to another, equally well-known Athenian philosopher, Socrates:
“[M]oral virtue belongs to all of them; but the temperance of a man and of a woman, or the courage and
justice of a man and of a woman, are not, as Socrates maintained, the same; the courage of a man is shown
in commanding, of a woman in obeying … as the poet says of women, ‘Silence is a woman’s glory’, but this is
not equally the glory of man.”
• This is only the beginning of a long tradition of prejudice against women, where some of the most
important representatives are the famous Swiss enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712–78) and Immanuel Kant.
• What is characteristic of a true woman, then, according to Rousseau? Well, she should certainly not be
brilliant. ‘A brilliant wife is a plague to her husband, her children, her friends, her valets, everyone,’ he
claimed. On the other hand, a woman who had developed her distinctively female traits was only a ‘little
lower than the angels’. Rousseau did not deny that women were capable of reasoning, but their reasoning
was complementary, and ultimately subordinate, to that of men. A woman’s reason, Rousseau wrote, was
practical, attuned to detail and basically unprincipled. A man’s reason, on the other hand, was abstract,
general and principled. Immanuel Kant took up a similar position.
Today we can only too easily distance ourselves from all these prejudices, once they have been exposed. Feminist
Ethics is an attempt to revise, reformulate, or rethink traditional ethics to the extent it depreciates or devalues
women's moral experience. Among others, feminist philosopher Alison Jaggar faults traditional ethics for letting
women down in five related ways.
• First, it shows less concern for women's as opposed to men's issues and interests.
• Second, traditional ethics views as trivial the moral issues that arise in the so-called private world, the
realm in which women do housework and take care of children, the infirm, and the elderly.
• Third, it implies that, in general, women are not as morally mature or deep as men.
• Fourth, traditional ethics overrates culturally masculine traits like “independence, autonomy, intellect,
will, wariness, hierarchy, domination, culture, transcendence, product, asceticism, war, and death,” while it
underrates culturally feminine traits like “interdependence, community, connection, sharing, emotion, body,
trust, absence of hierarchy, nature, immanence, process, joy, peace, and life.”
• Fifth, and finally, it favors “male” ways of moral reasoning that emphasize rules, rights, universality, and
impartiality over “female” ways of moral reasoning that emphasize relationships, responsibilities,
particularity, and partiality .
Feminists have developed a wide variety of gender-centered approaches to ethics, each of which addresses
one or more of the five ways traditional ethics has failed or neglected women. Some feminist ethicists emphasize
issues related to women's traits and behaviors, particularly their care-giving ones. In contrast, other feminist
ethicists emphasize the political, legal, economic, and/or ideological causes and effects of women's second-
sex status. But be these emphases as they may, all feminist ethicists share the same goal: the creation of a
gendered ethics that aims to eliminate or at least ameliorate the oppression of any group of people, but most
particularly women.

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 CHAPTER 3: DETERMINANTS OF
ETHICS
We all have an image of our better selves-of how we are when we act ethically or are “at our best.” We probably
also have an image of what an ethical community, an ethical business, an ethical government, or an ethical society
should be. Ethics really has to do with all these levels-acting ethically as individuals, creating ethical organizations
and governments, and making our society as a whole ethical in the way it treats everyone. Simply stated, ethics
refers to standards of behaviour that tell us how human beings ought to act in the many situations in which they
find themselves as friends, parents, children, citizens, businesspeople, teachers, professionals, and so on.
Why Identifying Ethical Standards is Hard?
There are two fundamental problems in identifying the ethical standards we are to follow:
1. On what do we base our ethical standards?
2. How do those standards get applied to specific situations we face?
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based on?
Many philosophers and ethicists have helped us answer this critical question. They have suggested at least five
different sources of ethical standards we should use.

DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS
What parts of a human action should we examine to decide if the action concurs with human nature. There are
three parts to every action that we should examine:
• The object of the action
• The circumstances in which the action was performed
• The end or purpose of the act
Sometimes these three components are the only practical criteria a public administrator will have to decide the
morality of a public action.
Object of a Human Action
The object of an action is the first part of any action in a morality assessment. The object of any action is its
essence. It is that which makes an action be what it is and not something else. Every action has an object.
The object distinguishes the act from every other act. That object can be something good, bad or indifferent—
that is, neither good nor bad. Lying and telling the truth are examples of two actions that are distinguished from
each other according to moral criteria. The following principles apply to the object of every action.
• An action whose object is bad by its very nature will remain bad and nothing can improve it—neither
circumstances, nor purpose, nor intention. A lie, defined as speaking contrary to what is in the speakers mind,
remains a lie despite the purpose or circumstance involved. Purpose and circumstance do not make it
anything (another object) except a lie.
• An action that is good may become bad because of circumstances or purpose. For example, telling the truth is a
good act. By telling the truth, when silence would suffice, to destroy another person’s good name or character
makes the good act of telling the truth a morally bad act because of the speaker’s purpose or intention.
• An action that is indifferent (neither good nor bad) may become good or bad because of circumstances or
purpose. Walking may be an indifferent act. But walking into a store to steal becomes a morally evil action
because of the purpose.
Circumstances of a Human Action
Some moral circumstances are aggravating when they increase the goodness or badness of an action. Thus, stealing
from a homeless person is an aggravating circumstance that increases the badness of an already bad act.
• Circumstances are extenuating when they decrease the amount of badness of an action. For example, to
steal Rs 100 from the Bank is not as bad as stealing Rs 100 from a homeless person, but it is still an evil act.
• Moral circumstances are specifying when they make an indifferent act become good or bad, or when they
give a new kind of goodness or badness to an action. For example, taking money from a till is an indifferent
act. If the money belongs to the taker, the act is all right. But if the money belongs to another person, it is an
evil, immoral act.
The End or Purpose of a Human Action
The end of a human action is the purpose the person had in mind while doing the act. It is the intention. People
can have only one purpose or have a variety of purposes in doing a particular act. We can deduce certain principles
based on the purpose in mind when performing the act.
• An action that is indifferent because of its object may become good or bad because of the purpose. For
example, jogging in itself is an indifferent act. When done to maintain good health, it becomes a good act.
When done to arrive at a place where the person commits theft or murder, it becomes an immoral action.
• An action that is good because of its object may become more good or less good or even bad because of the
purpose. For example, to give a donation to a homeless person is a good action. If you give the donation just
to get rid of the person, it is still a good action, but not as good as in the first case. If you give the donation
to lure the homeless person into doing something evil or immoral for you, the donation becomes an immoral
act.
• An action that is evil by its object may become more wrong or perhaps less wrong, but never good by its
purpose. For instance, telling a lie is morally wrong. But telling a lie to defame another person is more wrong.
Telling a lie “to get out of trouble” or to protect the interests of another person is still lying and still wrong,
but less wrong because of the purpose. A good end does not justify a bad means.

FIVE SOURCES OF ETHICAL STANDARDS

The Utilitarian Approach
Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that provides the most good or does the least harm,
or, to put it another way, produces the greatest balance of good over harm. The ethical corporate action, then, is
the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected-customers, employees,
shareholders, the community, and the environment. Ethical warfare balances the good achieved in ending
terrorism with the harm done to all parties through death, injuries, and destruction. The utilitarian approach deals
with consequences; it tries both to increase the good done and to reduce the harm done.
The Rights Approach
Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action is the one that best protects and respects the
moral rights of those affected. This approach starts from the belief that humans have a dignity based on their
human nature per se or on their ability to choose freely what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity,
they have a right to be treated as ends and not merely as means to other ends. The list of moral rights
–including the rights to make one’s own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be
injured, to a degree of privacy, and so on-is widely debated; some now argue that non-humans have rights, too.
Also, it is often said that rights imply duties-in particular, the duty to respect others’ rights.
The Fairness or Justice Approach
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all equals should be treated equally. Today
we use this idea to say that ethical actions treat all human beings equally or if unequally, then fairly based on some
standard that is defensible. We pay people more based on their harder work or the greater amount that they
contribute to an organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries that are hundreds of
times larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge disparity is based on a defensible standard or
whether it is the result of an imbalance of power and hence is unfair.
The Common Good Approach
The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that life in community is a good in itself and our actions
should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking relationships of society are the basis
of ethical reasoning and that respect and compassion for all others-especially the vulnerable-are requirements of
such reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of
everyone. This may be a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, health care, a public educational
system, or even public recreational areas.
The Virtue Approach
A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal virtues that
provide for the full development of our humanity. These virtues are dispositions and habits that enable us to
act according to the highest potential of our character and on behalf of values like truth and beauty. Honesty,
courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all
examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any action, “What kind of person will I become if I do this?” or “Is this
action consistent with my acting at my best?”
PUTTING THE APPROACHES TOGETHER
Each of the approaches helps us determine what standards of behaviour can be considered ethical. There are still
problems to be solved, however.
• The first problem is that we may not agree on the content of some of these specific approaches. We may not
all agree to the same set of human and civil rights. We may not agree on what constitutes the common good.
We may not even agree on what is a good and what is harm.
• The second problem is that the different approaches may not all answer the question “What is ethical?” in
the same way. Nonetheless, each approach gives us important information with which to determine what is
ethical in a particular circumstance. And much more often than not, the different approaches do lead to
similar answers.
Making Decisions
Making good ethical decisions requires a trained sensitivity to ethical issues and a practiced method for exploring
the ethical aspects of a decision and weighing the considerations that should impact our choice of a course of
action. Having a method for ethical decision making is absolutely essential. When practiced regularly, the method
becomes so familiar that we work through it automatically without consulting the specific steps.
The more novel and difficult the ethical choice we face, the more we need to rely on discussion and dialogue with
others about the dilemma. Only by careful exploration of the problem, aided by the insights and different
perspectives of others, can we make good ethical choices in such situations.
We have found the following framework for ethical decision making a useful method for exploring ethical
dilemmas and identifying ethical courses of action.
Ethics and Rules, Commandments, and Loopholes
Many people will mention the Ten Commandments as the basis of morality, yet very few people can name all ten.
Rules and laws tend to grow more numerous as various people find loopholes to thwart them, and they also tend
to be negative, “Thou shalt not…” The Golden Rule, on the other hand, is positive and more of a principle to live
by than a rule. Jesus said, “Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
them (Matthew 7:12.) He was not the first to say something like this, since the idea is also expressed in the
philosophies of ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia, India, Greece, Judea, and China.
CASE STUDY : DETERMINANTS OF ETHICAL BEHAVIOR IN AN ORGANIZATION
There are five main influences that determine weather behaviour are ethical or unethical.
Personal Ethics
• Our personal ethical code exerts a profound influence on the way we behave as business people.
• The first step to establishing a strong sense of business ethics is for a society to emphasize strong personal ethics.
• Expatriate managers may experience more than the usual degree of pressure to violate their personal ethics.
Decision-Making Processes
• Several studies of unethical behavior in business have concluded that business people sometimes do not
realize they are behaving unethically primarily because they simple fail to ask. “Is this decision or action
ethical?”
• Applying straight forward business calculus to a decision without considering important ethical issues result
in unethical activities.
Organization Culture
• The climate in some businesses does not encourage people to think through the ethical consequences of
business decision.
• Result of an organizational culture that deemphasizes business ethics, reducing all decisions to be purely
economic.
Unrealistic Performance Expectations
• Pressure from the parent company to meet unrealistic goals that can only be attained by acting in an
unethical manner
• This often results in managers will violating their own personal ethics and engage in unethical behaviour
• An organizational culture with values that reinforce ethical behaviour is an essential ethical component
Leadership
• Leaders help to establish the culture and values of an organization and they set the example that others
follow.

ACTS OF DOUBLE EFFECT

Some actions have two effects—good and bad. How does someone decide the morality of such actions? Ethicists
provide a few general principles to help decide the morality of acts of double effect. They are:
1. The action that produces the two effects must be either good or indifferent— that is, not intrinsically wrong.
2. The good effect must be immediate—that is, not obtained through the evil effect.
3. The intention or purpose must be good.
4. There must be a proportionately good reason or cause for performing the action in the first place.
Acts of double effect are of great interest to most people. They often cite the example of the pregnant woman
about to deliver, whose physician has diagnosed serious medical complications. In the physician’s opinion, it may
not be possible to save both lives. Many have claimed that this example allows the physician “to kill the mother
to save the baby.” Others have said that the physician may “kill the baby to save the mother.”
Every physician will do his or her utmost to save both lives. But if, finally, it is a question of one life versus the
other, the following principle holds. It is lawful (moral) to perform an act of two effects (one life saved, the other
lost) provided the actor (physician) intends the good effect although the actor for sees that the evil effect is
possible and perhaps probable. The actor does not intend the evil effect. In the case of the pregnant woman, the
physician may perform a surgical procedure intending to save the woman’s life (good effect), but from which
procedure the physician foresees that death of the unborn infant (evil effect) will result. However, the physician
does not intend this evil effect.

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 CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENT OF
ETHICS
INTRODUCTION
Ethics are acquired from the day of our birth until the day of our death.
At first, ethics are absorbed through parent-child relationships and the imitation of adult behaviour.
• Children should interact with warm, caring, ethically mature adults during their first years of life to promote
positive ethical development.
• Parents and teachers have a strong impact on children through the tenor of their relationships with children
and with each other.
• Adults most often try to promote ethical behaviour in children by establishing rules and codes of behaviour
through rewards and punishments. However, experts have found that this is much less effective than
modelling and personal interaction.
Ethics are also acquired through labelling and sexual roles. People most often live up to the labels they are given,
especially children. If a child is labeled “delinquent,” she or he will incorporate that label and behave accordingly.
If, on the other hand, a child is labeled “well-behaved,” he or she will fulfill that expectation. Sexual roles
also confer labels; “masculine” and “feminine” carry distinct expectations in nearly every culture, which children
learn to conform to or rebel against early on. To become ethically mature, a person must struggle past assigned
labels and roles to develop a freely chosen sense of identity, from which will grow the ethical code.
Two other important sources of ethical development are the practice of ethical behaviours and social interaction.
Adults can help promote positive ethical development in children by creating opportunities for the children to
make age-appropriate ethical choices and experience the consequences of those choices. It is also important to
create a safe, supportive social environment so that children can learn to value others and identify with their
community.
Empathy is an essential element in positive ethical behaviour; unless a person identifies with others and
values them, she or he will have no qualms about causing others pain or suffering.
Finally, to reach full ethical maturity, a person must create his or her own ethical systems, born out of a sense of
connection with all humans and other forms of life. Children must be given the opportunity to ground themselves
in a sense of safety and community, out of which they can develop a responsible code of ethics that will carry
them creatively through life.
Role of Family in Development of Ethics
• The family is an intimate room where the core values, culture as well as ethical climate of the family as well
as of the broader environment is shaped, and where the first social relationships are formed, which differ
from relationships with people outside the family circle. The process of family education and upbringing form
the foundation for the focused expectations of every single family member upon which the trust and firmness
of family relations are built.
• The family system forms fundamental principles, core values, which can be seen as the guidelines in setting
the vision, mission and goals of a family enterprise. Because of the importance of the family influence on the
ethical climate and culture of a family enterprise system (influenced through the family core values), it could
be possible to observe and value the level of family influence on the ethical behaviour of a family enterprise
as well.
• In society, values help to define people’s “core” thinking: what they love, hate, or are just indifferent to. In
an enterprise, values serve to convey a sense of identity to its members, enhance the stability of its social
system, direct a manager’s attention to important issues, guide subsequent decisions by managers, and
facilitate commitment to something larger than self.
Religious Beliefs impact on Personal Ethics
• Religious beliefs have a unique impact on personal ethics. In general, religion allows people to accept an
established set of moral rules.
• By following these spiritual laws, people feel they are behaving ethically. Religion often promises rewards
in the after life as motivation for following the “rules”. Interestingly, religion can inspire all kinds of acts,
including violence.
• Some devout followers can come to embrace an ethical code that allows for incredible cruelty to be done
in the name of a greater spiritual being.
Culture affects Ethical Norms
Culture can dictate the ethical norms that people are used to and come to expect. The culture you live in may
impact your ethical code more than you even realize, simply because it surrounds you. The customs and traditions
of the society you inhabit become ingrained in your psyche and the ethics of the group are generally accepted.
Racism, gender discrimination and other forms of prejudice can become an accepted part of a person’s ethical
standards when surrounded by people who do it and allow it.
Internal Reflection
Personal ethics are also developed by our understanding. When we do something that is against our
understanding/ideas, we feel bad, guilty or ashamed. Likewise, when we do something that fits into our ethical
idea of “right” we feel good, proud or happy. This causes a sort of immediate feedback for creating our moral
standards and making ethical decisions. The concept of personal ethics is incredibly complicated. It develops from
a variety of factors and deserves indepth exploration.
It stated that ethics can generally be defined as the principles of morally acceptable conduct of individuals. What
makes a person to be ethical and unethical? The factors that define ethical behaviours are diverse, but all factors
unite when a person makes a final decision on how to act. The factors that influence an individual ethics can be
categorised to five points which are family influences, peer influences, situational factors, life experiences,
personal values and morals. Although the reasons are variety, but there are easy to be understand.
Social interactions over a lifetime of associations in many diverse communal environments formulate the basis of
the individual morals, norms, and beliefs. The closer the relationship the more likely it is to have a lasting effect
on a person’s beliefs and morals. In the modern increasingly mobile workforce this makes the possibility of a
group of employees with identical morals, norms, and beliefs remote.

STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral reasoning always relates to the basic interests of humans and other sentient beings and to the value of the
environment that sustains both human and non-human life. An ethical analysis can play an important part in
identifying human and non human interests and the value of the ecosystem as a whole. It also asks how these
values and interests may be threatened or undermined and how they may be furthered or protected.
Ecosystem well-being is of crucial importance both in itself and for basic human interests and long-term social
benefits. In this document, the main focus is on the way in which fishing policies and practices affect the living
conditions, interests and well-being of fishers and fishing communities, as well as the well-being of the ecosystem.
This is in keeping with sustainable development, the dominant concept of environmental ethics, enshrined in the
FAO concept of responsible fisheries. These basic interests are intricately connected to the capabilities necessary
for leading a decent human life and, thus, to the vulnerabilities against which people must be protected.
They constitute the moral values that moral reasoning aims to defend, e.g. by framing fundamental principles that
serve to guide our moral interaction and to protect basic moral interests. At the most general level, the related
vulnerabilities against which people must be protected are: poverty, domination and injustice.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional. Following Piaget’s constructivist requirements for a stage model, as
described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher
stage abilities. Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive
and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
• How can I avoid punishment?
2. Self-interest orientation
• What’s in it for me?
• Paying for a benefit.
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
• Social norms
• The good boy/good girl attitude
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation.
• Law and order morality
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
• Principled conscience
The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages
as simplistic, lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
Pre-conventional of moral reasoning
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also
exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences.
The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development, and is solely concerned
with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that
certain actions may bring.
• In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions
on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished.
“The last time I did that I got spanked so I will not do it again.”
o The worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be. This can give rise to an
inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is “egocentric”, lacking
recognition that others’ points of view are different from one’s own. There is “deference to superior power
or prestige”.
• Stage two (self-interest driven) espouses the “what’s in it for me” position, in which right behaviour is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does
not consider one’s reputation or relationships to groups of people.
o Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might
further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
respect, but rather a “You scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours.” mentality. The lack of a societal
perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all
actions have the purpose of serving the individual’s own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist,
the world’s perspective is often seen as morally relative.
Conventional of moral reasoning
• The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Those who reason in a
conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society’s views and expectations. The
conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is
characterized by an acceptance of society’s conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual
 obeys rules and follows society’s norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience.
Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is
seldom questioned.
• In Stage three (interpersonal accord and conformity driven), the self enters society by filling social roles.
Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society’s accordance with the
perceived role. They try to be a “good boy” or “good girl” to live up to these expectations, having learned
that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by
evaluating its consequences in terms of a person’s relationships, which now begin to include things like
respect, gratitude and the “golden rule”. “I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being
naughty makes people like me.” Desire to maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these
social roles. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage.
• In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums and social
conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four
is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or ideals often
prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the case of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate
a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains
from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Post-conventional of moral reasoning
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals
are separate entities from society, and that the individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s
view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice.
People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally
rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must
be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a
situation over social conventions, their behaviour, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at
the pre-conventional level.
• In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as
social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”. This is achieved through
majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five
reasoning.
• In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal
ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice
carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not
essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather
categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. This involves an individual imagining
what they would do in another’s shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true. The
resulting consensus is the action taken.
• In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not
because it avoids punishment, is in their best interest, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon.
Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.
Further stages in the development of moral reasoning
In Kohlberg’s empirical studies of individuals throughout their life Kohlberg observed that some had apparently
undergone moral stage regression. This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending
the theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in which the emerging stage has not
yet been fully integrated into the personality. In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 4½ or 4+, a transition from stage
four to stage five, that shared characteristics of both. In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary
nature of law and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society
itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those
interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong. Kohlberg noted that this
was often observed in students entering college.

IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS IN PUBLIC LIFE

Importance of Values in Public Administration
Values are essential components of organisational culture and instrumental in determining, guiding and informing
behaviour. Inculcating Values rather than Ethics is becoming global concern now a day.
Real transformation as a human being can only bring about a sustainable impact towards Good-Governance.
Human beings only are the real goal of all developmental activities. The physical amenities and prosperity achieved
through various measures is meaningless if the human beings are not able to ascent from the primitive instincts.
The success or failure of activities of the state depends upon the proper execution of national plans and
programmes. No plan, howsoever, good it may be cannot be successful without clean, efficient and impartial
Administration.
However, today we find ourselves to be a part of the administration, which is neither clean nor impartial. We find
corrupt practices, low morale, favoritism, culture of high consumerism, casteism and nepotism all around us.
In the organization, much stress on skills-development is being laid which of course is required to keep pace with
the changing technology and requirements. At the same time, efforts to some extent are also being made to
develop positive attitude of the government officials towards the desired acts and behaviours. However, little
could be achieved through all the efforts made in this direction.
Importance of Ethics in Business
• Ethics corresponds to basic human needs.
• It creates credibility with the public.
• It gives management credibility with the employees.
• It helps in better decisions.
• Making Law cannot protect society, but ethics can.

HOW TO IDENTIFY AN ETHICAL ISSUE?

Ethical judgments are made about actions or situations that are right or wrong, good or bad. One clue that an
action or situation needs an ethical rather than simply a business judgment is that the action or situation involves
actual or potential harm to someone or something. Another clue would be that there seems to be a possibility of
a violation of what we generally consider right or good.
Smell Test
A good way to identify when an ethical issue that needs to be addressed is to use the “Smell Test: “What would
the action or situation we are considering smell like if we read about in a front page news article or in a popular
blog? Would we be comfortable reading a Wall Street Journal story that our company was doing this or letting the
current situation continue for long? Would I be comfortable explaining it to my spouse, or my grandmother?”
The Strengths of the Smell Test
• It focuses us on what other ethical people in the society would think. It prevents us from taking special
advantages for ourselves.
• It recognizes that morality is about what others think as much as it is about what I think.
• It enlists the emotion of shame, a powerful motivator to be sure we are getting this right.
The Weaknesses
• The smell test is only as good as the society we live in. The society may be blind to the ethical dimensions of
an action or situation, may accept unethical actions as ethical, or be divided on whether the action is right or
wrong.
• As the olfactory image reminds us, living with bad smells or unethical conduct for a long time may dull a
 person’s ability to notice them.
• It tells us that an action is an ethical issue but not why it is right or wrong.
• Knowing why an action is right or wrong can help explain it to others. Knowing why it is wrong can help to
modify the action to make it right. To determine why, we will have to move beyond the smell test.
The Smell Test is familiar ground in most businesses and is a good place to begin. It is a “quick and dirty” test for
deciding if something is an ethical issue and useful because brand name and a person’s reputation are important
in business.
BEST OUTCOMES OR UTILITY TEST
Introduce the test
Ask: “Will this produce the best outcomes for everyone affected?” or “Are we maximizing good and minimizing
harm for everyone affected?”
For the best outcomes test (the utility test “Utilitarian Principle”), the consequences or outcomes determine what
is right or wrong. For this principle the ends justify the means: an action is right if it creates the best overall
outcome. Good outcomes can be measured by:
• Happiness and unhappiness (pleasure and pain).
• The preferences of individuals.
• Money as an indicator of preferences.
Why are best outcomes or utility a valid way to decide right and wrong?
This test is a valid way to decide which actions are right or wrong because:
• Everyone counts the same.
• Everyone wants to be happy or avoid being unhappy.
• Therefore, good is what makes the most happiness or least unhappiness—the best outcomes—for all who
are affected.
In short, we can’t just look at consequences for ourselves or our group to decide what is ethical because
everyoneaffected by the action has equal standing as a person.
Apply the test
STEP 1 : Identify the alternative actions that are possible and the persons and groups (the stakeholders) who will
be affected by these actions.
STEP 2 : For each of the most promising alternatives, determine the benefits and costs to each person or group
affected. These calculations:
• Require predicting probable outcomes based on facts and experience;
• Should include both short term and long term consequences; and
• Should consider the relative value or “marginal utility” of an outcome to different individuals and groups.
STEP 3 : Select the action in the current situation that produces the greatest benefits over costs for all affected. If
costs outweigh benefits, select the action with the least costs relative to benefits. This step shows the
alternative that has the greatest net good for this one situation.
STEP 4 : Ask what would happen if the action were a policy for all similar situations. Since what is done in one
situation often becomes an example or even a policy for future actions, this step shows which alternative
maximizes good for this and future situations.
Draw a conclusion
If the same action is selected in Steps 3 & 4, then this is the ethical action. If different actions are selected, then
decide whether the individual action or the policy will produce the greatest good and the least harm, for all
affected, over the long term.
Strengths of the best outcomes or Utility Test
• Outcomes matter—I cannot be satisfied with simply following my personal ethical standards if bad
consequences result.
• Factual data and assessing the probability of potential outcomes are important to deciding what is right/
wrong.
• The welfare of animals and other entities should be included in ethical decisions since they are affected by
outcomes.
• The emphasis on rational calculation and on including all stakeholders reminds us that our immediate
intuitions about right and wrong cannot always be trusted.
• Requires striving for the best outcome and not simply a good outcome.
Weaknesses of the best outcomes or Utility Test
• Requires accurate probability assessments of likely outcomes that may be difficult or impossible to make in
complex situations.
• In organizations where outcomes are measured by making the quarterly numbers, it may be difficult to focus
on long term goods and harms—in the long run everyone hopes to outrun their mistakes by promotion,
transfer, or retirement.
• Is subject to several common errors when being applied.
• Limited Stakeholder error considering outcomes only for myself or my group.
• Short Term error considering only direct or immediate consequences instead of including indirect and long
term consequences.
• Single Alternative error deciding an action is good because its benefits outweigh its costs without considering
alternatives that may have a better benefit/cost ratio.
THE RIGHTS TEST
Introduce the test
Ask: “Are we respecting human rights.”
Why is this a valid way to decide right and wrong?
People are familiar with the idea of rights and are quick to use the word to explain:
• A claim they have against others.
• Why they are entitled to something from society or others.
• Why they should be protected from actions that benefit society or others at our expense.
Rights are not an empirical fact of human life and are understood differently in different societies and periods of
history. Rights are a way of thinking that recognizes human beings as valuable in and of themselves (intrinsic
value), regardless of their physical and mental attributes or position in society and regardless of what they are
worth to others (extrinsic value). Animals also have rights, though most people would claim it is a more limited
set.
Rights indicate the freedoms or the material conditions required for this value. Without the ability to express
his/her political or religious beliefs, for example, or to vote, (liberty rights), or without food, clothing, health care,
education, or employment (welfare rights), an individual human cannot live in a way that expresses that intrinsic
value.
None of these rights have any validity, however, if we do not recognize the intrinsic value in human beings. Why
recognize that value in others? Because we recognize it in ourselves, and recognize that others are equal to us. If
I recognize that I have rights, others must also have rights unless I can explain why they are not entitled to what I
am entitled to.
Apply the test
STEP 1 : Identify the right being upheld or violated.
• Liberty rights, such as the right to property, to free speech, to religion, and so on, are protections against the
encroachment of society or other individuals.
• Welfare rights, such as the right to food, clothing, education, health care, and so on, are indications of what
we need in order to live a life worth of human beings. Individuals and society may have obligations to help
me obtain these if they are available and I have done my part to obtain them. An extensive listing of what
many take to be essential human rights is contained in the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
STEP 2 : Explain why it deserves the status of a right, because it is:
• Essential a person’s dignity and self-worth; and/or
• Essential to a person’s freedom or well being.
We can explain why a right is essential by asking what would happen if the individual were denied this right and
whether we would want that right respected if we were in that person’s position.
STEP 3 : Ask whether that right conflicts with other rights or with the rights of others. When rights conflict, decide
which has precedence by explaining why each right is important and showing the consequences for dignity and
self-worth (or freedom and well-being) if the right is not protected. Ethical people can disagree about which right
is more important since no ranking principle is universally accepted.
Draw a conclusion
Explain briefly how the Rights principle is or is not applicable and what it shows in this case. Remember, save
therights hammer for the really big issues.
Strengths of the Rights Test
Human rights have become a very powerful tool across the world for showing respect for people. Others pay
attention when you advance a claim that someone’s rights are being violated.
Weaknesses of the Rights Test
• Rights are considered by some to be absolute. Rights sometimes conflict with other rights and with the
overall good of all those affected. Solving these conflicts means that rights might have to be subordinated.
• Many people do not understand there is not a universally recognized list of rights so a person must defend
his/her claim that something is a human right.
• Because of its power, the rights test is sometimes applied to situations that are not serious enough to
qualify as a threat to a person’s rights. This test is not helpful in ordinary circumstances.
THE EVERYBODY OR EXTRA SLACK TEST OR THE EXCEPTIONS TEST
Introduce the Test
Ask: “What if everyone did that?” or “If it is ethical for us to do that, then here comes everybody. What do you
think about that?” or “Are we cutting ourselves some extra slack here?”
The point of the everybody or extra slack test is that it does not make sense to claim it is ethical for us to do an
action but not ethical for others to do the same thing in similar situations. That would be claiming an exception
for ourselves that would have to be justified. Using this test is not the same as claiming that it must be ethical for
us because “everyone else is doing it.” It is asking what things would be like if everyone else really were doing the
action in question.
Why is this a valid way to decide Right and Wrong?
We are all equal as ethical actors, so whatever is ethical for me must be ethical for others in the same
circumstances. This is true for individuals and companies. So why should we be able to get away with something
if others can’t?
Apply the Test
STEP 1 : Specify what action we are considering.
Describe the action in a way that captures the ethically relevant features. Adjust the generality or specificity of
the action to highlight what is questionable:
• Is the action part of a general category such as “not telling the truth” or “breaking a promise”?
• Or does the action have specific characteristics that are relevant, such as “not telling the truth to save a life”
or “breaking a promise because something more important is at risk” which are more specific descriptions.
• Avoid value loaded descriptors that already contain the ethical judgment (“We are lying to the customer”)
because this closes off further discussion.
STEP 2 : Ask, “What if everyone did it?” If the action were adopted by others in similar situations, would it:
(a) Become impossible for anyone to do the action because everyone tried to do it? If everyone lied, no one
would believe anyone else, so it would be impossible for anyone to lie successfully (if lying is “deceiving
others by not telling the truth”). If everyone broke promises than it would be impossible for anyone to do so
because no promise would be accepted. If everyone filed false tax returns then the government would stop
voluntary tax filings and collect taxes directly so it would be impossible for anyone to file a false return. Since
everyone is equal, it is not ethical for us to do something that not everyone can do. We would be making an
exception for ourselves.
(b) Create a business climate unacceptable to us because everyone was doing it?” If I do not want to operate in
a business climate in which I cannot trust people to tell truth or keep their promises, then I should tell the
truth and keep my promises. Not to do so would be to make an exception for myself that I don’t deserve
since everyone is equal. How do we decide what is “unacceptable”? Consider what is important to me that
would be sacrificed if we had to work in that kind of business climate. Is that the kind of world we want to
live in? If we would not want to work in a world in which the action was common or if our firm and/ or society
would not want us to create a world in which the action were common, then it is not ethical for us to act in
a way we find unacceptable for others to act.
STEP 3 : Draw a conclusion for Step 2: What if everyone did it? Either condition a. or b. would make the action
unethical: “We should (or should not) do this action since we would (or would not) be claiming an exception for
ourselves; we can (or can’t) all do it and/or the common adoption of the action would create a world we and our
company would find acceptable (or unacceptable).”
STEP 4 : Ask, “What if they did it to us?” If the action were directed at us, would we think it was ethical? We are
not asking if we would like it but whether we would think it was ethical. This step of reversing the action is a way
of applying the Golden Rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.”
STEP 5 : Draw a conclusion for Step 3: “What if they did it to us?” If it would not be ethical for others to do the
action to us, then it is unethical for us to do the action because we would be claiming an exception for ourselves.
Summarize the conclusions for “What if everyone did it?” and for “What if they did it to
us?”
If the action would be impossible for everyone to do, if it would be unacceptable to us or the company if everyone
did it, or if it would be unethical for someone to do it to us, then the action would not be ethical for us to do
since that would be claiming and exception for ourselves—that we should be able to do what it is unethical for
others to do. Failing any one of the three conditions shows the action to be unethical.
Strengths of the exceptions test
• Reminds us not to give ourselves advantages in regard to what is ethical – that we are all equal in what is
right or wrong.
• Addresses the free rider problem – we can’t justify being the only one allowed to market this way even when
there is no great harm if only a few of us do it unless we can explain why we deserve to be an exception.
Weaknesses of the exceptions test
• Description of the action can miss the ethical issue.
• People who are vicious or fanatics may agree to a world that others would find unacceptable.
THE CHOICES TEST
Introduce the test
Ask “Are the people affected able to make their own choices.”
Why is this a valid way to decide right and wrong?
• Things have value because people value them.
• All people deserve equal respect as ones who give value to things. What I value has no claim to be
“morevaluable” than what you value.
• So let others make their own choices based on what they value. Don’t choose for them except in special
circumstances. Children, for example, may not be equal because they may not know what they really value.
• Those who have made promises, signed contracts, or made other prior commitments may not be free to
actbecause of their commitments.
Apply the test
STEP 1 : Am I giving others freedom to choose what they value?
• We are free to make our own choices if we not being forced or coerced to choose something we do not value.
• Are there any prior choices (contracts, promises) that limit a person’s freedom?
STEP 2 : Am I giving them the information necessary to know what they value in this situation? An informed choice
requires the level of information (or the opportunity to get the information) necessary to know which alternative
best fulfills what a person values. A practical test for whether the information is adequate is to ask would that
person choose differently if he/she had additional information?
Draw a conclusion
Is the action unethical because it does not give the persons being affected the freedom and/or the information to
choose what she/he values?
Strengths of the Choices Test
• The choices test reflects one of the fundamental ways of showing respect for the equality of other humans—
respecting their ability to determine the course of their own lives by making choices based on what theythink
is valuable.
• Many ethical violations in business and professional settings involve denying people information or limiting
their freedom to choose.
• The test reminds us that it is possible to determine what people value through direct questions, surveys, and
focus groups.
Weaknesses of the Choices Test
• It can reinforce a simplistic view of human decision making that people are clear about what they value
andmake rational choices based on those values.
• The concept of freedom is the subject of much disagreement. The line, for example, between persuasion and
coercion can be difficult to draw. When does making something look attractive take away from a person’s
freedom to reject it.
THE JUSTICE TEST
Introduce the principle
Ask: “Is this a fair distribution of benefits and burdens.”
Why is the justice test a valid way to decide right and wrong?
If everyone is equal – that is, has equal value as a human person– then everyone has an equal claim to a share.
The default distribution is to give everyone an equal share since all are worth the same. But there are
circumstances in which everyone does not have an equal claim because they worked harder or less hard,
contributed more or less, have greater or less need, etc. So a fair distribution is in each situation depends on their
equality or inequality: Treat equals equally and unequals unequally.
The reasons for inequality:
• Effort : some may have worked harder.
• Accomplishment : some may have achieved more or performed better.
• Contribution : some may have contributed more to the group or society.
• Need : some may have a greater need to be served first or receive a larger share.
• Seniority : some may have arrived in line first, be older or younger, or have more years of service.
• Contract : a prior agreement about how the distribution should be made.
• Relationship or In Group Status : some may have a claim because they are members of my family or a group
to which I owe loyalty.
Apply the principle
STEP 1 : What is the distribution? Who is getting the benefits and burdens in the situation: Do those who
getbenefits also share burdens? Do those with benefits share some of the burdens? These are factual questions.
Once you know the distribution you can decide if it is fair or not.
STEP 2 : Is the distribution fair? Which criterion for distribution would be most fair in this situation and why would
it be most fair in this situation? You have to defend the distribution and the criterion or reason for the distribution.
STEP 3 : If disagreement persists over which outcome is fair or over which criterion for inequality is best in the
situation, select a fair process to make a determination: an election, dispassionate judge, chance decided by a
coin or paper-rock scissors.
STEP 4 : Draw a conclusion. Will this action produce a fair distribution, and why?
Strengths of the justice test
Research shows fairness to be one of the most fundamental ethical instincts in humans. It is present in many
animals, including primates and dogs. Subjects will give up rewards that would make them better off than theyare,
if others are getting greater rewards that are not justified.
Weaknesses of the justice test
There is no single criterion for a fair distribution so the test is always open to disagreement among ethical persons.
THE COMMON GOOD TEST
Introduce the test
Ask: “Are we doing our part to look out for the common good in this situation?”
Why is the common good test a valid way to decide right and wrong?
Being able to live together in a community requires that we pay attention not just to our individual goods but also
to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of us all. This common good includes the social
systems, institutions, natural and technological environments, and ways of understanding that we all depend on
to pursue our individual goods. For a community to be sustainable, these must work in a manner that benefits all
people. Since we all have access to the common good and benefit from it, we all have obligations to establish and
maintain it.
Apply the test
STEP 1 : Specify what parts of the common good are involved. Which social systems, institutions, environmentsand
ideologies that we depend on for a functioning and healthy society could be advanced or damaged by our actions
in this situation? What actions will strengthen them? What actions will weaken them?
• Whereas the utility test focuses on the total benefits and harms produced, the common good test focuses
onwhether the action or situation contributes to or harms a particular aspect of the common good.
• The common good includes among other things the family, social, educational, and health care
systemsrequired for human growth, development, and happiness; the police, courts, military and political
system required for public safety, a functioning government, and peace; the businesses, financial, and legal
systems necessary for the production of goods and services and economic development;
STEP 2 : Explain why we have obligation to promote or protect the common good.
• What obligation does my company or I have to maintain these aspects of the common good because we
benefit from them?
• If my company benefits from having stable families and educated workers, for example, do we have an
obligation to promote these aspects of the common good or at least not to harm them?
STEP 3 : Does the proposed action conflict with this obligation?
• Do our employment policies and actions in the community weaken family stability or education or put these
aspects of the common good at risk?
• This question might help an investment banker recognize that even though he is due a multimillion dollar
bonus, the common good of restoring trust in the financial system may require that he give it up; that the
common good of maximizing the good effects of distributing federal stimulus money in a severe recession
means that lobbying for a particular interest group needs to be restrained more than in ordinary times; or
that the common good of maintaining the courts as an efficient problem resolution mechanism requires that
even though a company’s deep pockets enable them to stall a lawsuit indefinitely by filing an endless
motions, they should not do so.
Draw a conclusion
If the action conflicts with my or my organization’s obligation to contribute to the common good, it is the wrong
action.
Strengths of the test
• It provides an important reality check for individuals and organizations. No matter how much a person or
group has contributed to their own success, the test reminds them that society and the natural and
technological environments also contribute to that success and that existing institutions and ideologies
enable them to carry on their activities.
• It is a good check on the free rider problem where the efforts of others may allow me not to contribute.
Weaknesses of the test
• There is a great deal of disagreement over what constitutes the common good and over what relative
value the parts have should they conflict.
• The test runs contrary to a long standing tradition of individualism and the pursuit of self interest in some
• Western societies, so it may stir up immediate resistance that could distract from the ethical issue to be
resolved.
CHARACTER/VIRTUE TEST
Introduce the test
Ask: “Does this action represent the kind of person I am or want to be?”
Ask: “Does it represent my organization’s reputation or vision of the kind of enterprise it wants to be?”
Why is the character or virtue test a valid way to decide right and wrong?
The kind of person I am, or the kind of organization this is, are as important to living a good life as what specific
actions we do. My character and the organization’s culture are represented and influenced both by how we act
and by what we aspire to be. To focus only, as the other ethics test do, on how to judge individual actions to be
right or wrong would be to miss an important aspect of ethics. Part of our aspiration is to have virtues or habits
of acting in certain ways that fit our character. If we know who we are and aspire to be, we can decide how to act
by considering whether an action is something that would be done by the kind of person or organization we want
to be.
Apply the test
STEP 1 : Ask if the action will help to make you the kind of person you want to be.
Consider whether the action fits your self-image or the story you would like to tell about your life. The most
excellent or virtuous people are usually thought of as those who consistently act with honesty, courage,
compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, prudence and so on. One way to see if the action
fits with who you would like to be, is to ask whether the action is something that the person you most respect in
your company would do. Business people often call this question the Mirror Test, “If you do this action, will you
be able to look at yourself in the mirror every morning?”
STEP 2 : Ask whether the action will fit the company’s reputation or vision of what it would like to be. An
individual’s actions represent and affect not only him/her but also the firm or organization he/she works in. The
image of what the company wants to be will be found in the mission and vision statements, the core values, and
the ethics code, as well as in the stories that are told about the heroes and the villains in the firm’s history.
STEP 3 : Ask whether the action maintains the right balance between excellence and success for the firm?
Excellence refers to how well the activities of the organization are being done. Each activity, such as producing
a product or service, marketing it to customers, financing the organization, accounting and maintaining controls,
and so on can be done in the best possible way. Striving for too much perfection in any one of these areas,
however, can have an effect on the ability of the firm to do the other activities and generate profits necessary to
keep it in operation over the long term. If the product or service is too perfect for the customer to afford it, then
the firm will fail.
Overemphasizing success, measured as profitability, can affect the excellence of the firm’s activities, and thereby
cause the firm to fail. Actions that maintain the right balance between excellence and success are therefore the
right ones.
STEP 4 : Draw a conclusion
Actions that fit your idea of what kind of person you want to be, and with the firm’s idea of what it wants to be
are good actions.
Strengths of the virtue or character test
Focuses us not just on individual actions but on the larger questions of what kind of individuals and companies it
is good to be and on the role that the community we are part of plays in setting those ideals. Emphasizes that
being an ethical person or an ethical company is not just a matter of following ethical rules but involves developing
habits of acting in the way that we, our company, and the society think that good people and companies should
act.
Weaknesses of the virtue or character test
Psychological research suggests that most of us do not act in a consistent way across different situations,
motivated by our character traits such as honesty or generosity. We are motivated more by factors in the situation,
even those with no ethical significance, as when we act generously because of the good smells of a bakery or less
generously because of a higher ambient noise level. Yet we continue to attribute our own and others’ actions to
good or bad character traits rather than to factors in the situation. This research doesn’t indicate that we don’t
have dispositions to act a certain way but that steady virtue may be very hard to develop because situational
factors do affect us so much. Having an ideal account of a particular virtue like courage, however, or a hero in our
company to emulate might help us strive to develop the habit of acting in a virtuous way.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL DECISION MAKING
It is useful when making ethical decisions to understand that different considerations enter the picture for each
of us. Nonetheless, there are some overarching principles we can use in approaching ethical decision making. The
effect of the actions on
• the decision maker (egoism);
• everyone potentially involved (utilitarianism); and
• the fundamental principles (deontology)
represent three major systems of theoretical ethical systems. One approach to ethical decision making is to
consider the effect of your decision on yourself as the decision maker, anyone else potentially involved, and
the bigger picture – the impact of your actions on your institution, your profession, and the world. Once you
understand the potential impact of your decision on yourself and others then you will be in a better position to
make a decision.
Before making a decision, make sure that you first get all the facts about the situation, identify as all the alternative
actions as possible, evaluate each possible decision, consult others, if at all possible, and then make a decision.
It is always a wise idea to seek the counsel of others around you who may have more and/or a wider array of
experiences and/or who may be better able to be impartial about the issue or event. Do you know to whom you
can go if something goes wrong? Do you have someone with whom you can discuss sensitive issues in confidence?
Whenever possible try to work through those in your organization and work up the organizational ladder. For
example, for issues relating to your group, consider consulting your research advisor first.
When faced with an ethical dilemma, the following are some useful questions to consider:
• What is the action or inaction that is the cause for concern?
• Who or what may be affected?
• How will they be affected? (i.e., what are the possible consequences?)
• Are there any laws, regulations written or unwritten that may apply?
• What actions might be taken and what would the consequences of these actions be?
• Can anything be done to prevent this from reoccurring or to minimize the severity of the consequences?
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” —poet and philosopher George Santayana.
After you have made a decision, make it a point to reflect on the outcome of your decision. The only way you can
change the future is by actively affecting change in how you think/reason and how you act: Are you satisfied
with how your decision turned out? What lessons did you learn?

*********
 CHAPTER 5: HUMAN VALUES
INTRODUCTION
“When your values are clear, making decisions become easier”
We are living in the world which is full of temptation. There are friends who want companion to help them in
wrong doings. There are people who will offer easy but wrong choices. Without the backing of Value Education
picked during school life, a person will face life nervously and slip into a lifestyle where the only values will be
of survival at any cost which is quite evident.
• All the human beings continuously aspire for a happy life, a fulfilling and successful life, and the purpose
of education is to provide adequate competence to actualize this aspiration. For this, first of all it is essential
to understand- what is really valuable for human being, and, what is really conducive to a happy and
fulfilling life? This is the ‘value domain’.
Then it is essential to know –
Q1. How to actualize it?
Q2. How to make it happen?
• This is domain of ‘skills’. Hence, there is an essential complementarity between values and skills for the
success of any human endeavour. The subject which enables us to understand ‘What is valuable’ for human
happiness is called ‘value education’.
•
Thus, Value Education enables us to understand our needs and visualize our goals correctly and also
indicate the direction of their fulfilment. The value of any unit in this existence is its participation in the
larger order of which it is a part e.g. value of a pen is that it can write. Here writing is the participation of
the pen in the bigger order in which pen, paper, human being, all are present.
• The process of Value Education has to be that of Self Exploration, and not of giving sermons or telling dos
and don’ts. Whatever is found as truth or reality may be stated as proposal and has to be verified at the
own right. It is process of dialogue between ‘What you are’ and ‘What you really want to be’. It is a process
of knowing oneself and through that knowing entire existence. It is a process of recognizing one’s relation
with every unit in existence and fulfilling it. This process of self-exploration helps you be in harmony within
yourself and in harmony with everything around.
What are Values?
• Values are the good habits that are contagious. They are passed down through generations. Values bind us
together and set us apart. Today, our society is seeing a terrible amount of lack of value. People are
discriminating and being discriminated against.
• Value is a conception, explicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic of a group of the desirable
which influences the selection from available, means and ends of action. Values are the desirable ends, goals
or modes of action which makes human behaviour selective. Value not only orients but also determines
human behaviour.
• Values are actually spiritual skills — a divine gift that comes to us from the infinite Source of things. The
highest of principles — such as Oneness, Love, Beauty and others — descend from the heavens, and are
reinterpreted as values by our minds.
• For example, the spiritual principle of Oneness is recognized by our minds as values of cooperation,
integration, teamwork and others. Likewise, the universal principle of Love expresses through values of
goodness, selflessness, self-givingness, openness, tolerance, respect for others, and a number of others.
Tolerance, openness, respect for the individual and teamwork are several great human values, while
• Oneness, Love, Beauty and Truth are some of higher spiritual values that they derive from. At certain points,
the human and spiritual values come together and blend into one another, expressing through spiritualized
human values such as selflessness, self-givingness and gratitude.
• Values are the guiding principles of life that contribute to the all-round development of an individual. Every
human being lives by certain values. It is the only proportion and combination of negative and positive values
which separates a noble human being” from a not so noble human being.
Sources of Values
• How much of virtues and vices are filled in an individual depends solely on the parents, teachers,
circumstances, environment and sometimes even geographic locations. Both the source within and the
cultural environment are important for inculcation of values.
Importance of Values
• Values form the basis for all our thoughts, behaviours and actions. Once we know what is valuable to us,
these values becomes the basis, the anchor for our actions. We also need to understand the universality of
various human values, because only then we can have a definite and common program for value education.
Then only we can be assured of a happy and harmonious human society.
• Values are regarded enviable, imperative and are apprehended with high esteem by a particular society in
which a person lives. Values give meaning and strength to an individual’s character by occupying a central
place in his/her life. Values reflect one’s personal attitude and judgments, decisions and choices, behaviour
and relationships, dreams and vision.
• These values influence our thoughts, feelings & actions and guide us to do the right [Link] give a
direction to life and thus bring joy, satisfaction and peace. Values add quality to life. Thus, one might say
that any human activity, thought or idea, feeling, sentiment or emotion, which promotes self-development
of an individual, constitutes a value.
• The other corresponding function of a value is that it should also contribute to the welfare of the larger
social unit such as the family, the community and the nation of which an individual is a constituent. Value
system is the backbone of the society.
o Values may vary from one society to another and from time to time. But, every society abides by certain
moral values and, these values are accepted by all the societies a “Global values”.
o Values flow from the highest of our own self. For each one of us, there are values rooted in the finest part
of the self from where we radiate outwards.
• The effectiveness of a person depends on two factors.
o One is skills i.e. ability to do and the other is the values within that to guide such action. In other words,
however talented a person may be; his contribution to the society directly depends on the values he has
imbibed.
o If the values are negative like anger, ego, greed jealousy, vindictiveness etc., the higher skill will result in
higher negative contribution. Charles Sobharaj, Osama Bin Laden, Harshad Mehta and the like are
examples of such high skill and low values.

TYPES OF VALUES
PERSONAL VALUES
According to Morris Massey, values are formed during three significant periods:
• Imprint period from birth to 7 years.
• Modelling period from 8–13 years.
• Socialization period from 13–21 years.
Personal values provide an internal reference for what is good, beneficial, important, useful, beautiful, desirable,
constructive, etc. Values generate behaviour and help solve common human problems for survival by comparative
rankings of value, the results of which provide answers to questions of why people do what they do and in what
order they choose to do them.
Over time the public expression of personal values, that groups of people find important in their day-to-day lives,
lay the foundations of law, custom and tradition. Personal values in this way exist in relation to cultural values,
either in agreement with or divergent from prevailing norms. A culture is a social system that shares a set of
common values, in which such values permit social expectations and collective understandings of the good,
beautiful, constructive, etc.
Without normative personal values, there would be no cultural reference against which to measure the virtue of
individual values and so culture identity would disintegrate. Wyatt Woodsmall points out that “‘Criteria’ are used
to refer to ‘the standards on which an evaluation is based’.” Values relate then to what one wants and in what
order one wants them, criteria can only refer to the evidences for achieving values and act as a comparative
standard that one applies in order to evaluate whether goals have been met/values satisfied.
CULTURAL VALUES
• Individual cultures develop values which their members broadly share. One can often identify the values of a
society by noting which people receive honour or respect. In the United States of America, for example,
professional athletes at the top levels in some sports receive more honour (measured in terms of monetary
payment) than college [Link] is a difference between values clarification and cognitive moral
education. Values clarification consists of “helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth
working for. It encourages students to define their own values and to understand others’ values.
• Values relate to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. Norms provide
rules for behaviour in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Flying
the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism. Wearing dark clothing and
appearing solemn are normative behaviours at a funeral. In certain cultures norms reflect the values of respect
and support of friends and family.
• Different cultures reflect different values. “Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have
shown an increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the welfare of others.” Values
seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and attitudes of the students.
INTRINSIC AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES
Many people find it useful to distinguish instrumental value and intrinsic values, first discussed by Plato in the
“Republic”. An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e.g., a
radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth having for itself, not
as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties.
Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. Some things are both good in themselves,
and also good for getting other things that are good. “Understanding science” may be such a good, being both
worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods.

ROKEACH VALUE SURVEY

The Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) is a classification system of values. Developed by social psychologist Milton
Rokeach, the system consists of two sets of values, 18 individual value items in each. One set is called terminal
values the other instrumental values. VS is based on a 1968 volume (Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values) which
presented the philosophical basis for the association of fundamental values with beliefs and attitudes. His
value system was instrumentalised into the Rokeach Value Survey in his 1973 book “The Nature of Human Values”.
Terminal Values
Terminal Values refer to desirable end-states of existence. These are the goals that a person would like to
achieve during his or her lifetime. These values vary among different groups of people in different cultures.
The terminal values in RVS are:
 • True Friendship • Freedom • National Security
• Mature Love • Pleasure • A Sense of Accomplishment
• Self-Respect • Social Recognition • A World of Beauty
• Happiness • Wisdom • A World at Peace
• Inner Harmony • Salvation • A Comfortable Life
• Equality • Family Security • An Exciting Life

Instrumental Values
Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes of behaviour. These are preferable modes of behaviour, or
means of achieving the terminal values.
The Instrumental Values are:
• Cheerfulness • Courage • Broad-Mindedness
• Ambition • Politeness • Logic
• Love • Honesty • Obedience
• Cleanliness • Imagination • Helpfulness
• Self-Control • Independence • Responsibility
• Capability • Intellect • Forgiveness

TRANSMISSION OF VALUES
The moral values present a true perspective of the development of any society or nation. They tell us to what
extent a society or nation has developed itself. Values are virtues, ideals and qualities on which actions and beliefs
are based. Values are guiding principles that shape our world outlook, attitudes and conduct. Values however are
either innate or acquired. Innate values are our inborn divine virtues such as love, peace, happiness, mercy and
compassion as well as the positive moral qualities such as respect, humility, tolerance, responsibility, cooperation,
honesty and simplicity.
ROLE OF FAMILY IN INCULCATING VALUES
• Parents or home plays a dominant role in educating a child. Parents are more accessible to the child than
other family member:” Mother is the first teacher and Home is the first school”. The newly born baby is
dependent on parents who nourish and bring it up. The elders at home teach the developing baby behaviour,
dress codes, customs, and aspirations and so on. The minds of children develop in the major way through the
process of informal education at home.
• Home, a centre of love and affection, is the best place for education and first school of child. Dynamic
parenting is the right solution for the present value crisis. If the nation has to prosper improvement must
begin with parents. Without the harmony at home, there is no peace in the nation. It is an unfortunate fact
that 90% of children are pampered and spoilt by the parents themselves.
• We have to give them a sense of inner peace and contentment and achievement so that they can look at
external indicators of success, as not only measure of wealth. If home is filled with the clear fragrance of
contentment and peace, all its occupants will be happy and healthy. The elders have a great responsibility
towards the generation that is coming up. In the upbringing of our children we have to give them an
understanding of human values and a sense of control based spirituality. They should equip the children with
certain factors such as: awareness of truth, a sense of responsibility, emotional maturity, communication
skills, awareness of intellectual development, sense of judgment and observation, cultural awareness,
development of personality, religious & spiritual values and leadership qualities.
ROLE OF SOCIETY IN INCULCATING VALUES
Society plays an important role in education and influences it, both positively and negatively. Social inequalities
and unhealthy educational practices and are some of the negative influences of society on our lives. Customs and
traditions that prevent certain sections of society from exercising their fundamental rights and hamper the well-
being of society, shatter the basic ideas of education and social awareness. Some social groups deny women’s
right to education, while others force children to work, depriving them from a healthy environment, conducive to
their growth and development. Education is one of the basic human rights. If social norms deprive certain strata
of society from progressing in life and come in the way of social welfare, it defeats the purpose of education.
Society is an entity that cannot be separated from us. It is we who make up the society. It is entirely in our hands
whether to add value to our education or devalue it.
Societies are functionally autonomous in several ways.
• First, most social relationships occur within the boundaries of a society, with only a few relationships
involving actors from different societies.
• Second, societies attempt to become as self-sufficient as possible by establishing procedures for securing
whatever resources they require and satisfying the needs of their members.
• Third, a society is the ultimate decision-making unit for its members and exercises sovereignty over all
decisions concerning them.
Cultural autonomy refers to the fact that all the members of a society possess a common and distinctive culture.
Society is an extended social group having a distinctive cultural and economic organization. The building blocks of
society are we human beings. How people interact creates the pattern of relationships between individuals and
thus characterizes the society according to the systems of customs, values, and laws.
• An individual a part of larger society, therefore social institutions and practices leave a lasting influence on
theformation of character and personality of an individual. The society imparts its values to individuals
through the system of rewarding socially approved behaviour and punishing the socially disapproved
behaviour. Societyplays a significant role in education. It can influence it both ways, positively and negatively.
The values, morals,and principles of a society will create an education system that upholds the same values,
morals, and principles. A social group that believes in righteous acts and decent interactions will hone its
individuals to teach the same to other people.
• Values are generally received through cultural means, especially transmission from parents to children.
Parents in different cultures have different values. For example, parents in a hunter–gatherer society or
surviving through subsistence agriculture value practical survival skills from a young age. Many such cultures
begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including knives, before their first birthdays. Italian parents value
social and emotional abilities and having an even temperament. Spanish parents want their children to be
sociable. Swedish parents value security and happiness. Dutch parents value independence, long attention
spans, and predictable schedules. American parents are unusual for strongly valuing intellectual ability,
especially in a narrow “book learning” sense. Indian parents expect obedience to the elders from the
children.
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN INCULCATING VALUES
• To Gandhiji every individual human being was prominently significant and had the capacity to contribute
immensely to the Society and humanity. He was concerned that we were being reduced to a state in which
we were losing what was traditionally and culturally Indian, and were not able to acquire the new from the
alien system. To him real education did not consist in packing the brain with information, facts and figures, or
in passing examinations by reading prescribed number of books, but in developing the right character.
• The explorations and possibilities of non-violence would prove profitless without [Link]’s
perceptions in education focus on moral values and ethics. They highlight the concepts of self-esteem for
every individual. He firmly believed in practising what he preached. Essentially education must lead to
internalisation of the obligation on the part of each human being to be noble in word, thought and deeds. In
a plural society, it should also help the individual to celebrate the plurality and yet visualise inherent unity of
values and a life of dedication to others.
• One of the most familiar message in Indian culture is the approach to strive for the betterment of all, the
‘prayer’ that ‘let all people live happily in good health and cheer.’ Nowhere else, such an evolved essence of
the thought processes aimed at well-being of the other, concretised before India. Earlier Indian scriptures
exhort everyone to serve others, sacrifice for others and serve the mankind. Such an approach if exposed to
the children in school at an early age, is bound to leave lasting impressions, which would evolve in due course
of time, as the children grow and face the world around them.
• In a global scenario of erosion of values, it would be difficult to have individuals in society who would strive
to halt the process of value deterioration, unless and until schools produce young persons with the right aims
and objectives of human life. This should also give clear indication of what should be the curriculum of
education in years to come and how the same can contribute in developing the culture of peace within the
communities, amongst religions, countries and eventually globally. The trend of focussing only on specified
examination oriented subject areas needs to be discarded.
Every subject can be means of building good character and values. Some examples are given below:
(a) Language : In language through conversation and discussion the teacher educator can enable students to
embody higher and noble ideas.
(b) Social Sciences : Through social science in general we can develop values like secularism, socialism, hard
work and democracy etc.
(c) Geography : Through geography we can develop values of conservation, preservation, adventure etc.
(d) Economics : Through economics a teacher can lay emphasis on the value of thrift and saving, which lead to
the prosperity of a person.
(e) Civics : Through civics we can develop values of cooperation, sense of mutual welfare, obedience of law,
concern for environment etc.
(f) Science : Everything in nature has a lesson to teach. For example, we can say while blowing up a balloon,
if person blows too much air into it, it will burst. Similarly if we are too greedy and acquire more material
wealth sooner or later, we will have problems.
(g) Mathematics : In mathematics there is a wide scope of imparting values like neatness, accuracy, proper
planning etc. Thus we can say that education and values go hand in hand and values are inherent in every
module of learning; even co-curricular activities can serve as a sound base for the inculcation of values among
students.

FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN VALUES

SELF-DIRECTION
Goal is an independent thought and action—choosing, creating, exploring. Self-direction derives from organismic
needs for control and mastery and interactional requirements of autonomy and independence.
Ex: creativity, freedom, choosing own goals, curious, independent, self-respect, intelligent, privacy.
STIMULATION
Defining goal is an excitement, novelty, and challenge in life. Stimulation values derive from the organismic need
for variety and stimulation in order to maintain an optimal, positive, rather than threatening, level of activation.
This need probably relates to the needs underlying self-direction values.
Ex: a varied life, an exciting life, daring.
HEDONISM
Defining goal is pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself. Hedonism values derive from organismic needs and
the pleasure associated with satisfying them. Theorists from many disciplines mention hedonism.
Ex: Pleasure, enjoying life, self-indulgent.
ACHIEVEMENT
Defining goal is personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards. Competent
performance that generates resources is necessary for individuals to survive and for groups and institutions to
reach their objectives. As defined here, achievement values emphasize demonstrating competence in terms of
prevailing culturalstandards, thereby obtaining social approval.
Ex: ambitious, successful, capable, influential, intelligent, self-respect, social recognition.
POWER
• Defining goal is social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources. The functioning
of social institutions apparently requires some degree of status differentiation. A dominance/submission
 dimension emerges in most empirical analyses of interpersonal relations both within and across cultures. To
justify this fact of social life and to motivate group members to accept it, groups must treat power as a value.
Power values may also be transformations of individual needs for dominance and control. Value analysts have
mentioned power values as well.
• Ex: authority, wealth, social power, preserving my public image, social recognition.
SECURITY
• Defining goal is safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self. Security values derive
from basic individual and group requirements. There are two subtypes of security values. Some serve primarily
individual interests (e.g., clean), others wider group interests (e.g., national security). Even the latter,
however, express, to a significant degree, the goal of security for self (or those with whom one identifies). The
two subtypes can therefore be unified into a more encompassing value.
• Ex: social order, family security, national security, clean, reciprocation of favours, healthy, moderate, sense of
belonging.
CONFORMITY
• Defining goal is restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social
expectations or norms. Conformity values derive from the requirement that individuals inhibit inclinations
that might disrupt and undermine smooth interaction and group functioning. Virtually all value analyses
mention conformity. As I define them, conformity values emphasize self-restraint in everyday interaction,
usually with close others.
• Ex: obedient, self-discipline, politeness, honouring parents and elders, loyal, responsible.
TRADITION
• Defining goal is respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that one’s culture or religion
provides. Groups everywhere develop practices, symbols, ideas, and beliefs that represent their shared
experience and fate. These become sanctioned as valued group customs and traditions.
• They symbolize the group’s solidarity, express its unique worth, and contribute to its survival. They often take
the form of religious rites, beliefs, and norms of behaviour.
• Ex: respect for tradition, humble, devout, accepting my portion in life, moderate, spiritual life.
• Tradition and conformity values are especially close motivationally; they share the goal of subordinating the
self in favour of socially imposed expectations. They differ primarily in the objects to which one subordinates
the self. Conformity entails subordination to persons with whom one is in frequent interaction—parents,
teachers, bosses.
• Tradition entails subordination to more abstract objects—religious and cultural customs and ideas. As a
corollary, conformity values exhort responsiveness to current, possibly changing expectations. Tradition
values demand responsiveness to immutable expectations from the past.
BENEVOLENCE
• Defining goal is preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact
(the ‘in-group’). Benevolence values derive from the basic requirement for smooth group functioning and
from the organismic need for affiliation. Most critical are relations within the family and other primary groups.
Benevolence values emphasize voluntary concern for others’ welfare.
• Ex: helpful, honest, forgiving, responsible, loyal, true friendship, mature love, sense of belonging, meaning in
life, a spiritual life.
• Benevolence and conformity values both promote cooperative and supportive social relations. However,
benevolence values provide an internalized motivational base for such behaviour. In contrast, conformity
values promote cooperation in order to avoid negative outcomes for self. Both values may motivate the same
 helpful act, separately or together.
UNIVERSALISM
• Defining goal is understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for
nature. This contrasts with the in-group focus of benevolence values. Universalism values derive from survival
needs of individuals and groups. But people do not recognize these needs until they encounter others beyond
the extended primary group and until they become aware of the scarcity of natural resources.
People may then realize that failure to accept others who are different and treat them justly will lead to life-
threatening strife. They may also realize that failure to protect the natural environment will lead to the destruction
of the resources on which life depends. Universalism combines two subtypes of concern—for the welfare of those
in the larger society and world and for nature.
Ex: broadminded, social justice, equality, world at peace, world of beauty, unity with nature, wisdom, protecting
the environment, inner harmony, a spiritual life.

HUMAN VALUES IN ALMOST ALL RELIGIONS

The twenty recommended and praiseworthy qualities, which one must supplant within himself are as follows:
1. Belief in the Oneness
2. Sincerity
3. Well-wishing for all
4. Abstinence : The act or practice of refraining from indulging an appetite or desire, especially for alcoholic
drink or sexual intercourse
5. Contentment
6. Firm committed Faith
7. Knowledge
8. Assigning oneself to God
9. To place all reliance and assurance to none but God
10. The intention of the ultimate goal i.e. The Straight Path to God, the Friend, The Protector, The Glorious
11. Patience
12. Remembrance of death
13. Generosity
14. Repentance : To feel remorse, contrition, or self-reproach for what one has done or failed to do; be
contrite
15. Humility
16. Fear
17. Hope in none but God
18. To endure hunger
19. Sound and pleasant thoughts relating to any occurring matter
20. The Remembrance and Love for God

CORE HUMAN VALUES IN BUSINESS AND ADMINISTRATION

• Integrity : coherence between what is said and what is done.
• Credibility : trust in the expectations placed in the company.
• Fairness : equal distribution of burdens and benefits.
• Dialogue : possibility for participation and consensus mechanisms among the various groups involved
and/oraffected.
• Transparency : truthfulness, intelligibility and accessibility in internal and external communications
structures.
• Dignity : respect for and encouragement of human rights and values involved in reciprocal recognition
betweenindividuals.
• Legality : compliance with laws and legal provisions.
• Civic commitment : contribution to local and regional development, co-responsibility for social order.
• Environment : position on the maintenance and improvement of the environment.
• Responsibility : capacity for anticipation of and response to social expectations and demands.
These are the so-called ethical values, which help to establish and maintain the standards that delineate the”right”
things to do and the things “worth doing”. Such ethical values influence individual’s choices and lead toactions
which every organization supports. When the ethical values of an enterprise are widely shared among its
members, the enterprise’s success will be enhanced.

CAUSES OF VALUE DEGENERATION TODAY

Crisis is not so much intellectual but rather moral and spiritual. There is lack of development of sound moralvision
among human being along with the scientific and technological development. As a result human beingcan produce
such powerful means of destruction like hydrogen and nuclear bombs and destroy the whole world in no time.
Wealth worshipped as god, Pride has become a creed.
• Selfishness is entrenched in the intellect. The ego is flaunted, and desires become an adornment,
righteousness has become merely a figurehead in the world, compassion has dried up, gratitude has waned,
Hypocrisy has become the hall mark of life and love and affection has become lustful afflictions. Distortion of
values is partially due to imbalance between ancient values and explosion of knowledge in war field
technology.
• Atomic weapons, bio-weapon, explosives, missiles etc., are threatening the whole mankind. Developed
countries possess all kinds of dreadful weapons and are trying to boss over all developed and underdeveloped
countries. Today the entire mankind is living in the shade of fear. Man’s very expense is at stake as
Prostitution, illegal marriages, broken home structure, divorce, etc., are also factors responsible for decline
of values.
• Lack of mutual concern between parents at home, disaffection and lack of securities in families are other
factors responsible for erosion of values. The role of home, school and society cannot be neglected in the
degradation of values. Definitely the living styles of parents leave deep impression on the minds of
children.
• Even in this dynamic society, values and standard do not change quickly and some of them, at any rate, have
an abiding significance. The whole socio- political setting and physical environment in which they have to be
worked out are in a state of constant transition and consequently, they have to be interrupted in the light of
new condition.
• Cultural values, the gracious fruit of centuries of co-operative efforts and moral values, which is distinguished,
which distinguish men from animals, have been totally changed in these years. The modern youth receiving
education are losing their idealism and living in spiritual vacuum.
• Moral values have no respect now. Man fails to distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil. Highest
respect is being placed on wealth and power. Religions have now become a private affair and stress is being
laid on secularization of social relationships.
• Human relations are becoming impersonal and secondary. The older generations have lost their sense of
morality. Therefore the younger generation completely ignores the traditional or even any idea of value
system. Loss of leadership among the teachers is another manifestation of the deterioration of values in the
modern society. A teacher has to perform three important activities. People in an industrial society develop
a growing sense of insecurity in social relations because of the emphasis on individuals.

HOW CAN AN INDIVIDUAL HAVE STRONG VALUES

Keep your Life Simple and Honest
• Honesty is not a policy or business transaction. It is the most natural and profitable way of leading life. And
it is not as difficult as it is made out to be. Start with an understanding that Honesty is a value and not an
attribute. Each value has a denominator. Fix your denominator for this value. Start with the conviction
that no one is either 100% or 0% honest. Grid yourself: somewhere in between the extremes. Start being
less dishonest every day and slowly graduate to being more honest every day. If you feel that you are more
honest today than you were yesterday move yourself up the grid a little. Be very conservative and mean
while grading yourself.
• Let your physical being work hard and deliver definitive measurable results to convince your inner being.
Don’t be charitable to yourself, but celebrate small success. This will encourage and motivate you to raise the
bar daily and perhaps even many times in a day. Keep comparing the percentage daily/weekly growth and
set new goals.
Be Compassionate
Not every human being is as empowered or as privileged as you may be, people with lesser attributes or lesser
privileges are not lesser human beings. They may be children of lesser gods or victims of circumstances. Show
compassion, treat them as your equals, and try in your own way to elevate them physically, mentally and
spiritually.
Treat Integrity as the Most Essential Part of your Life
Integrity comes out of ownership. Take ownership of your responsibilities both at home and the work place. Loss
of integrity means loss of character. And loss of character means loss of your life mentally and spiritually. There is
no use being only physical alive.
Criticize and Reprimand the Act not the Actor
Forgiveness is not only a virtue, but also an act that creates remorse & makes a better person of the person
forgiven. It also wins you a friend.
Love thy Neighbour and Everyone Else’s too if Possible
Spread love large heartedly. Spare no one human beings, animals, nature and innate things. Reciprocation willstart
sooner or later from all living things and ultimately you will end up winning hearts.
Upgrade your Knowledge Continuously
The most knowledgeable also seeks knowledge to become more knowledgeable. Pursuit of knowledge shouldbe
a continuous process. Knowledge can not only be acquired from books, teacher, institutions, but also fromthings
around us including nature.
Be Disciplined in your Thoughts and Actions
Having time sense is just one part of the discipline. Discipline encompasses every aspect of your day to day life.
Your actions, your attire, your speech, you silence, your movements, your treatment of others and yourself. Don’t
be undisciplined even to yourself.

*********
 CHAPTER 6. TEACHINGS OF GREAT
LEADERS, REFORMERS AND
ADMINISTRATORS
INTRODUCTION
• After observing the ‘moral decay’ in just about every area of lives, our society has to be turned back to the
traditional values that guided this nation to greatness. And for this we have to look into the Indian history and
in the times when it was known as Golden Bird for all its prosperity and richness.
• The credit goes to all the great leaders from Mahatma Gandhi to Rabindranath Tagore and Swami Vivekanand
and also to great reformers from Raja Rammohan Roy to Dayanand Saraswati, [Link] and the like; who
had put into practice human values ideology as given in Vedanta and the other ancient Indian thoughts. It is
because of these values that we could sustain ourselves through all adversities and cruelties of the earlier
invaders and the British Rule.
• Coming to the present times; we see all over the world that even the most developed countries that are at the
top of materialism have started realising that material prosperity is not development of Human beings in true
sense. A realization has now come that unless we are developed as better human beings, other forms of
development have no meaning.

RAJA RAM MOHAN ROY

• Ram Mohan Roy was a great religious, social, and educational reformer. He questioned orthodox Hindu
practices. He is known as the “Maker of Modern India”, “Father of Modern India” and the “Father of the
Bengal Renaissance”. He along with Dwarkanath Tagore reestablished the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, an
influential Indian socio-religious reform movement. He worked tirelessly to abolish sati, the practice in
which the widow immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, and child marriage.
• Roy felt that social and religious reforms will politically strengthen Hinduism. He wrote: “The present
system of Hindus is ‘not well calculated to promote their political interests It is necessary that
some change should
• Take place in their religion, at least for the sake of their political advantage and social comfort.” Ram
Mohan Roy realized during his interactions with the British that Hindu traditions were often not respected
or thought as credible by Western standards. He tried to justify traditions by showing that “superstitious
practices which deform the Hindu religion have nothing to do with the pure spirit of its dictates.” The
“superstitious practices” Ram Mohan Roy objected included sati, caste rigidity and polygamy and child
marriages.
• Such practices gave British officials a sense of moral superiority over the Indian nation. Ram Mohan Roy’s
religious reforms aimed at creating a fair and just society by implementing humanitarian practices similar
to Christian ideals. This process would enhance the prestige of Hinduism in the world.
Religious Reforms
The religious reforms of Roy form part of the tenets of the Brahmo Samaj. These basic ideas are found in every
religion. Brahmos believe in the existence of One Supreme God and worship him alone.
Social Reforms
Roy demanded property inheritance rights for women. As we have mentioned, he set up the Brahmo Sabha. It is
movement of reformist Bengalis to fight against social evils. Throughout his life, Ram Mohan Roy battled against
ignorance, helplessness and oppression. He is the first Indian who protested vehemently against the iniquitous
treatment of women.
Education
• Roy regarded educational reform as a supplement to social reform. In 1817, in collaboration with David
Hare, he set up the Hindu College. He founded the Anglo- Hindu School and later the Vedanta College.
At his instance, his teachings of monotheistic doctrines were incorporated with “modern western
curriculum”, Vedanta College’s courses synthesized Western and Indian learning. Ram Mohan Roy
supported inclusion of western learning into Indian education. He recommended the study of English,
science, western medicine and technology. He spent his money to translate his ideas on education into
practice.
• Ram Mohan Roy possessed an acute mind, broad religious sympathies, a very powerful personality and
great drive for reforms. Both his range of interests and sphere of activities were wide. He fought
relentlessly against the abuses and corrupt practices that crept into the once healthy body of Hindu
doctrine. He looked beyond India’s political downfall, loss of independence and humiliation. He looked
towards a radiant future based on absorption of Western culture and-democratic discipline. He was a
true believer in the equality of sexes and toiled to raise the status of women.

RABINDRANATH TAGORE
Rabindranath Tagore had vast knowledge and there was perhaps no aspect of Indian life which escaped his
searching eyes. He was a novelist, dramatist, educationist, penetrating social reformer and politician and gave his
views about all that which concerned India. Some of his significant ideas are as under:
Spiritual Humanism
The centre of Tagore’s philosophy was man of god. Even his concept of God was influenced by the humanism
inherent in his outlook. The supreme reality thus according to Tagore, essentially human and could be realised
only through love of man. Love of God was thus translated into love of human. Tagore in fact sought the origin of
spiritual aspirations and the concept of god in the spirit of the unity expressed by the primitive man. In a discussion
with Einstein, Tagore said, if there is any truth absolutely unrelated to humanity then for us it is absolutely non-
existing. Tagore thus firmly believed that truth could be realised only in human society.
His Political Ideas
Politically Tagore believed that each nation and individual must have certain rights and through those rights he
should be in a position to his personality. At the same time he stressed people should have power and strength
enough to realise their rights as without that strength it was impossible to retain rights even if extended by the
rulers. He also stood for the individuals saying that States existed for the individual and its activities should aim at
giving maximum freedom for attaining that liberty. He couldn’t reconcile himself with the then prevailing trend of
british rule which was impersonal in character and which denied freedom, spiritual, economic and political, to the
vast majority of the Indians. According to him freedom could be possible by adopting the policy of decentralisation
of authority and giving, more powers to local self-government institutions.
His Social Ideas
Socially, Tagore believed that Indian society has very much degenerated mostly because of the policy of our social
rulers who didn’t care to preserve our social institutions and allowed them to degenerate. He felt that social and
political institutions should go side by side. He had faith in social solidarity and belief in ancient Indian culture
and civilization. According to him political life was only a specialised aspect of social life and both could not be
separated from each other. He quoted from Indian history that India always represented the synthesis of various
philosophies and was very much broad-based. Therefore he believed that constructive efforts should be made to
revive our ancient Indian culture.
His Idea about Education
He was educationally a revolutionary and strongly believed that there should be a system of education suited
to India. It should be the system in which the cultures of east and the west should unite and where there should
be a platform for understanding each other. In the words of G. Ramchandran, “Gurudev never accepted that the
object of education was simply the accumulation of knowledge. He unhesitatingly proclaimed that education
should give allround human personality in which the physical, the intellectual, the aesthetic and spiritual
growth would be harmonised into one integral process. He, therefore, emphasised freedom and joy as of basic
importance in the education of boys and girls. This meant elimination of physical punishment, examination and
therefore of fear and everything humiliating restriction from Shanti Niketan system rather pattern of education”.
 SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
Swami Vivekananda was born in an affluent family in Kolkata in 1863. He possessed great intellect and innate
spiritual powers.
Discovery of Real India
• During his travels all over India, Swami Vivekananda was deeply moved by the appalling poverty and
backwardness of the masses. He was the first religious leader in India to understand and openly declare that
the real cause of India’s downfall was the neglect of the masses. The immediate need was to provide food
and other bare necessities of life to them by spreading knowledge of improved methods of agriculture, by
promoting village industries and through other similar activities.
• Vivekananda saw the problem as two fold. Owing to centuries of oppression, the downtrodden masses had
lost self confidence. It had to be restored through a life-giving, inspiring message. Vivekananda found it in the
principle of the Atman, the doctrine of the potential divinity of the soul, taught in Vedanta, the ancient
system of religious philosophy of India. The masses had to be taught the life-giving, ennobling principles
of Vedanta and the means of applying them in practical life. Besides, they needed worldly knowledge to
improve their economic condition. Vivekananda thought that education is the means of providing both
forms of knowledge.
• Vivekananda also saw the need for an organization to spread education and to improve the condition of the
poor and women. He wanted “to set in motion machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of
even the poorest and the meanest.” It was with this end that he founded the Ramakrishna Mission.
Spiritual Thoughts
New Understanding of Religion : Swami Vivekananda interpreted religion as a universal experience of
transcendent Reality, common to all humanity. He denied any dichotomy between science and religion and
described religion as the science of consciousness. This universal conception frees religion from the hold of
superstitions, dogmatism, priest craft and intolerance, and makes it the highest and noblest pursuit of freedom,
knowledge and happiness.
New View of Man : Vivekananda’s concept of ‘potential divinity of the soul’ is new and ennobles man. In the
present age of humanism, scientific progress greatly improved human material wellbeing. The communications
revolution made the world a ‘global village’. But there has also been moral decay as evidenced in the great increase
in broken homes, immorality, violence and crime. Vivekananda’s concept of potential divinity of the soul prevents
this degradation, divinizes human relationships, and makes life meaningful and worth living. He has laid the
foundation for ‘spiritual humanism’.
Principle of Morality and Ethics : The prevalent morality, in both individual life and social life is mostly based on
fear - fear of the police, fear of public ridicule, fear of God’s punishment and fear of Karma. The current theories
of ethics also do not explain why a person should be moral and be good to others. Vivekananda has given a new
theory of ethics and new principle of morality based on the intrinsic purity and oneness of the Atman. We should
be pure because purity is our real nature, our true divine Self or Atman. Similarly, we should love and serve our
neighbours because we are all one in the Supreme Spirit known as Paramatman or Brahman.
Bridge between East and West : Swami Vivekananda built a bridge between Indian and Western cultures. He did
this by interpreting Hindu scriptures, philosophy, institutions and way of life to Westerners in easily intelligible
terms. He made them realize that they could benefit greatly from Indian spirituality. He was instrumental in ending
India’s cultural isolation from the rest of the world. He was India’s first great cultural ambassador to the West.
On the other hand, Vivekananda’s interpretation of ancient Hindu scriptures, philosophy and institutions made
Indians receptive to Western science, technology and humanism. He taught Indian’s how to master Western
science and technology while retaining their religious and spiritual roots. He emphasized that Indians need to
adapt Western humanism (especially the ideas of individual freedom, social equality and justice and respect
for women) to Indian ethos.
Contributions to India
In spite of her innumerable linguistic, ethnic, historical and regional diversities, India has had from time
immemorial a strong sense of cultural unity. It was, however, Swami Vivekananda who revealed the true
foundations of this culture and thus clearly defined and strengthened the sense of unity as a nation.
He reminded Indians of their great national spiritual heritage and revived their pride in their past. Furthermore,
he showed the weaknesses of Western culture and how India could help in overcoming them.
Swamiji’s most unique contribution to the creation of new India was to open the minds of Indians to their duty to
the downtrodden masses. Long before the ideas of Karl Marx were known in India, Swamiji spoke about the role
of the labouring classes in the production of national wealth. Swamiji was the first religious leader in India to
speak for the masses, formulate a definite philosophy of service, and organize large-scale social service.

SWAMI DAYANAND SARASWATI

Swami Dayanand saraswati was one of those influential thinkers who drew upon traditions for the formulation of
his social ideas. His main contention was that it was necessary for Indians to go back to the ideas of Vedas. The
problem India faced and their solutions, according to Dayanand, lay at the levels of philosophy, politics, and
society. He thought that it was necessary to inculcate a spirit of self-reliance and self- confidence in the minds of
people.
Central to his thought was his attitude towards the Vedas, which he considered to be the repository of all human
knowledge and wisdom. He highlighted the following aspects of the Vedas:
• A man could communicate with god directly by rendering obedience to the divine law. He was free to obey
other laws so long as they were in line with the divine laws.
• Dayanand felt that the man can attain his pure self after examining and reviewing his position on this matter.
Only after that will he be able to realize the discrepancy, thereby dissociating himself from such temporal
laws which are not worthy of obedience and organize support against those laws.
• The freedom enjoyed by the man was equal to that enjoyed by his fellowman.
According to Dayanand, India could attain its lost glory only when the existing social weakness were overcome.
Pull of remorse, he lamented that despite the rich heritage of Indian culture, the Hindu were aping and imitating
the civilization of the west which in turn was degenerating them. He justified it by saying that India during the
Vedic times had reached a level of civilization which the west was able to attain only centuries later.
Women and Education
On the question of women, Dayanand was opposed to the evil practices of child marriage and enforced
widowhood, which according to him did not have the sanction of the Vedas. The pitiable condition of child- widows
in Hindu society, which prohibited remarriage evoked his deepest concern. He therefore, suggested ‘nogoga, (a
non-permanent co-habitation of widows and widowers) and later, even widows re-marriage.
For the ‘prosperity of Aryavarta’ (India), Dayanand insisted on a crucial place for education. An education based
on moral and religious foundations and meant for all the four classes of men and women, was what Dayanand
wanted. He stood for compulsory education. India’s awakening he thought, hinged to this factor. He was in favour
of an educational system which would emphasize on grammar, philosophy, Vedas, sciences, medicine, music and
art.

AUROBINDO GHOSH
His spiritual inquiry was aimed at clearing the weaknesses of current thinking about conflicts between the spiritual
quest and functional materialism. He showed the new ways of seeing the relationship of man to the natural
environment and to the material aspects of existence. He is undoubtedly more ‘systematic’ a thinker than Gandhi
and Tagore.
Sri Aurobindo also believed that what we call as religious is not primarily a matter of doctrines or dogmas, but of
experience. He says what validates a religious intuition is the experience of its spiritual authenticity. It is not a
point of view or collection of ideas given down through generations, but is entirely first hand personal experience.
Aurobindo wondered if one could discover the means to connect the personal religious experience to the modern
world’s larger but inherently religious analytical rationality.
One of the cornerstones of Aurobindo’s outlook is his concept of the two ‘Negations’. He maintains that the ascetic
ideal that became dominant in India after the spread of Buddhism was a withdrawal from the world, which he
calls the ‘revolt of Spirit against Matter’. This resulted in an over-emphasis on transcendent realization and
undervaluing of the natural world. This tendency was strengthened in Hinduism by the Shankara School of the
ninth century which taught that reality was spiritual and that the material world was mere qualified reality. This
illusion that dominated Hinduism resulted in social indifference to material progress thus loosing the balance
between things spiritual and things material. Thus, the sub-continent lagged behind the western world with regard
to material progress.
The other negation was materialism. Materialism denies the reality of the spirit, insisting that it is an illusion,
a mere projection of personal fantasy. Both these negations are the result of exaggerating a part of the truth to
claim , that It is the whole truth. In his book ‘The Life Divine’, Aurobindo wrote, both negations are opposite poles
of the same error.
Aurobindo on Education
True education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is not only spiritual but also rational, vital and physical. In other words
it is integral education. This integral education has been explained by Sri Aurobindo’s closest in these words.
“Education to be complete must have five principal aspects relating to the five principal activities of human being:
the physical, the vital, the mental; the psychic and the spiritual. This education is complete, complimentary to
each other and continues till the end of life. Aurobindo’s scheme of education is integral in two senses.
• Firstly, it is integral in the sense inculcating all the five aspects of the individual being.
• Secondly, it is integral in the sense of being an education not only for the evolution of the individual alone,
but also of the nation and finally of the humanity.
• The ultimate aim of education is the evolution of total humanity. The ultimate aim of education is man-
making. It prepares the educand to work first as a human being and then as a member of a nation and finally
as an individual.
The circles of moral responsibility and loyalties proceed from wider to narrower and viceversa. The man has to
develop first as a human being then as a citizen and finally as an individual. Most of the present confusion of
values is due to an inversion of this order.
In this scheme of evolution, the principle of growth is unity in diversity. This unity again, maintains and helps the
evolution of diversity. In his lectures at Baroda college, Shri Aurbindo observed that the colleges and universities
should educate through their academic as well as social activities. The school cannot be isolated from society.
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh prescribed a free environment for the children to develop all the latent facilities to the full
and suggested all those subjects and activities of child’s interest to be included in the principles of curriculum:
• All life is education. So curriculum is not confined to a limited syllabus and a few text books.
• It should include all those subjects which promote mental and spiritual development.
• It is a means towards an end, not an end in itself, the end being the development of integral personality.
• It should provide for leisure pursuits.
• There should be flexibility to meet individual needs.
• Subjects of curriculum should be able to motivate children.
• Curriculum should involve creativity of life and constructive activities.
• Curriculum should be interesting.

KAUTILYA
Kautilya also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya (345-300 B.C.),
the founder of Mauryan dynasty. Chanakya is believed to have crowned Chandragupta Maurya as the ruler of
Magadha. Chanakya established the Mauryan suzerainty over the whole of northern India. Kautilya or Chanakya is
celebrated for his diplomacy and statesmanship. He is compared with Machiavelii for his political realism.
Political Governance
He discussed the State administration in detail in Arthasastra. Kautilya anticipated many modern administrative
ideas such as organizational structure based on hierarchy and coordination between departments.
Kautilya exhaustively lists the duties and functions of the king, princes, ministers and other state officials. The King
and ministers have to observe strict discipline. Kautilya has prescribed strict code of conduct for ministers and
administrators. In this regard, he anticipated modern ideas of codes of ethics and codes of conduct.
Kautilya believed in the adage ‘’Yatha Raja Thatha Prajah” (As the King is, so will be the people”). Therefore, he
laid down the condition that “an ideal King is one who has the highest qualities of leadership, intellect, energy and
personal attributes”. According to Kautilya, the King needs to check the integrity of those whom he wants to
appoint as advisers. Ironically, Kautilya also points to the risks in serving kings. Nowadays, these are discussed
under leadership qualities. Both political leaders and public administrators need both skills and character to
provide effective and productive governance.
Kautilya believes that good governance is necessary for realizing the objectives of the state. This in turn needs
proper administrative structures and processes. Kautilya suggests that governments should avoid extreme
decisions and actions. Depending on exigencies, moderate or harsh actions should be taken.
Kautilya seriously addresses the problem of corruption. He lists nearly forty methods by which officials can swindle
government funds. But he is sceptical of finding easy solutions. It is as difficult, he says, to discover the honesty or
dishonesty an officer as it is to discover whether or not it is the fish that drank the water. He adds: ‘It is possible to
mark the movements of birds flying high up in the sky; but not so is it possible to ascertain the movement of
government servants of hidden purpose.’ He recommends strictest deterrent punishment to offenders.
In Arthasastra, economic governance is the end, and political governance is its means. Good governance
presupposes political stability. He makes a revolutionary observation that stability will prevail if rulers are
responsive, accountable, removable and recallable. Otherwise, there will be instability. Kautilya shows great
concern to the need for a responsible administration. However, the provisions for recall and removal can apply at
best to state functionaries and not to the monarch.
Economic Governance
Kautilya recommends penalties for, officials of public enterprises which incur, losses, and rewards for those who
earn profits. This focus is on husbanding of resources both for efficiency and for meeting the costs of running a
country’s administration. In the economic sphere, the Arthashastra also proposes a wage policy based on
economic, social and political conditions. It must be just, and promote state interests. Kautilya considers the State
as a party along with farmers, merchants and industrialists to labour or wage legislation. Thus, Arthasastra
balances the interests of the concerned economic groups. Although government is seen as a monopolist, the need
to for evolving a reasonable solution for proper utilization of resources is recognized.
Kautilya also recognized that the State has to ensure that commercial activities do not violate laws or are harm
the consumer. The State would have to provide measurement and quality norms for sale of products. Absence of
trust and guarantee of quality would reduce commerce and increase search and verification costs of commercial
transactions.
To sum up: the topics which Kautilya covers can be described in modern terms as – rule of law, judicial system,
property rights, incentives for efficient and honest working of government officials, promoting moral and spiritual
welfare, provision of infrastructure and capital formation. These are seen as means to strong nation building.

PROMINENT YOUNG CIVIL SERVANTS AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS

Om Prakash Chaudhary, IAS (Chhattisgarh)
At 30, OP Chaudhary was posted at the Maoist hotbed, Dantewada, which had a literacy rate of 42 per cent. Soon
he started an initiative called 'Chhoo Lo Aasmaan', where the brightest students were taught by teachers from
Kota, the mecca of engineering and medical coaching. He intends to transform Dantewada into an education hub
at par with international standards. Under another initiative called Tamanna, he set up a science museum, district
library, and a state-of-the-art audio-visual theatre. Chaudhary was given the Prime Minister's award for excellence
in public administration for the year 2011-12.
Rajni Sekhri Sibal, IAS (Haryana)
Her actions exposed the CM and son's role in manipulating examination results. During the OP Chautala regime,
the Indian National Lok Dal asked Sibal to change the results of 3,200 Junior Basic Training (JBT) teachers. They
even tried to bribe her but Sibal refused. So, soon after, her transfer orders came. But the INLD didn't realise that
they had challenged the wrong person. In an attempt to stop them from messing with the results, Sibal wrapped
the almirah with the list of results in it with a 4 mt-long cloth and bandages. The five employees who were present
in the office that time all signed the cloth in different places and the almirah keys were sealed in an envelope.
This action of hers revealed the entire scam and exposed the Haryana CM and his son.
Vinod Rai, IAS (Delhi)
If we start documenting Vinod Rai's actions towards making India corruption-free, we will be sitting here for a
long, long time. He is also known for bringing credibility to the office of Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
He is primarily credited for his report on the infamous 2G Scam, not to mention the Coal Gate or the coal allocation
scam and the Delhi Commonwealth Game 2010 controversies. In fact, it was Vinod Rai who suggested that all
private-public partnerships (PPPs), Panchayti Raj Institutions and societies benefiting from government funds
should be under the scanner of the CAG.
Raju Narayana Swamy, IAS (Kerala)
Has been transferred 22 times in 20 years because of his fight against corruption.
To begin with, he obtained the first rank in the Civil Services Examination. Swamy, like Vinod Rai is known for his
fight against corruption. Not only did he expose illegal land deals made by Public Works Minister TU Kuruvilla's
children and proceeded against Minister PJ Joseph and his relatives for illegal land holdings, he also took action
against his father-in-law, which resulted in his divorce. The political bosses never took his war against corruption
in a good light and he was transferred 22 times in 20 years.
B. Chandrakala
This feisty District Magistrate of Bulandhshahar is famous for taking tough stands against illegal practices. She has
always spoken against corrupt officers and even got transferred from her earlier posting because she refused to
accept the wrong doings going on. She never hesitates in publicly exposing those people who are not doing justice
to their jobs. Thanks to her intervention, three corrupt contractors were booked, one of them being the brother
of a member of the ruling Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh.
Shivdeep Waman Lande
This IPS officer of 2006 batch has been constantly in the news for all the good reasons. He has arrested many
criminals, worked towards women safety and took on the pharmaceutical mafia, and under his tenure, the crime
rate of Patna dropped drastically. He took strong action against eve teasers and has been very easily accessible to
the people. It is said that he receives hundreds of messages everyday and he makes sure that each message is
attended to. He played an important role in eliminating illegal wine shops in his jurisdiction. When he was
transferred to Araria from Patna, many people turned to the streets and held candle light protests against the
government's decision. He allegedly donates 70 percent of his salary to social causes which include marriages of
poor girls.
U. Sagayam
This civil servant from Tamil Nadu has been transferred around 20 times in the 20 years of his service. He is famous
for fighting against corruption wherever he goes. He was also the first IAS officer to make his assets public. His
extensive research on illegal granite-mining in Madurai led to charges against many known politicians and
businessmen. He also confiscated over 5,000 subsidized gas cylinders intended for domestic use which were
being illegally used by restaurants. He investigated and raised his voice against vote-buying. When he was
transferred from the post of Madurai Collector to the post of MD of Co-optex, many people came out and
protested against the government decision.
Armstrong Pame
Armstrong Pame is an officer in the Indian Administrative Service. He is the first IAS officer from Zeme Tribe of the
Naga People. He cleared the UPSC exam in 2008 and was selected for Indian Administrative Service (IAS). He is the
first IAS officer from Zeme Tribe of the Naga Peoples.
He assumed the post of Sub-Divisional Magistrate of Tousem in 2012. Tousem is one of the India's most backward
regions and a subdivision in Manipur. He is acclaimed for building a 100 km motor-able linking Manipur to
Nagaland and Assam and the road is famously called as the “Peoples' Road”. The people of Tousem call him the
'Miracle Man'.
He was moved by the difficulty of the people and he began to build the road by putting in some money of his own.
In no time it became a crowd-sourced venture and the road is now known as 'The People's Road'.
In August 2012, he raised INR 40 Lakh for this purpose through the Facebook page. He was invited to Facebook
headquarters in California. In 2012 and was nominated for CNN-IBN Indian of the Year in Public service category
for his efforts in building the road with donation and volunteers.
Aruna Sundararajan
Aruna Sundararajan Kerala cadre IAS officer was described by Forbes magazine as 'an IAS officer who thinks like a
businesswoman'. As IT secretary she played a significant role in the development of e-governance in Kerala. She
also headed the Kudumbashree project, today which is a shining example of women's empowerment, creating
sustainable employment prospects for working class women. Aruna Sundararajan is now head of the Universal
Service Obligation Fund delegated with growing the telecom penetration in all parts of the country.
Smitha Sabharwal
A 2001 cadre IAS officer, Smitha Sabharwal capped the UPSC exams and ranked 4th in the country.
As Municipal Commissioner of Warangal, she launched a determined 'Fund Your City' scheme to make available
the town with parks, traffic intersections and pedestrian pathways that are managed through public-private
partnerships.
As a collector of Karimnagar she brought about notable developments, and it was named 'Best District' under the
PM's 20-Point Programme for 2012-2013. As Medak district collector she guaranteed fair polling in last year's
general elections.

*********
 CHAPTER 7: APTITUDE AND
FOUNDATIONAL VALUES OF CIVIL
SERVICES
INTRODUCTION
There are obvious constraints to attempts to prescribe values which public services should adopt, given the variety
of historical, social and cultural forces at play in different parts of the world. But according to Second
Administrative Reform Commission, integrity, dedication to public service, impartiality, political neutrality,
anonymity, etc. are said to be the hallmarks of an efficient civil service. The Commission is also of the opinion that
in addition to commitment to the Constitution these values should include:
• Adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity and conduct
• Impartiality and non-partisanship
• Objectivity
• Commitment to the citizens’ concerns and public good
• Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society.
The public servant’s duties today remain many, complex and often seemingly contradictory. This is reflected in
the values and principles underpinning those duties - including maintaining confidentiality, acting in the public
interest, providing quality advice, avoiding conflicts of interest, ensuring accountability to a range of actors and
treating all colleagues equitably.
Nolan committee gave a set of 7 qualities that every civil servant/public servant must possess:
• Selflessness : Holders of public office should take decisions solely in terms of the public interest. They should
not do so in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their families or their friends.
• Integrity : Holders of public office should not place themselves under any financial or other obligation to
outside individuals or organisations that may influence them in the performance of their official duties.
• Objectivity : In carrying out public business, including making public appointments, awarding contracts, or
recommending individuals for rewards and benefits, holders of public office should make choices on
merit.
• Accountability : Holders of public office are accountable for their decisions and actions to the public and
must submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate to their office.
• Openness : Holders of public office should be as open as possible about all their decisions and the actions
that they take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider
public interest clearly demands.
• Honesty : Holders of public office have a duty to declare any private interests relating to their public duties
and to take steps to resolve any conflicts arising in a way that protects the public interest.
• Leadership: Holders of public office should promote and support these principles by leadership and example.
Thus, Civil servants should display and exhibit traits like high standard of conduct, self sacrifice, public duty
and general concern for social good. He should display and exhibit traits like dedication to public service,
empathy, tolerance and compassion to weaker sections, etc. Civil servants should possess aptitude, skills to
realize the needs of all sections of society.
In government, public values are those values that provide normative consensus about:
• The rights, benefits, and prerogatives to which citizens should (and should not) be entitled;
• The obligations of citizens to society, the state, and one another; and
• The principles on which governments and policies should be based
Public value is created when policy and management strategiesare politically legitimate, feasible, and sustainable,
operationally possible and practical, and of substantive value to the citizenry, according to Moore. In contrast,
public value is destroyed when the wrong decisions are made about the needs to be satisfied, the strategies to
satisfy the selected needs, and the processes to produce and deliver services.

APTITUDE
An aptitude is a component of a competency to do acertain kind of work at a certain level, which can also
beconsidered “talent”. It is the ability to deal with aspects of theenvironment and to perform a particular
behaviour. Aptitudes may be physical or mental.
Aptitude is also defined as the aptness or quickness to succeed in a specific field of activity. It is a present condition
that is indicative of individual’s potentialities for future. Thus, aptitude implies the prediction about the
individual’s future performance.
Aptitude vs Attitude
Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling, position, etc. with regard to a person or thing. It is the way you think
about any particular person or thing. ‘Aptitude’ is a capability or talent innate or acquired for performing some
particular task. If you have an aptitude for languages, for instance, you can learn them faster than other
[Link] has to do with the character and aptitude has todo with competence. Character is relatively
permanent whereas aptitude can be changed and developed.
In public administration, the difference may be understood by the following example: An administrator may be
very good in problem solving (aptitude part) but may have the tendency to procrastinate the decisions (attitude
part). Also, an administrator may have a good aptitude in resolving the communal issues (aptitude part) but may
have a negative attitude towards a particular minority (attitude part) which will naturally influence his overall
decisions.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD ADMINISTRATOR

The following qualities are the attributes of a good administrator-
• Willingness to assume responsibility
• A steadily enlarging ability to deal with more problems
• A strong bent toward action
• A good listener
• Effective with people
• Capacity to build his own strength by building the competence of his organization
• Capacity to use his institutional resources
• Avoiding using power or authority for their own sake
• Welcoming reports of troublesome things
• A good team-worker
• A good initiator

INTEGRITY
Integrity is a personal choice, an uncompromising and consistent commitment to honour moral, ethical, spiritual
and artistic values and principles.
• Integrity compels us to be socially conscious and to welcome both personal and professional responsibility.
• Its values encourage us to be honest in all our dealings and committed to a lifelong search for truth and justice.
• Integrity requires a self discipline and will power capable of resisting the temptation.
• Its priceless reward is peace of mind
and true dignity. There’s one proviso,
no one can guarantee that his or her
particular version of integrity is
actually sound and true, and not
misguided.
It is a fact that we are not born with
integrity. How well it is ingrained into our
character depends upon the healthy
development of certain key personality
traits, especially during the critical stages
of early childhood. How well we maintain
personal integrity once it develops
depends thereafter on the strength of our values and the moral choice we make.
Public service is a ‘vocation’ and only on this foundation upon which a moral and responsible government can
be based. The civil servants need to be people of absolute integrity because only then they can take the civil
service as a ‘vocation’. It strengthens the sense of mission which a civil servant is supposed to undertake to serve
the public; perform duties and fulfill obligations. A similar doctrine of vocation was enunciated several thousand
years ago by Lord Krishna in Bhagwad Gita (chapter III, verse20). It has been mentioned there, that “Securing”
universal welfare by one’s action is the ultimate measure of a human being but more so of those who hold the
public office”.
Civil servants have to set out highest standards of integrity and morality. This requires self sacrifice a concept that
rises above individualism and ‘hedonism’ to create an environment of public duty among the civil servants. An
exemplary civil servant is not simply one who obeys the laws and behaves within the confines of law but is also
one who strives for a moral government.
Integrity requires in a civil servant to incorporate the values of honesty, sympathy empathy, compassion,
fairness, self control and duty so that a civil servant will be able to uphold high personal and professional standards
in all circumstances.
• ‘Honesty’ requires ‘truthfulness’, freedom from deception and fraud, fair and straight forward conduct.
• Sympathy enables a person to be deeply affected and concerned about the well beings of others, to imagine
their suffering and be moved by their experience of others especially people who need assistance compassion
is a form of spirituality, a way of living and walking through life.
• ‘Civil Service Conduct Rules’ recommends ‘absolute integrity’ for civil servants, whether they are IAS, IPS, IFS,
IRS etc. Also every civil servant is supposed to take all possible steps to ensure the integrity of all government
servants for the time being under his/her control and not only be honest but should also have the reputation
of being so.
• Integrity has been considerably widened by declaring that a civil servant must keep himself within bounds of
administrative decency. Breach of trust is termed as lack of integrity and the apex court has ruled that in such
matter the civil servant should be removed from service. Possession of disproportionate assets, even
temporary defalcation of public money is termed as lack of integrity. Honesty and faithful discharge of duty,
promptness and courtesy, observance of government policies, general good conduct strengthen ‘integrity’ in
civil services.
A fundamental rule for maintaining civil servants’ integrity is to avoid situations which may give rise to a conflict
of interest. The following guidelines are relevant:
• Never use your position in the civil service to benefit yourself or your family, relatives or friends, or any other
group of people with whom you have personal or social ties.
• Avoid being placed in a position of obligation to anyone by accepting excessive entertainment or favours.
 such as free service, or indulging in games of chance with subordinates or other people with whom you have
official dealings.
• Avoid putting yourself in a position that may arouse any suspicion of dishonesty, or of using your official
position to benefit yourself, your family, relations or friends. Follow prescribed tender procedures and
declare an interest if necessary in the process.
• Encourage others to consistently follow Public Service values.
• Treat people impartially, regardless of political, social, demographic, geographic, circumstances or bias.
• Enforce law, public service values and rules of conduct even in difficult situations.
• Have the courage and conviction to make and stand by the right decisions, even at significant personal
cost.
• Provide honest and frank advice to uphold public interest.
• Ensure full disclosure, by sharing the political implications of the decisions being made.
• Challenge powerful and influential people, and hold them accountable to make the right decisions.
• Stand firm when dealing with unreasonable requests and demands.
• Take accountability for own actions and create a cultures for others also to take accountability for their own
actions.
Intellectual Integrity
Intellectual integrity is defined as recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking and to hold oneself to
the same standards one expects others to meet. It also means to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies
in one’s own thought and action, and to be able to identify inconsistencies in one’s own thinking.

IMPARTIALITY AND NON-PARTISANSHIP

Impartiality is a norm of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective standards, instead of on the
basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the advantage to one person over another for unsuitable reasons.
Impartiality is acting solely according to the merits of the case and serving equally well governments of different
political persuasions. Impartiality means that civil bureaucrats in carrying out their official work, including
functions like procurement, recruitment, delivery of services etc., should take decisions based on merit alone.
Impartiality implies that the behaviour of and treatment by a bureaucrat to any individual or entity has to be
exclusively on the basis of merit. An administrator has to take numerous major decisions such as recruitment,
procurement and allotment. To make such decisions effective and efficient, there has to be absolute impartiality.
Impartiality is the eminence of a person where one is impartial while allocating any goods or services among
several people or selecting a person from a set of people based on certain set of abilities.
In Impartiality, candidates must perform his responsibilities in a way that is fair, just and equitable and reflects
the Civil Service commitment to equality and diversity. They must not act in a way that unjustifiably favours or
discriminates against particular individuals or interests.
In political Impartiality, person must:
• Serve the government, whatever its political persuasion, to the best of his ability in a way which maintains
political impartiality and is in line with the requirements of this code, no matter what your own political
beliefs are.
• Act in a way which deserves and retains the confidence of ministers, while at the same time ensuring that
you will be able to establish the same relationship with those whom you may be required to serve in some
future government.
• Comply with any restrictions that have been laid down on your political actions.
• Candidates must not act in a way that is determined by party political considerations, or use official resources
for party political purposes and allow their personal political views to determine any advice they give
or their actions.
Non Partisanship
Non-partisanship is not being precisely owned or allied with any group, party or cause. Non-partisanship can be
called political neutrality. Non-partisanship infers that the officer is to do his task without any fear of or favour to
any political party. The values of the administrator will flow from the constitution not from the philosophy of any
political party. Non-partisanship is the process of not involving any political party even if the person has strong
faith in any political thought.
Importance of these Two Values
In egalitarianism, well-organized civil service must have set of values that differentiate it from other occupations.
Integrity, dedication to public service, impartiality, political neutrality, anonymity and non-partisanship are
promises of an effective civil service. The public has a right to expect the civil service functions honestly, impartially
and efficiently.
Impartiality empowers the administrator to fill the gaps of trust deficit between the subjects and the Government.
Impartiality provides lawfulness to the behaviour of administrator and makes it more effective. Major task of
administrators is to adopt a partial (non-neutral in true sense) approach towards serving the poor
and underprivileged, over and above personal gain and conferred interests. Non-partisanship strengthens the
democratic procedures and institutions along with maintaining the integrity of the service. The administrators are
always with continuous interface with the politicians, therefore it is necessary to detach themselves from any
political dogma and do his duty sincerely. It does not matter which party is in power. Significance of non-
partisanship can be appreciated by considering a situation in which this virtue is absent. If the administrator is
motivated to any political party, there would always be a group that would remain alienated from the government
services as they would have voted for losing party. It strongly fascinates other prerequisites of moral
administration like clearness and trustworthiness.

OBJECTIVITY
Objectivity is founding advice and decisions on rigorous analysis of the evidence. It entails that a truth remains
true universally, independently of human thought or approaches. It is established that objective decisions are not
impacted by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts. Taking an objective approach to
an issue means having due regard for the known valid evidence (relevant facts, logical implications and viewpoints
and human purposes) pertaining to that issue. If significant valid evidence is denied or counterfeit, an objective
approach is incredible. An objective approach is particularly important in science, and in decision- making
processes which affect large numbers of people (e.g. politics, bureaucracy). In some circumstances, an objective
approach is unmanageable because people will naturally take a biased, self-interested approach. That is,
they will select out those views and facts which agree with their own.
To maintain objectivity in public services, candidates must:
• Provide information and advice, including advice to ministers, on the basis of the evidence, and accurately
present the options and facts.
• Take decisions on the merits of the case.
• Take due account of expert and professional advice.
Candidates must not:
• Disregard inconvenient facts or relevant considerations when providing advice or making decisions.
• Frustrate the implementation of strategies once decisions are taken by declining to take, or abstaining from,
action which flows from those decisions. Therefore objectivity means consideration of convenient and in
convenient facts, taking decision based on merits of the case in the matters related to:
✓ Public administration.
✓ Policy implementation.
✓ Policy formulation.
✓ Awarding contracts.
✓ Making recommendation for awards and benefits.
In brief, objectivity entails implementation of policy in letter and spirit without any personal bias.
 DEDICATION TO PUBLIC SERVICE
Dedication means quality of involving oneself completely or applying one’s attention, time to a particular activity,
cause or a person.
Dedication in public service is required as civil servants in India, a developing country need to perform the regular
administrative and also play an important role in socio-economic development of the nation. In carrying out these
activities he may be faced with several obstructions like social opposition against any programme which is against
their deep rooted belief, lack of support from political executive. Schemes for promoting family planning are
generally opposed in rural as they consider contraceptives as taboos here dedication is required to fulfil the goal
of healthy society. One’s employees and superiors may be involved in corruption. These obstacles can only be
overcome when one has perseverance and dedication.
Public service is not a goal but journey which may be non-exciting and unwanted at times, only a dedicated civil
servant can remain motivated in such situations.
Dedication would make sense of duty an end in itself, which will be independent of assignment.

EMPATHY
Empathy refers to the ability to imagine oneself in another’s place and understand the others’ feelings, desires,
ideas, and actions. In other words, empathy is about being able to accurately hear out and understand the
thoughts, feelings and concerns of others, even when these are not made explicit. The ability to empathize is
directly dependent on your ability to feel your own feelings and identify them. It means in order to empathize
with others, we need to become aware of what we are actually feeling to acknowledge, identify, and accept our
feelings. Only then we may empathize with others.
Importance of Empathy
Empathy is widely recognized as a universal virtue, closely related to many other virtues, such as love, compassion,
kindness, tolerance, respect, and acceptance. It is promoted as the empathy is the cornerstone for moral and
character development. It is also essential for working towards inclusiveness in society. As an individual, we need
empathy to survive and succeed in this complex world.
Sympathy and Empathy
Sympathy and empathy are separate terms with some differences. Sympathy and empathy are both acts of
feeling, but with sympathy you feel for the person; you are sorry for them or pity them, but you don’t specifically
understand what they are feeling. However, in empathy, to an extent you are placing yourself in that person’s
place, have a good sense of what he feels and understand his feelings to a degree.
To become empathetic to others, one need to:
• Demonstrate active listening skills (such as asking probing questions, not interrupting)
• Recognise body language, facial expression, and/or tone of voice to understand the unspoken message
• Recognise unexpressed or poorly expressed thoughts, concerns, and feelings
• Pick up signals when others are not feeling comfortable and display consideration

TOLERANCE
Tolerance or toleration is a fair, objective and permissive attitude toward those whose opinions, practices, race,
religion, nationality, etc., differ from one’s own; freedom from bigotry. In other words, tolerance is respect,
acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world’s cultures, our forms of expression and ways of
being human. It is fostered by knowledge, openness, communication, and freedom of thought, conscience and
belief. Tolerance is harmony in difference.
Significance of Tolerance
Tolerance is the responsibility that upholds human rights, pluralism, democracy, harmony and the rule of law. It
involves the rejection of dogmatism and absolutism and affirms the standards set out in international human
rights instruments. Consistent with respect for human rights, the practice of tolerance does not mean toleration
of social injustice or the abandonment or weakening of one’s convictions. It means that one is free to adhere to
one’s own convictions and accepts that others adhere to theirs. It means accepting the fact that human beings,
naturally diverse in their appearance, situation, speech, behaviour and values, have the right to live in peace and
to be as they are. It also means that one’s views are not to be imposed on others.
In times of peace, people have a chance to thrive socially, economically and emotionally. Tolerance creates a
society in which people can feel valued and respected, and in which there is room for every person, each with
their own ideas, thoughts and dreams. Due to these reasons, most of the experts believe that tolerance is
important as it is an indispensable aspect of a healthy, liveable society. Actually, it is the only way in which a
country as diverse as India (politically, religiously, economically) can function and use each and every difference
to make its people thrive rather than suffer.
In the age of globalization, individuals come from different backgrounds, cultures and religions and work together,
and where the world has become multicultural and full of diversity, establishing tolerance and harmony has
become very crucial and important, and fostering mutual love and affection has become vital. Without tolerance
and harmony, the lasting peace of societies cannot be maintained, and loyalty for each other cannot be
established. Tolerance does not imply that only one person exhibit tolerance and the others do not. When some
people disagree on particular issue they must support and express their opinion in a courteous manner, and they
should not use hateful and provocative words. Tolerance must be revealed from both sides on issues, in order for
it to be effective.

COMPASSION
Compassion is the understanding or empathy for the suffering of others. More involved than simple empathy,
compassion commonly gives rise to ‘an active desire to alleviate another’s suffering’. Compassion involves a sense
of empathy. It does not end with pity. It invokes sensibilities to understand and even feel the pain of others and
motivates one to be truly helpful in overcoming this pain.
Characteristics of ‘compassion’ can be understood by noticing that someone who is compassionate:
• Has an active desire to alleviate another’s suffering.
• Helps others because he wants to, not because he has to.
• Understands the feelings of others.
• Shows empathy towards another person.
• Shows kindness without expecting anything in return.
• Recognizes and helps others that are less fortunate than himself.
Significance of Compassion in Civil Services
Feeling compassion is one thing; acting on it is another. Compassion is deeply rooted in human nature; it has a
biological basis in the brain and body. Humans can communicate compassion through facial gesture and touch,
and these displays of compassion can serve vital social functions, strongly suggesting an evolutionary basis of
compassion. And when experienced, compassion overwhelms selfish concerns and motivates altruistic behavior.
The attribute of being compassionate is of immense value for a civil servant. Since a compassionate civil servant
is able to deliver the services efficiently and address the concerns of weaker sections, it is considered as one of
the most important attribute.
A compassionate civil servant:
• Understands the needs of the marginalised and disadvantaged, along with the needs of the wider public
• Strives to respond quickly to meet their needs in a respectful, helpful and responsive manner
• Reports issues that affect service delivery, where necessary
• Addresses all the issues of the citizens in an unbiased manner
• Ensures that levels of service are maintained - highlights risks or concerns in order to meet community
requirements
• Understands the value of an affirmative action towards the 0marginalised and disadvantaged
• Actively seeks information from all sections of community to understand their needs and expectations
• Establishes mechanisms to address feedback from the community about the service provided
• Understands issues from others’ perspective, particularly the disadvantaged

RULE OF LAW
Rule of law indicates that no branch of government is above the law, and no public official may act arbitrarily or
unilaterally outside the law. This requirement is sometimes explained with the phrase “no one is above the law”.
Rule of law is also regarded as a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public and
private, including the State itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and
independently adjudicated. It requires, as well, measures to ensure adherence to the principles of supremacy of
law, equality before the law and accountability to the law.

EQUITY AND EQUALITY

Equality is usually taken to mean that everyone should be treated the same (due to the fundamental equality
of all persons), whereas an equity approach holds that groups and individuals should be treated according to their
particular circumstances and requirements. Equity recognizes that some people have to overcome obstacles to
access resources or opportunities (obstacles like literacy, perpetual poverty, remote areas, and place in
social hierarchy). Therefore, according to equity principle, groups can be treated differently in the application
of policy or the law, so as to compensate for these obstacles, and to produce just or fair outcomes.
RESPONSIBILITY
It is the duty to deal with or take care of so that one is blamed if something goes wrong. When life does not go
our way or we inadvertently make a mistake, it is so easy to make excuses, place blame on others, or argue that
circumstances were against us. But one can only progress in life to the extent that we take responsibility for our
actions and attitudes, and put forth the initiative necessary to create our own circumstances.
Civil servants are expected to be responsible for their duties. The successful people are not expected to play
the blame game when problems arise, they are expected to accept responsibility. It is regretted that some of the
civil servants take full credit for success and blame others for failures. Hence, willingness to take responsibility and
to exhibit initiative depends on thoughts and attitudes of the Civil Servant.

COURAGE
Courage is not the absence of fear, but the awareness that something else is more important. Courage can be
displayed in heroic, visible ways or in quiet, private battles we fight when attempting to conquer inner fears.
Courage most often requires us to step out - out from our comfort zones, out from our doubts and out into
unchartered waters.
Civil servants should be non-fearful and courageous to show heroism at times. There are times when the civil
servants are expected to manage their fears. It is seen that courage during difficult situations is something that is
considered an essential attribute of civil services. Civil servants are also required to display courage against illegal
pressures whether it is from political executive or from their own seniors. The whole team respects only such civil
servants.
HUMILITY
It is quality of not thinking that one is better than other people. Though strong self confidence and high self esteem
are healthy personality traits, there is a point when they cease to be virtues, the point at which a person feels
more important than another, or above reproach and learning. Humility on the other hand, breeds growth and
friendship.
It is considered as mother of all virtues. Being humble is very essential for civil servants. They can turn arrogant
because of power and authority so they are expected to be humble. Civil servants should not think themselves so
big that other people look small. They work in a team, so they should willingly give credit to others who have
helped them along the way.
 GRATITUDE
It is a feeling of being grateful and wanting to express thanks. Gratitude is a close companion of both integrity and
humility. Gratitude without integrity is insencere flattery. Gratitude follows both integrity and humility. Gratitude
can be expressed in many ways. It can even come as a small concrete token of thanks.
The civil servants should be grateful to their seniors and subordinates for their cooperation. Gratitude is something
that shows humanity of a person. Civil servants are helped by many people in order to achieve their work. Hence,
they should be grateful to all those who have helped them.

VISION AND INNOVATION

Vision is the ability to see the area that one can see from a particular position. It includes also the ability to think
about or plan the future with great imagination and intelligence. Vision not only helps us spot present
opportunities where others might not see them, but it also points us towards the future.
To achieve something in life, it is very essential, one has a well defined vision, and a set of goals. Dreams are
extremely important. One cannot do something unless he imagines it. Visions help one to see the possibilities
of tomorrow with in the realities of today. The civil servants are, therefore expected to have a long term vision for
the policy formulation and implementation. It helps to carry out the policy process in a desired direction. Visions
help them to become innovative.
Innovation is needed in civil services at various stages. It makes the civil services generate new ideas and thoughts
which can then be put into action by civil servants and they can be trained through various innovative
programmes. Innovation helps the civil servant to improve his performance and overall performance of the team.
Every scheme of the government is a beautiful example of innovative exercise of some one.

ADAPTABILITY
It is the ability to change or be changed in order to deal successfully with new situations. Though some individuals
allow adversity to bend or break their spirits, other quickly adapt to their surroundings and surmount the
opposition. The ability to adapt and make the best of difficult situations is a sure test of greatness. When
encountering opposition, successful people find ways to rise above and make the best of circumstances.
Adversity causes some men to break other to break records. Adversity is the trial of principle. Without it, a man
hardly knows whether he is honest or not. When problems arise, we do well if we act quickly to drain their
momentum and move forward ourselves. People who encounter opposition often look externally for causes or
blame. But the best way to initiate change and to make progress is to first look inside - to start with yourself.
Sometimes when we are down the best solution is to laugh and move on for some aspects of life just cannot be
taken too seriously.
Civil servants should be flexible enough to adapt to various stressful and changing situations. It is essential to
enable them to do their duties efficiently in varying situations. Their frequent change of place and nature of work
requires adaptability.

PATRIOTISM
It is love for one’s country, to support, serve, and defend, to be inspired by to change for the better and to care
deeply for its citizens. Patriotism does not mean, we are better than others, but that we are proud of what we
have accomplished for our country and that we have no intentions of giving it up. Patriotism for a fighting soldier
is winning the battle, protecting the territorial integrity of the country and for that if required laying down one’s
life.
For a civil life patriotism means enlightened citizenship. It includes performance of duty as a citizen or as a civil
servant. A patriotic civil servant will serve the poor and the distressed people of his country out of compassion.
He will devote himself to the work of development of his own people. A patriot does not bother about his personal
interests or gains. A true patriot is worshipped by his countrymen. People shed tears when such person dies.

*********
 CHAPTER 8: EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
“Emotional intelligence, more than any other factor, more than I.Q. or expertise, accounts
for 85% to 90% of success at work... I.Q. is a threshold competence. You need it, but it
doesn’t make you a star. Emotional intelligence can - Warren Bennis”.
We all know someone who is incredibly bright and yet cannot seem to pull their life together. The brilliant student
who flunks out of university, or the incredibly intelligent worker who can’t seem to get ahead in their company.
We know from our familiarity with them that they have a good to superior intelligence level, but that doesn’t
seem to be enough to ensure success.
Emotional intelligence is a relatively new subject of study, though its roots go back to the time of Darwin, who
posited that emotional expression was essential for survival. But what do we mean when we talk about emotional
intelligence? The fact is that there are numerous ways of defining emotional intelligence. But for now, let’s say
that it is the ability to be aware of your emotions and the emotions of others and then to use that knowledge to
help manage the expression of emotions so that they foster success instead of cause roadblocks.

WHY EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT IS IN ACADEMIC STUDY?

The phrase ‘Emotional Quotient’ is being used extensively these days: for instance, in magazines which challenge
you to ‘know your EQ’, on Internet sites which offer to test your emotional intelligence, in organisations where
CEOs have started taking lessons in EQ and in offices where employees want to learn how to understand their
bosses.
• Parents want to know why their children do not understand them, spouses discuss ways and means to tackle
marital disputes, youths wonder why their circle of friend is shrinking by the day and many others discovering
that they are immensely unpopular in their peer circle.
• Managers study how to work with subordinates, parents take courses on rearing children, husbands and
wives learn to talk to each other, teachers study how to cope with emotional disturbances among their
students, young minds learn to improve their interpersonal relations with peer groups.
Everyone wishes to enhance emotional competencies and is asking how to do it. There is a difference of
opinion about emotions between Traditionalists and Modernists. It can be seen as below:
Traditionalists believe that emotions Modernists believe that emotions
• Distract us • Motivate us
• Make us vulnerable • Make us confident
• Cloud our judgment • Speed our analysis
• Must be controlled • Build trust
• Inhibit information • Provide feedback

WHAT ARE EMOTIONS?

Emotions are human being’ warning systems that alert them to what is really going on around them. Feelings are
what one experiences as the result of having emotions. Psychologists have described and explained ‘emotion’
differently, but all agree that it is a complex state of the human mind involving a wide range of bodily changes
such as breathing, pounding heart, flushed face, sweaty palms, high pulse rate and glandular secretions. Mentally,
it is a state of excitement or perturbation marked by strong feelings.
For example, some of the main emotions, with their blends, have been categorised as follows:
• Anger : Fury, outrage, charged, resentment, wrath, exasperation, indignation, vexation, acrimony, animosity,
annoyance, irritability, hostility and, at the extreme, pathological hatred and violence.
• Depression : Grief, aloofness, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, dejection, despair
and sadness.
• Anxiety : Fear, apprehension, nervousness, upset, misgiving, wariness, qualm, dread, fright, terror, as a
psychopathology, phobia and panic.
• Happiness : Enjoyment, cheerfulness, joy, relief, contentment, bliss, delight, amusement, pride, sensual
pleasure, thrill, rapture, gratification, satisfaction, euphoria, ecstasy and, at the extreme, mania.
• Love : Acceptance, mutual attraction, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinity, devotion, adoration and
infatuation.
• Surprise : Shock, astonishment, amazement and wonder.
• Disgust : Contempt, pity, disdain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste and revulsion.
• Embarrassment : Shame, guilt, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, regret and mortification.
Having known what emotions mean, let us try and understand how we use emotions in daily life by taking a look
at these simple statements:
• My boss is always in a hostile mood.
• The production manager is always nagging others.
• The manager does not understand the feelings of others.
• The officer blurts things out without thinking of others.
• She is jealous of her colleagues.
• Don’t trust him. He is too manipulative.
• Management is way out of touch with employees’ emotions.
• The new manager is too sensitive; he takes everything too personally.
These statements refer to various blends of emotions as reflected through personality characteristics. These
are fundamental to moods, nature, lifestyle and to the whole personality.
Emotions are also like an internal gyroscope that helps keep us on the right track by ensuring that we are guided
more by EQ and less by IQ. The above statements indicate that EQ is the ability to understand other people: what
motivates them, how they work, what are their goals.

WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?

• Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist
thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
promote emotional and intellectual growth.
• It also refers to the ability to control and evaluate emotions. Some researchers suggest that emotional
intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others claim it is an inborn characteristic.
• Emotional Intelligence is a subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and
others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking
and actions.

MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to both terminology and
operationalizations. Currently, there are three main models of EI:
1. Ability model
2. Mixed model
3. Trait model
Different models of EI have led to the development of various instruments for the assessment of the construct.
While some of these measures may overlap, most researchers agree that they tap different constructs.
ABILITY MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Salovey and Mayer’s conception of EI strives to define EI within the confines of the standard criteria for a new
intelligence. Following their continuing research, their initial definition of EI was revised to “The ability to perceive
emotion, integrate emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions and to regulate emotions to promote
personal growth.”
The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and
navigate the social environment. The model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information
of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. This ability is seen
to manifest itself in certain adaptive behaviours. The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:
• Perceiving Emotions : The ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural
artifacts— including the ability to identify one’s own emotions. Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect
of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
• Using Emotions : The ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking
and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing
moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
• Understanding Emotions : The ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated
relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be
sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions
evolve over time.
• Managing Emotions : The ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the
emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve
intended goals. The ability EI model has been criticized in the research for lacking face and predictive
validity in the workplace.
MIXED MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive
leadership performance. Goleman’s model outlines five main EI constructs.
• Self-awareness : The ability to know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals
and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
• Self-regulation : Involves controlling or redirecting one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting
to changing circumstances.
• Social Skill : Managing relationships to move people in the desired direction.
Empathy : Considering other people’s feelings especially when making
decisions. Motivation : Being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement.
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are
not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve
outstanding performance. Goleman posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that
determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. Goleman’s model of EI has been criticized in the
research literature as mere “pop psychology”.
TRAIT MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Soviet-born British psychologist Konstantin VasilyPetrides (“K. V. Petrides”) proposed a conceptual distinction
between the ability based model and a trait based model of EI and has been developing the latter over many years
in numerous scientific publications. Trait EI is “a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located at the
lower levels of personality.”
In lay terms, trait EI refers to an individual’s self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definition of EI
encompasses behavioural dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured by self-report, as opposed
to the ability based model which refers to actual abilities, which have proven highly resistant to scientific
measurement. Trait EI should be investigated within a personality framework. An alternative label for the same
construct is trait emotional self-efficacy.

EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT VS INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

Emotional Quotient is synergistic with Intelligence Quotient; top performers have both.
• The more complex the job, the more important is emotional intelligence, if only because a deficiency in these
abilities can hinder the use of whatever technical expertise or intellect a person may have.
• EQ has ramifications for how people operate at the workplace in relation to others. For example, a manager
who is unaware of his impact on others is a walking disaster at the workplace.
There is a story of how one manager so intimidated others that they never gave him honest feedback. Research
shows that IQ accounts for only about 20 per cent of a person’s success in life. Considering how much emphasis
schools, colleges and other institutions place on IQ alone, it is surprising that only a small part of a person’s
achievement at work, or in life, is explained by IQ.
The difference between those at the high and low ends of emotional intelligence is very large indeed. Being at the
top therefore confers a major competitive advantage. Hence, ‘soft’ skills matter even more for success in ‘hard’
fields. It has been argued that traditional academic aptitude, school grades and advanced credentials simply did
not predict how well people would perform on the job or whether they would succeed in life. Instead, there is a
set of specified competencies like empathy and initiative which distinguished the most successful from those
who were merely good enough to retain their jobs.

WHAT IS SUCCESS?
The word ‘success’ has been used to define EQ. But what is ‘success’?
• Is it to reach top positions in the workplace?
• Is it being rich and wealthy?
• Is it being powerful, dominating or influential?
• Is it occupying senior positions in bureaucracy?
• Or, is it something else?
Should we conclude that people who could not reach the ‘top’ have failed in their professional or personal life and
be designated as ‘unsuccessful’? It is time to get closer to the meaning of ‘success’ to avoid misleading conclusions.
You will agree that success cannot be defined only as being at the top position in an organisation or achieving a
smooth career growth. Success may have different meanings for different people.
• For some, having a satisfying job or personal life may be an indication of success. Leading a healthy and happy
married life may be a determinant of success for others. For yet another set of people, success may mean
reaching the top position. Hence, tangible achievements alone may not be indicators of success in life. Non-
tangible achievements can also be termed as successful.
• But how do you measure and quantify these? It therefore becomes imperative to know what we mean by
‘success’ in personal and professional life. Is there a standard definition for ‘success’? Synonyms for the word
‘successful’ include flourishing, thriving, prospering, booming, growing, mushrooming, fruitful, lucrative and
 advancing. Therefore, there are many definitions for the word ‘success’, depending upon the individual.
It is true that you usually hear about successful people only after they have made it big, but they have worked at
it behind the scenes for years, struggling and learning from their failures, until they finally achieve success
(their individual goals)! While success could happen quickly for you, it usually does not. Success is when
preparation meets opportunity. On a positive note, it can be a fun and exciting learning process and experience
for those who are willing to enjoy the journey.

SOME MYTHS ABOUT EQ

EQ is Not—
• Fixed genetically
• Being nice or good all the time
• To give free rein to feelings
• Something that develops in early childhood
• Having gender differences
The level of emotional intelligence is not fixed genetically, nor does it develop only in early childhood. Unlike
IQ, which does not change much after adolescence, emotional intelligence is largely learned and continues to
develop throughout life; as you learn from your experiences, your EQ also keeps growing.

THE TEN HABITS OF EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT PEOPLE

[Link]. HIGH EQ
1 Label their feelings, rather than labelling people or situations.
2 Distinguish between thoughts and feelings.
3 Take responsibility for their feelings.
4 Use their feelings to help them make decisions.
5 Show respect for other people’s feelings.
6 Feel energized, not angry.
7 Validate other people’s feelings.
8 Practice getting a positive value from their negative emotions.
9 Don’t advise, command, control, criticize, judge lecture to others.
10 Avoid people who invalidate them or don’t respect their feelings.

DOMAINS OF DANIEL GOLEMAN

Goleman gave five domains that delineate the parameters of emotional intelligence:
Being self-aware
The ability to recognize a feeling as it is happening is fundamental to EI. If we are unable to notice our emotions,
we can be overwhelmed and also flounder at the mercy of these strong feelings.
Managing emotions
This rests upon self-awareness; once aware, we need to handle our emotions. The goal is to ‘balance’ the
emotions, i.e., neither emotional suppression nor emotional excess. It is a continuous’ exercise and those who can
handle emotions can face ‘life’s upsets better and far more quickly than those who do not.
Having self-motivation
Underlying the accomplishment of any sort of goal is the ability to marshal our emotions in pursuit of that end.
For creative tasks, focus and mastery (learning to delay gratification and stifle inappropriate desires) are important
skills, and emotional control is essential.
Recognizing the emotions of others
‘People’ skills are based on a capacity for empathy and the ability to stay tuned to the emotions ‘of others.
Empathy kindles altruism and lies at the basis of professions that deal with caring for others, such as teaching,
management, and the healing arts.
Handling relationship
Interpersonal effectiveness is dependent on our ability to manage the emotions of others. Brilliant projects
and innovative insights are often never realized because of a lack of social competence and leadership skill.

PERSONAL COMPETENCE
Emotional Awareness: recognizing one’s emotions and their effect
SELF-AWARENESS Accurate Self-assessment: knowing one’s strengths and limits
Self-confidence: A strong sense of one’s self-worth and capabilities
Self-control: Keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check
Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity
SELF-REGULATION Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance
Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change
Innovation: Being comfortable with novel ideas, approaches and new
information
Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet astandard of excellence
Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the groupor organization Initiative:
MOTIVATION
Readiness to act on opportunities
Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despiteobstacles and setbacks

SOCIAL COMPETENCE
Understanding others: sensing others’ feelings and perspectives, taking an
activeinterest in theirconcerns
Developing others: Sensing others developmentneeds and bolstering their
abilities
EMPATHY Service orientation: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting customers’ needs
Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through different kinds of
people
Political Awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power
relationships
Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion Communication:
Listening openly and sending convincing messages Conflict
management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements Leadership:
Inspiring and guiding individuals and groups
SOCIAL SKILLS
Change Catalyst: Initiating or managing change
Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships
Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals
Team capabilities: creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals
 HOW TO PROMOTE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?
Guidelines for Promoting Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace - a paper chiefly constructed by Cary
Chernissand Daniel Goleman featuring 22 guidelines which represent the best current knowledge relating to
the promotionof EQ in the workplace, summarised as:
Paving the way
• Assess the organization’s needs
• Assessing the individual
• Delivering assessments with care
• Maximising learning choice
• Encouraging participation
• Linking goals and personal values
• Adjusting individual expectations
• Assessing readiness and motivation for EQ development
Doing the work of change
• Foster relationships between EQ trainers and learners
• Self-directed change and learning
• Setting goals
• Breaking goals down into achievable steps
• Providing opportunities for practice
• Give feedback
• Using experiential methods
• Build in support
• Use models and examples
• Encourage insight and self-awareness
Encourage transfer and maintenance of change (sustainable change)
• Encourage application of new learning in jobs
• Develop organizational culture that supports learning
Evaluating the change - did it work?
• Evaluate individual and organizational effect

ATTRIBUTES OF AN EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT ADMINISTRATOR

An emotionally intelligent administrator will possess the ability to-
• Handle conflicts constructively
• De-personalize from the angers of others
• Deal with uncertainty and change
• Identify and abide by core values and beliefs that shape the choices you make
• Understand and empathize with positions different from others
• To enroll people into his/ her vision
• Manage difficult/unreasonable persons in all situations
Relevance of Emotional Intelligence in the Current Environment of Civil Services
Civil services today work in an environment that is beset with numerous problems, challenges, and even
contradictions such as-
• Fast changing social structure and values.
• Increasing regional, economic and digital divide, rising population and unemployment.
• Inadequacy of basic necessities like housing and drinking water and infrastructure and so on.
• Increased awareness of the masses as well as existence of significant number of voiceless and marginalized
poor.
• Widespread application of information technology which has helped the government on one hand, but
has also put pressure on the government to “appear to be performing and in control of things”.
• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments have led to decentralization of decision making and created
a new class of politicians over the civil services.
• There is, however, a consensus that government should perform better, be more responsive and
transparent, and enhance scope for participation of people and civil society.
• Issues get politicized easily and quickly.
• There is an all pervasive and increased cynicism and contempt of politics and administration.
• Inner dissent and conflicts over policies, programmes and implementation thereof are ‘more open and
sharper.
Thus the work environment of the civil services is much more complex, demanding and even hostile at times.
And given its present state, it is in no position to handle and tackle the problems in the old ways. Even the well
intending civil servants cannot do much because all their energies are exhausted in sheer survival. Herein lies the
role of Emotional Intelligence. The emotionally intelligent civil services can achieve a lot if they are professionally
competent and positive in their approach.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

Increasingly, it is noted that basic management and leadership skills are no longer enough to lead organizations
successfully. Emotional intelligence is recognised as having an important role to play in management and
leadership positions where differences in technical skills are of negligible importance.
• Consequently, emotional intelligence is becoming a sought after quality. Some authors on emotional
intelligence are of the view that emotional competencies are twice more likely to contribute to organizational
success and excellence than pure intellect and/or technical expertise alone. Accordingly, being aware of our
emotions and how to manage them in ways that are appropriate and effective is an important skill for
leadership, the organization, the team and the individual.
• As bureaucratic processes moved more and more away from the historical concepts of dehumanization and
impersonality, the notion that emotional skills are essential to job performance and customer service has
gained foothold in the public administration sector.
• Based on the concepts of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management,
emotional intelligence has become key to the internal organization of public agencies (e.g. leadership, co-
worker collaboration) and for the external exchange with citizen customers (e.g. as a basis for relational
work! emotional labour).
• Despite some deficiencies (e.g. difficulties in assessment and costs), emotional intelligence skills will continue
to be important for bureaucratic processes since social skills in general are expected to decline due to the
increased dependency on technological forms of communication.

HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

The good thing is that emotional intelligence can be taught and developed. Observe how you react to people. Do
you rush to judgment before you know all of the facts? Do you stereotype? Look honestly at how you think and
interact with other people. Try to put yourself in their place, and be more open and accepting of their -
perspectives and needs.
• Look at your work environment. Do you seek attention for your accomplishments? Humility can be a
wonderful quality, and it doesn't mean that you're shy or lack self-confidence. When you practice humility,
 you say that you know what you did, and you can be quietly confident about it. Give others a chance to
shine - put the focus on them, and don't worry too much about getting praise for yourself.
• Do a self-evaluation. What are your weaknesses? Are you willing to accept that you're not perfect and that
you could work on some areas to make yourself a better person? Have the courage to look at yourself
honestly - it can change your life.
• Examine how you react to stressful situations. Do you become upset every time there's a delay or something
doesn't happen the way you want? Do you blame others or become angry at them, even when it's not their
fault? The ability to stay calm and in control in difficult situations is highly valued - in the business world and
outside it. Keep your emotions under control when things go wrong.
Take responsibility for your actions. If you hurt someone's feelings, apologize directly - don't ignore what you did
or avoid the person. People are usually more willing to forgive and forget if you make an honest attempt to make
things right.
Examine how your actions will affect others - before you take those actions. If your decision will impact others,
put yourself in their place. How will they feel if you do this? Would you want that experience? If you must take
the action, how can you help others deal with the effects?
Emotional intelligence is an awareness of your actions and feelings - and how they affect those around you. It also
means that you value others, listen to their wants and needs, and are able to empathize or identify with them on
many different levels.
Emotional intelligence involves integrating head and heart. This involves awareness of current embodied
emotional experience and reflection on and regulation of emotions. Experience and reflection are both important
in transforming maladaptive emotions and in creating new meaning. Empathy with others' emotions is a crucial
aspect of emotional intelligence.
HOW TO DEAL WITH FRUSTRATION
• Stop and evaluate : One of the best things you can do is mentally stop yourself, and look at the situation. Ask
yourself why you feel frustrated. Write it down, and be specific. Then think of one positive thing about your
current situation. For instance, if your boss is late for your meeting, then you have more time to prepare. Or,
you could use this time to relax a little.
• Find something positive about the situation : Thinking about a positive aspect of your situation often makes
you look at things in a different way. This small change in your thinking can improve your mood. When it's
people who are causing your frustration, they're probably not doing it deliberately to annoy you. And if it's a
thing that's bothering you - well, it's certainly not personal! Don't get mad, just move on.
• Remember the last time you felt frustrated : The last time you were frustrated about something, the
situation probably worked out just fine after a while, right? Your feelings of frustration or irritation probably
didn't do much to solve the problem then, which means they're not doing anything for yop right now.
HOW TO DEAL WITH DISLIKE
We've probably all had to work with someone we don't like. But it's important to be professional, no matter what.
• Be respectful : If you have to work with someone you don't get along with, then it's time to set aside your
pride and ego. Treat the person with courtesy and respect, as you would treat anyone else. Just because this
person behaves in an unprofessional manner, that doesn't mean you should as well.
• Be assertive : If the other person is rude and unprofessional, then firmly explain that you refuse to be treated
that way, and calmly leave the situation. Remember, set the example.
HOW TO DEAL WITH DISAPPOINTMENT
Dealing with disappointment or unhappiness at work can be difficult. Of all the emotions you might feel at work,
these are the most likely to impact your productivity. If you've just suffered a major disappointment, your energy
will probably be low, you might be afraid to take another risk, and all of that may hold you back from achieving.
• Look at your mindset : Take a moment to realize that things won't always go your way. If they did, life
would be a straight road instead of one with hills and valleys, ups and downs, right? And it's the hills and
valleys that often make life so interesting.
 • Adjust your goal : If you're disappointed that you didn't reach a goal, that doesn't mean the goal is no longer
reachable. Keep the goal, but make a small change - for example, delay the deadline.
• Record your thoughts : Write down exactly what is making you unhappy. Is it a co-worker? Is it your job?
Do you have too much to do? Once you identify the problem, start brainstorming ways to solve it or work
around it. Remember, you always have the power to change your situation.
• Smile : Strange as it may sound, forcing a smile - or even a grimace - onto your face can often make you feel
happy (this is one of the strange ways in which we humans are 'wired.') Try it - you may be [Link]
all have to deal with negative emotions at work sometimes, and learning how to cope with these feelings
is now more important than ever. After all, negative emotions can spread, and no one wants to be around
a person who adds negativity to a group.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN BUREAUCRACY

Leadership and Teamwork Improvement
At the center of successful leadership is the "ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals". Since
emotions are intrinsic to the human condition, they doubtlessly arise whenever a group of people work together.
Hence it is essential that leaders. (e.g. public managers) know how to deal with circumstances that include
emotions. For example, ensuring that co-workers feel appreciated and understood helps to enhance their
devotion and enthusiasm for work, which positively affects their job performance. Similarly, good leaders should
recognize when negative emotions arise (e.g. dissatisfaction and frustration) and should be able to address them
adequately so that they do not endanger job performance and the success of a project.
Overall, improving emotional intelligence should be a constant process of reflecting and learning, which indicates
that not only the selection of leaders with already good "people skills" (a popular synonym for high emotional
intelligence) is favorable, but also the development and improvement of emotional skills over the course of time
is essential.
Improvement of Customer Service
A great deal of public-service jobs are characterized by interpersonal contact, which can be face to face and/or
voice to voice. In an ideal case the interaction between public servant and customer should produce a desired
outcome for both sides:
• From the customer's point of view, his/her goal of the exchange has been fulfilled;
• From the agency's point of view, the customer was satisfactorily served, establishing the productivity and
efficiency of the respective public-service agency.
• Thus to do their job well, employees must be able to manage interactions with their customers positively.

*********
 CHAPTER 9: ATTITUDE
INTRODUCTION
• From the simplest and most ordinary acts to the highly complex and rare ones our species can perform —
eating a fruit or spitting out a chili pepper, gazing intently into an infant’s face or scrupulously avoiding a
neighbour, saving a life or taking one at a moment’s notice — we are creatures of preferences.
• Bundles of preferences characterize every living organism; without them, plants would not turn toward the
Sun and cockroaches would not run away from it. In us, preferences exist not only in these built - in forms
shared with other living beings but in distinctly human ways, such as the consciously moulded reactions we
convey through artistic expression, the moral codes by which we judge our worth and our failings, or the words
we craft to describe imagined utopias.
• The group that gave this concept scientific birth in the early 20th century chose attitude as the name to refer
to such preferences. So intently did the pioneers focus on a study of attitudes that the field of social psychology
came to be synonymous with the study of this single concept.
• The term attitude refers to certain regularities of an individual’s feeling, thoughts, and predispositions to act
toward some aspect of one’s environment. Feelings are often referred to as the affective component, thoughts
as the cognitive component, and predispositions to act as the behavioural component.

STRUCTURE OF ATTITUDES
Attitudes structure can be described in terms of three components.
• Affective component : this involves a person’s feelings/emotions about the attitude object. For example:
“I am scared of spiders”.
• Behavioural (or conative) component: the way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave.
For example: “I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one”.
• Cognitive component: this involves a person’s belief / knowledge about an attitude object. For example:
“I believe spiders are dangerous”.
This model is known as the ABC model of attitudes. The three components are usually linked. However, there
is evidence that the cognitive and affective components of behaviour do not always match with behaviour. This is
shown in a study by LaPiere (1934).

FORMATION OF ATTITUDES AND FACTORS IN ATTITUDE CHANGE

Attitudes are formed by many factors as given below:
1. Direct Instruction : This involves being told by parents, schools, community organisations, religious doctrine,
friends, as to what attitudes to hold etc.
2. Operant Conditioning : This is a simple form of learning, based on the “Law of Effect” For instance behaviours
including verbal behaviours and even thoughts tend to be repeated if they are reinforced. Conversely,
behaviours tend to be stopped when they are punished. Thus, if one expresses, or acts out an attitude toward
some group, and this is reinforced by one’s peers, the attitude is strengthened and is likely to be expressed
again. The reinforcement can be as subtle as a smile or as obvious as a raise in salary. Operant conditioning
is especially involved with the behavioural component of attitudes.
3. Classical conditioning : This is another simple form of learning. In this a natural response (salivating) to a
natural stimulus (Food) is paired or associated with a neutral stimulus (bell) and repeated many times. The
organism starts associating the neutral stimuli (bell) with the natural stimuli (Food) and gives the natural
response (salivating) to the neutral stimuli. That is the neutral stimulus (bell) has acquired the ability to elicit
the natural response (salivating) (which normally occurs only to the natural stimulus). At this point the
stimulus is no longer neutral and so is referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response has now
become a learned response and so is referred to as a conditioned response (CR).

4. Social (Observational) Learning: This is based on modelling. We observe others showing a certain attitude
towards certain group or persons belonging to a community etc. As we observe others getting also admired
for their attitude we too follow them and develop those attitudes. Thus attitudes are formed through
modelling.
5. Cognitive Dissonance: This comes about when related cognitions, feelings or behaviours are inconsistent or
contradictory. Cognitive dissonance creates an unpleasant state of tension that motivates people to reduce
their dissonance by changing their cognitions, feeling, or behaviours. For example, a person who starts out
with a negative attitude toward taking drugs, will experience cognitive dissonance if the drug makes them
feel pleasant and great and they find themselves enjoying the drug experience. The dissonance they
experience is thus likely to motivate them to either change their attitude toward drug taking or stop taking
drugs. This process can be conscious, but often occurs without conscious awareness.
6. Unconscious Motivation: Some attitudes are held because they serve some unconscious function for an
individual. For example, a person who is threatened by his contracting HIV as he visits prostitutes may employ
the defense mechanism of reaction formation and become a crusader against HIV. Or, someone who feels
inferior may feel somewhat better by putting down a group other than their own. Because it is unconscious,
the person will not be aware of the unconscious motivation at the time it is operative, but may become
aware of it as some later point in time.
7. Rational Analysis: It involves the careful weighing of evidence for, and against, a particular attitude. For
example, a person may carefully listen to the election campaigns and read opinions of political experts in
order to decide which candidate to vote for in an election.

ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR

Attitude and behavior are closely related in some sense though they are two different concepts. One of the most
important differences between behavior and attitude is that attitude is internal whereas behavior is external in
sense.
• In other words it can be said that behavior can very well be seen by others as it is external whereas attitude
is shelled within the mind of the individual and hence cannot be seen by others immediately. Experts say that
that attitude is what you think whereas behavior is what you do.
• In other words it can be said that attitude has to do with the mind whereas behaviour has a lot to do with
 actions.
• Attitude is thought-oriented whereas behavior is action-oriented. Hence attitude has all the power to
shape the behavior of a person. It is indeed true that a person with the right attitude would be endowed with
the right behaviour too. Attitude is all about the opinion somebody has about something in life. Behavior is
about how one responds to the impulsions and the pulls of the environment.
• It is indeed possible to judge one’s attitude through one’s behavior though attitude is not visible externally.
One can say that one’s friend has a good attitude towards life. It is evident from the person’s behavior. Hence
attitude and behavior are related in some sense though they are two different concepts. The response of an
individual or a system to the environmental pulls is what is called behavior. Attitude is also a kind of
response in the sense that it is a response from within to the deep consciousness.
• There is no external implication of the internal feeling in the concept of attitude. The feeling is kept well within
the individual. On the other hand the feeling is poured out in behavior. It is for sure that behaviour and
attitude are the two dimensions of an individual.
HOW DO ATTITUDES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?
We tend to assume that people behave in accordance with their attitudes. However, social psychologists have
found that attitudes and actual behaviour are not always perfectly aligned. After all, plenty of people support
a particular candidate or political party and yet fail to go out and vote. Researchers have discovered that people
are more likely to behave according to their attitudes under certain conditions:
• When your attitudes are the result of personal experience.
• When you are an expert in the subject.
• When you expect a favorable outcome.
• When the attitudes are repeatedly expressed.
• When you stand to win or lose something due to the issue.
In some cases, people may actually alter their attitudes in order to better align them with their behavior. Cognitive
dissonance is a phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological distress due to conflicting thoughts or
beliefs. In order to reduce this tension, people may change their attitudes to reflect their other beliefs or actual
behaviors.
FACTORS THAT MIGHT HELP IMPROVE THE ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP
To put succinctly some of the factors that are instrumental in making attitude predict behaviour are:
1. True versus expressed attitudes
2. One instance versus aggregate
3. Level of attitude behaviour specificity
True Versus Expressed Attitudes
• Very often one does come across a person saying something which does not express the person’s held
attitude. For example, in the context of many others watching the person or when a person against whom a
negative attitude is held is the person’s boss, true attitude will not be expressed. Thus, a measured or
expressed attitude may not be a person’s true attitude especially when dealing with sensitive issues,
contexts and situations.
• In order to find out the true attitude in such situations, a technique called “the bogus pipeline” is used, in
which every attempt is made to convince the person who holds an attitude that there is a machine which
would definitely measure the true attitude. If the person is convinced that his / her attitude would anyway be
revealed by the machine, he/she may tell the truth and thus their true attitudes will be more consistent with
their behaviour.
• There is yet another technique that is used to get at the true attitude held by a person and this is called the
implicit association test, uses reaction times to measure how quickly people associate a certain concept
related to the true attitude. In this technique if a person has a negative attitude towards a certain community
persons, many words are selected that are related to that community persons.
One Instance versus Aggregate
Predicting people’s behaviour from their attitudes is like predicting a cricket player’s hitting. Just as we can predict
the approximate batting average of Sachin Tendulkar (but not individual game), similarly averaging many
occasions would enable us to detect more clearly the impact of our attitudes.
For e.g. research shows that people’s general attitude towards religion poorly predicts whether they will go and
worship next weekend. That’s because the weather, their mood, their health, how far the temple is from
residence, alternative plans, etc. also influence attendance. However, religious attitudes do predict quite well the
total quantity of religious behaviours over time. This is known as the principle of aggregation the effects of an
attitude become more apparent when we look at a person’s aggregate or average behavior rather than at an
individual act.
Level of Attitude-behaviour Specificity
• Too often in the past, researchers investigated correlations between very broad and general issues like
discrimination and a specific behaviour such as taking a picture with an Afro-American. Attitude specificity,
the extent to which attitudes are focused on specific objects or situations rather than on general ones (e.g.
‘Do you like to go out to eat?’) is clearly an important factor in the attitude behaviour link.
• Every single instance of behaviour involves four specific elements: target, action, time and context.
According to the principle of compatibility, measures of attitude and behaviour are compatible to the extent
that these elements are assessed at identical levels of generality or specificity. Thus, attitudes can predict
behaviour if you both attitudes and behaviours are measured at similar levels of specificity.
Self-Awareness
• Another aspect that influences behaviour is the self-awareness, that is, how far the individual is aware of the
attitudes that he or she holds. So long as persons are not aware of their attitudes, these attitudes will tend to
influence the individuals’ behaviours all the more intensely. On the other hand if an individual is aware of his
attitude, he or she will be quite self- conscious about it and may hesitate showing it in their behaviours.
• Also when people are more attentive of their own behaviour, and presumably of their internal States, their
attitude behaviour congruency increases. People who are self-conscious are usually in touch with their
attitudes. One way of making people self-conscious is to have them act in front of a mirror. Making people
self-aware in this way promotes consistency between words and deeds.
• Thus, attitudes are more likely to guide behaviour if they are made salient (e.g. ask people to consider their
attitudes, make them more conscious of their attitudes).
Attitude Strength
By now we should be able to guess that the stronger the attitudes are, the greater their impact on behaviour.
Attitude strength involves several dimensions, such as how much the individual knows about the attitude
object (certainty), the intensity of the attitude (how strong is the emotional reaction provoked by the attitude-
object), how the attitude was formed in the first place (origin), and the extent to which the person is personally
affected by the attitude (importance).
Attitude Accessibility
By definition, strong attitudes exert more influence over behaviour, because they can be automatically activated.
One factor that seems to be important here is direct experience. For example, Fazio’ and Zanna found that
measures of students’ attitudes towards psychology experiments were better predictors of their future
participation if they had already taken part in several experiments than if they had only read about them.

ATTITUDES AND VALUES

Values constitute an important aspect of self-concept and serve as guiding principles for an individual. Rokeach
argued that, considered together, values form values systems where a value system is “an enduring organisation
of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of importance”.
Thus the importance of different values, should co-vary with the importance of others in the value system. Human
values are strongly prescriptive in nature and form the core around which other less enduring beliefs are
organised. As such they are important in a range of other processes, like attitudes. It is contended that the
formation of specific attitudes is predicated upon more general values. Values indirectly influence behaviour
through their influence on attitudes.
Although values can shape attitudes, it does not however mean that values shape all attitudes. For e. g. your
attitude towards say love versus arranged marriage is probably shaped by your values, but your preference for
one brand of toothpaste over another is less likely to be influenced by important life goals. It is clear that some
attitudes are formed through the influence of long-standing values internalized early in life. These are called
symbolic attitudes, because the attitude object is a symbol of something else. In contrast, there are some attitudes
that are based on utility, a direct benefits and costs of the attitude object. These are caned instrumental attitudes,
because they are instrumental to meet those needs.
ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS
Beliefs are cognitions about the probability that an object or event is associated with a given attribute. Some
theorists regard belief as one component of an attitude. However, there are differences between attitude and
belief. Attitude can be considered as the sum of beliefs. A person can have many beliefs about a phenomenon
(positive and negative). This person will have an attitude toward that phenomenon based on the overall evaluation
of her beliefs.

ATTITUDINAL CHANGE
Factors Causing Attitudinal Change
• Consistency : An inconsistent attitudinal system, which is unstable is easily changeable than consistent
attitudinal system, which is restively stable.
• Interconnectedness : Interconnected attitude are resistant to incongruent change.
• Consonance of attitude cluster : Dissonant attitude cluster is more susceptible to incongruent change than
consonance attitudes are less prone to incongruent change.
• Strength and No. of Want Satisfaction : Functionally Significant attitudes are less prone to incongruent
change.
• Structure of attitude: Less structural attitude systems are easier to change than structural attitudes.
• Centrality of related values: Attitude related to central values is difficult to more in an incongruent change.
Role of Personality in Attitudinal Change
(a) Less I.Q. persons are more easily influenced by propaganda and more confirming to group pressures.
(b) Abnormal persons are less susceptible to change as they live in their own.
(c) Persons with high self-esteem cannot be so easily susceptible to change of attitude as a person with low
selfesteem.
Role of Persuasion in Attitudinal Change
(a) Experts persuade more than non-experts.
(b) Rapid speaking persons are more persuasive than slow speaking.
(c) Females are more perusable than males.
Nature of Communication and Attitude Change
There are many factors that are related to the source of communication involved in attitude change. These
include the credibility of the source, attractiveness of the source, familiarity, liking, power of the source, etc.
• Credibility of the source : In the short run, credibility of the source bring immediate attitude change, but in
the long run, frequency of message is more effective in attitude change (Sleeper effect)
• Attractiveness of the source : Congruent change is directly proportional to the degree of attractiveness of
the source.
• Familiarity : More familiarity tends to attractiveness and affective in attitude change.
• Liking : Liking and familiarity have invested in relationship.
• Power of the source : Power of source is more affective in public commitment than private commitment.
• Mass Media : Media such as radio, newspaper etc. are more prone to bring attitude change as compared to
the television.
• Specialised channels : Are more susceptible to bring attitude change.
• Face to face communication : Most effect in personal influence.
• Instrumental Value of Message: will be more effective in attitude change.
• Amount of change advocated: Foot in the door technique, larges the change advocated, the greater the
change produced.
• Arguments : Two-sided arguments are more effective for incongruent change, while one-sided arguments
are effective for congruent change.
• Style of Communication : Clear and skillful presentation, dynamic and persuasive style are more effective in
attitude change.
• Conclusions : Explicit conclusions are more prone to bring attitude change than implicit conclusions.
• Order of presentation : Fear-fact sequence presentation of message is more effect in attitude change.
• Intensity of Fear : Moderate amount of fear, bring effective attitudinal change.
Group Affiliation and Attitudinal change
• Value of Membership : (a) highly valued group norms are resistance to change (b) low valuation member
change in the direction of speech, while high valuation member tend to change in opposite direction.
• Status of member : High ranker live up to all group norms, while low or unsure ranker conform and over
conform the group norms.
• Legitimacy of norm : Is effective till these are improper intrusion into personal freedom.
• Circumstances of enforcement : Intergroup contact enables to modify attitudes
• Role playing : Member of group, if the role player rather observer, tend to become more congruent changes.
OTHER FACTORS IN ATTITUDINAL CHANGE
• Cognitive need and style : Cognitive need clarifiers are prone to incongruent change, while cognitive need
simplifiers are prone to congruent change.
• Aggressiveness : The more aggressive a person less susceptible to change of attitude.
• Neuroticism : Higher the neuroticism the greater the change in attitude.
• Extroversion– Introversion : Highly extroverted persons are more difficult to change their attitude as
compared to introverted persons.
• Manifest anxiety : Persons with high manifest anxiety are more susceptible to Attitude change.
• Authoritarianism : Authoritarians are resistant to attitudinal change.
• Suspiciousness : Highly Suspicious person are resistant to change of attitude.

ATTITUDE AMBIVALENCE
People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they simultaneously possess both
positive and negative attitudes toward the object in question. Attitude ambivalence refers to the fact that our
evaluations of objects, issues, events, or people are not always uniformly positive or negative; our evaluations are
often mixed, consisting of both positive and negative reactions.
• A very common object of ambivalence is food! Chronic dieters experience a conflict between two
incompatible goals: on one hand, they enjoy food and love to eat (the eating enjoyment goal); on the other,
in line with societal demands on slimness, they want to lose weight (weight loss or control goal). As a result,
they experience difficulty reducing their calorie intake, because eating enjoyment, as an affective reaction, is
usually the food reaction to food stimuli. Don’t you go glassy-eyed and look longingly at chocolate cakes?
• Attitude ambivalence occurs when there is evaluative tension associated with one’s attitude because the
summary includes both positive and negative evaluations. This is manifested in the person feeling mixed
or torn about the attitude object. Attitude ambivalence may also be the result of conflicting values. For e.g.
you may have an ambivalent attitude towards arranged marriages, because on one hand you value obedience
and adherence to parents; on the other, you may value freedom and personal choice.
• There is some evidence that as attitude ambivalence increases, attitude-behaviour consistency decreases.
Further, ambivalent attitudes are less accessible than non-ambivalent ones. Individuals may recognize
 the underlying conflict associated with their attitudes and thus be less sure of their validity. This may lead
people to conclude that they should try to avoid use of attitude. Higher ambivalence is also related to less
extreme attitudes. As a matter of fact, research on attitude ambivalence originally came from interest in
individuals who held neutral positions on some attitudes.
• Research also shows that there are individual differences associated with the tendency for ambivalence.
Individuals with high need for cognition (who enjoy effortful cognitive processing and those who dislike
ambiguity) tend to have lower levels of ambivalence than individuals lower on need for cognition.

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
• Alfred Adler (1870–1937), a Viennese physician who developed the theory of Individual Psychology,
emphasized that a person’s attitude toward the environment had a significant influence on his or her
behaviour.
• Adler suggested that a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours were transactions with one’s physical and
social surroundings and that the direction of influence flowed both ways—our attitudes are influenced by the
social world and our social world is influenced by our attitudes.
• These interactions, however, may cause a conflict between a person’s attitude and behaviour. This conflict
is referred to as cognitive dissonance.
• The attitudes of an individual are normally consistent with each other, that he behaves in accordance with his
attitudes, and that his various actions are consistent with each other. For example, if a person believes in
democracy, he does not believe in communism. If he believes a college education is a good thing, he tries to
send his children to college. Of particular interest is the question of what happens when inconsistencies occur.
The term dissonance is introduced to represent an inconsistency between two or more cognitive
elements.
HOW TO REDUCE COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Dissonance when high can be reduced by the following methods:
• Change of a behavioural cognitive element : When knowledge of one’s own behaviours is dissonant with a
belief, it is often simplest to change one’s behaviour. For instance if a person smokes but thinks it is bad for
his health, he may stop smoking. Or if he realises that “skipping the classes to go to a matinee show” instead
of studying is inconsistent with knowledge that he intends to apply for medical school, he may stop
going to matinee shows.
• Change of an environmental cognitive element : Sometimes the behaviour of a person is dissonant with
some environmental factor that can be changed. For example, the person who smokes, may reduce the
dissonance between his knowledge that smoking causes cancer and the use of cigarettes by changing to a
filter-tip brand. Perhaps, the easiest aspect of the environment to change is the social or interpersonal
environment. Thus a smoker bothered by dissonance may seek support from other persons who also smoke
and who can present arguments and reassurance against the view that lung cancer is caused by smoking. He
may, for example, point to the fact that many doctors smoke.
• Addition of new cognitive elements : Sometimes it is difficult to change any of the cognitive elements that
are involved in dissonance. Under these circumstances it is often possible to add new elements to outweigh
the dissonant ones. A person who has purchased a bike that he cannot afford, may convince self that there
is likelihood of increase in the pay packet, can readily borrow the additional money, or that has probably
overestimated the expenses and underestimated the income.

FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY ATTITUDE

Attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals
hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals
who hold them.
• Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve “instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian,” “ego-
defensive,” “value-expressive,” or “knowledge” functions. The functional view of attitudes suggests that in
order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular
attitude serves for the individual.
• As an example, the “ego-defensive” function might be used to influence the racially prejudicial attitudes of
an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant.
• By appealing to that individual’s image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to
change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive message
that threatens self-image is much more likely to be rejected.
Daniel Katz classified attitudes into four different groups based on their functions
1. Utilitarian : provides us with general approach or avoidance tendencies.
2. Knowledge : help people organize and interpret new information.
3. Ego-defensive : attitudes can help people protect their self-esteem.
4. Value-expressive : used to express central values or beliefs.

UTILITARIAN FUNCTIONS
People adopt attitudes that are rewarding and that help them avoid punishment. In other words any attitude that
is adopted in a person’s own self-interest is considered to serve a utilitarian function. Consider you have a condo,
people with condos pay property taxes, and as a result you don’t want to pay more taxes. If those factors lead to
your attitude that “increases in property taxes are bad” you attitude is serving a utilitarian function.
KNOWLEDGE FUNCTIONS
People need to maintain an organized, meaningful, and stable view of the world. That being said important values
and general principles can provide a framework for our knowledge. Attitudes achieve this goal by making
things fit together and make sense. Example:
• I believe that I am a good person.
• I believe that good things happen to good people.
• Something bad happens to Bob.
• So I believe Bob must not be a good person.
EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTIONS
This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defence mechanisms to protect themselves from
psychological harm. Mechanisms include:
• Denial
• Repression
• Projection
• Rationalization
The ego-defensive notion correlates nicely with Downward Comparison Theory which holds the view that
derogating a less fortunate other increases our own subjective well-being. We are more likely to use the
egodefensive function when we suffer a frustration or misfortune.
VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTIONS
Attitude serves to express one’s central values and self-concept. Central values tend to establish our identity and
gain us social approval thereby showing us who we are, and what we stand for. An example would concern
attitudes toward a controversial political issue.
SOCIAL IDENTITY FUNCTION
Other than the basic four functions served by attitudes suggested by Katz, Shavitt (1989) added another social
identity function of attitudes. This refers to the informativeness of attitudes for person impressions, or how much
attitudes appear to convey about the people who hold them. Shavitt and Nelson (2000) suggested that products
tend to engage a utilitarian function to the extent that they are seen as expressing identity and values, the product
is generally displayed in public or is visible to others, or the product is widely seen as symbolizing membership in
a particular group. For e.g. the purchase of an Indian flag on the Republic Day may be driven primarily by social
identity goals.
In addition to investigating how attitude functions vary among people, current researches in the field also consider
the possibility that different attitude objects may actually serve different functions for different people. For e.g.
people purchase certain products to fulfill utilitarian needs (computers, television, etc.) and other products to
satisfy value-expressive needs (for e.g. a particular brand of car). Further, an attitude changes when it no longer
serves its functions and the individual feels blocked or frustrated.
Thus, those who are interested in changing other people’s attitudes must first determine what functions those
attitudes serve for the targeted individuals, and then use an appropriate approach.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ATTITUDE
Attitude is everything. More so is Attitude in Leadership. Having the right attitude towards life is imperative if we
want to see leadership success. The good thing about an attitude is that it is your choice how you wish to look at
life. It is within your control at any moment in your [Link] attitude of the leader has a huge impact on the culture,
environment, and mood of the department or organization. The leader’s attitude tends to spread and affect others
dramatically.
Attitude isn’t just about whether or not you’re having a good or bad day. Attitude is more than that. It affects
relationships. It affects careers. It affects your entire future. I’ve met people who went through something similar
to what I did. They were flying high, had a great business, and then lost it all. Years later, they’re still talking about
their problems and misfortunes. For some of them, their spouse left them and they were forced to sell the family
business. With others, their business partner was cheating them. Some had their major customer go out of
business. These people are talented, experienced, and smart. If they would start another business, the odds of
success this time could be quite good. Unfortunately, they’re still reliving the events that led up to their failure.
Their negative attitude won’t let them get on with their life.
Attitude Makes the Leader
A good leader has the attitude of serving his troops at all times, often at the expense of his own morale orpersonal
needs. A good leader truly cares about the morale of the team, pushes and motivates his team with respect, a
relentlessly positive attitude and with a genuine heart! A good leader sets the tone, 24 hours a day, seven days a
week, 365 days a year.
The Power of Positive Attitude
The success of your organization is really very much dependent on your attitude in leadership.
Attitude Reflects Leadership
Inspire people to be the best they can be, inspire them to do things they didn’t think were possible, and toachieve
their own personal and group goals.
Attitude Reflects Leadership
Bad Attitude = Bad Leadership; NO ONE WILL FOLLOW A LEADER WITH A BAD ATTITUDE
Studies show that bad attitude from a leader can cause subordinates to cause silent destruction within the
company and property damage due to the lack of care about the organization. Replace “I can’t” with “I CAN!”
Attitude Affects Everyone
Your attitude will be contagious. Those around you are likely to follow your lead. When a leader is upbeat in
theface of discouraging circumstances, others admire that quality and want to be like her.
Positive attitude gives enthusiasm
Enthusiasm for work or a particular assignment can be contagious and, at the very least, it can improve team
morale. One of the greatest obstacles facing all managers is motivating staff. Some experts say you can’t motivate
another person to do anything, but only influence a person towards self-motivation.
Extent of Attitude Control
A leader’s control of their own attitude, and the power of their positive thinking must not be so extreme that they
become dysfunctional. Yet, on the other hand, a leader must not allow themselves to become paralyzed by a crisis.
Neither must a leader allow their team to notice that they are stymied by a situation. Certainly a leader will be
concerned by circumstances, and maybe even share that concern among their team, but the leader won’t stop
there. The leader will develop a plan and press on. People often communicate on auto-pilot without thinking
about what they are doing and their impact on others. Until you stop and take a hard look in the mirror, this
pattern will continue. It’s time for leaders with bad attitudes to do an intense communication quotient inventory
to find their weakest areas of communication.

CAN ATTITUDE CHANGE? (PERSUASION AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE)

While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same influences that lead
to attitude formation can also create attitude change.
• Learning Theory of Attitude Change : Classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning
can be used to bring about attitude change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional
reactions to an object, person or event by associating positive feelings with the target object. Operant
conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People can also
change their attitudes after observing the behavior of others.
• Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Attitude Change : This theory of persuasion suggests that people can alter
their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading
to an attitude shift. Or, they might be influenced by characteristics of the speaker, leading to a temporary or
surface shift in attitude. Messages that are thought provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead
to permanent changes in attitudes.
• Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change : As mentioned earlier, people can also change their attitudes when
they have conflicting beliefs about a topic. In order to reduce the tension created by these incompatible
beliefs, people often shift their attitudes.
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
Attitude change is a fairly common result of social influence. The influencing source may produce a change in the
target’s beliefs and attitudes about some issue, person, or situation. However, compliance occurs when the
targets behavior conforms to the sources request or demands. Moreover some social influences prove ineffective
because sometimes the target may respond with defiance or open revolt. Social influence occurs when:
• A person (the source) engages in certain behaviour (persuading, threatening, promising or issuing orders)
• That causes’ another person (the target) to behave differently from how he or she should otherwise behave.
However, the attempts of social influence can be either open or covertly manipulative.
• Persuasion : One form of open influence is Persuasion i.e, the use of persuasive communication to change
the target’s attitudes or beliefs. Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption
of some attitude by some rational or symbolic means. Persuasion can occur through appeals to reason or
appeals to emotions. Persuasion is widespread in social interaction and assumes many different forms.
One should pay attention to the communicator, communication and the audience to bring about a change
in attitude.
• Communicator : should be very effective and highly credible. He should be trustworthy and an expert to
produce the change. Communicators, if are similar to the target audience, their message is well taken.
• Communication : has also been subjected to research. The findings are that communications which, discuss
both the pros and cons to the point, are more effective in situations where there is initial resistance to accept.
Communications associated with pleasant emotions can also enhance effectiveness.
• Audience : Personality characteristics of the audience have been linked with attitude change. However, self-
esteem and intelligence do not play a very important role in changing attitudes.

ATTITUDE IN BUREAUCRACY
Today, Bureaucracy stands naked in the eyes of the general public. All bureaucratic groups have now become
saleable commodity. Rules, regulations, procedures, status, sense of service, sincerity and devotion are bygone
factors. The phenomenon has, by all means, out-proportioned all feasible and reasonable limits. This is the
time that attitude should change.
HOW TO CHANGE THE ATTITUDE OF BUREAUCRATS?
It would be good to devise an effective machinery where the performance and conduct of bureaucracy is under
constant watch and supervision. A change in basic attitudes is the most important task which confronts our public
servants and policy-makers; if the philosophy behind the administrative structural reform is to have its full impact
on the life of the nation. The following reformatory measures are recommended:
• Efficiency and good service to the common man, bureaucracy must be given a clear sense of direction of
advancing without barriers towards the ideals of social justice and enlightenment to which the people and
their government is committed.
• Patriotic dynamic approach to the problems of development must be one of the top priorities.
• Constructive and not mercenary psychology should be the hallmark of a dedicated public service. For this
purpose, the Will of the people and proper Accountability is imperative.
• The evil of unprecedented security of tenure must be re-valued.
• Concept of a welfare state must be the goal of bureaucracy. It would guide its future course of action and
future state of affairs of society; Abolishment of Over-government and Overlordism
• The Institution of Ombudsman and Accountability is the true public demand;
• Training system of bureaucrats requires a drastic change. All prestigious institutions must introduce a full
compulsory course in “Human Relations Training”, on regular basis, as done by most of the developed nations
including [Link] England. Where the Governments have introduced compulsory human relations training
for the employees of civil services.
• Bureaucrats should try to create an atmosphere and work in such a spirit that everybody gets a fair deal and
justice is done to everyone, and not only mere justice but people should feel that justice has been done to
them”.
IMPORTANCE OF ATTITUDE FOR A CIVIL SERVANT
Attitudes influence the behavioural responses of the individuals. The professional attitude of a civil servant is not
only concerned with ones feelings, beliefs and ones behaviour towards the public but also towards other elements
of professional functioning like service delivery, scientific interest and coordination with other colleagues.
Importance of study of attitudes for a civil servant can be related to the following factors
• Public Care: Any negative attitude towards race, community or a section of society results in a prejudiced
behavior that affects the public and society as whole. Many a times stereotypic beliefs, which you might have
developed in earlier socio cultural milieu, are not based on rational scientific reasoning. Due to these
attitudes you can behave inappropriately. This can interfere with your professional competence.
• Formation of Attitudes of Peers or Juniors: Senior civil servants have a significant impact on the formation
of opinion concerning sensitive issues. These attitudes could be learned by other peers and other staff
associated with the organisation. One has to be careful that the negative attitudes of one person generates
similar attitudes in the group.
• Acceptance of New Technology: In the present times, many a new innovations in techniques, equipment
and methods of service delivery are taking place. Our attitudes can bias our acceptance towards new
technology and which may prove detrimental for the organisation.
• Effects of Attitudes on Meaningful Learning and Retention: It is being recognised that besides cognitive
factors, positive or negative attitudinal bias has differential effecton the learning of controversial material.
With favourable attitude one is highly motivated to learn, puts greater efforts and concentrates better.
Negative attitude leads to close minded view to analyse new material and hence learning is impaired.
Attitude structure exerts an additional facilitating influence on retention that is independent of cognition
and motivation.

MORAL ATTITUDES
Moral attitudes are grounded in moral beliefs of “Right” and “wrong” action. Moral attitudes are stronger than
moral principles.
It has been well documented that ethical values are the highest among all types of natural values. Moral values
include Goodness, purity, truthfulness, humility of man rank higher than genius, brilliancy, exuberant vitality and
the beauty of nature or of art, than the stability and power of a state.
It is established in studies that moral values are always personal values. They can only inhere in man, and be
realized by man. Person responsible for his actions and his attitudes, for his will and striving, his love and his
hatred, his joy and his sorrow, and his basic attitudes, can be morally good or bad. A man will have personality
radiating moral values if he is humble, pure, honest and affectionate. As long as a man unseeingly disrespects the
moral values of other persons, as long as he does not differentiate the positive value which inheres in truth, and
the negative value which is proper to error, as long as he does not comprehend the value which inheres in the life
of man, and the negative value attached to an injustice, he will be incompetent of moral goodness. Family, society,
religion and education contribute a lot in shaping those moral convictions. Positive implication of moral attitudes
are that these attitudes tangled with strong emotions. Therefore averts deviant behaviours among normal
societies due to fear of social Osctricization e.g. child molestation, incest.
Qualities of Moral Attitudes:
• Reverence • Faithfulness
• Veracity • Goodness
1. Reverence : It is the ability to hold moral values, to sustain them, and to respond to them, is the foundation
for realizing the moral values of man. These marks can be found only in the man who possesses reverence.
Reverence is a feeling or attitude of great respect towards others touched with awe; veneration. It is the
attitude which can be labelled as the originator of all moral life, for in it man first takes a position toward the
world which opens his spiritual judgements and enables him to grasp values.
Reverence is the vital presupposition for all deep knowledge above all, for the capacity to grasp values.
Reverence is the assumption for every response to value, every abandonment to something important, and
it is, at the same time, an essential element of such response to value. The essential attitude of reverence is
the basis for all moral conduct toward our fellowmen and toward ourselves. The basic attitude of reverence
is the presupposition for every true love. A similar reverence is obvious in justice toward others, in
consideration for the rights of another, for the liberty of another’s decisions, in limiting one’s own lust for
power, and in all understanding of another’s rights.
2. Faithfulness or Constancy : Among the attitudes of people which are basic for his whole moral life,
faithfulness is another important feature of moral attitude. Faithfulness is the concept of dependably
remaining loyal to someone or something and putting that loyalty into consistent practice, regardless of
extenuating situations. The more faithful, the more constant a man is, the more substantial will he be, the
more capable of becoming a vessel of moral values, a being in whom purity, justice, humility, love and
goodness will dwell lastingly and will radiate from him to the world about him. This loyalty in the true sense
of the word is a fundamental moral attitude of man. It is a necessary concern of all true understanding of
values, and it is a component element of every true response to values, and consequently of the whole moral
life. The prominent importance of faithfulness will stand out in a special way against the background of
human relationships.
3. Veracity : Truthfulness is another of the basic suppositions for a person’s moral life. A dishonest person not
only exemplifies a great moral disvalue, but he is crippled in his whole personality; the whole of his moral
life; everything in him which is morally positive is threatened by his untruthfulness. The deceitful man
lacks reverence toward values. He assumes a lordly position over being, he deals with it as he pleases. This
attitude implies an element of arrogance, of disrespect and impertinence.
Veracity is fidelity or constancy and the awareness of responsibility, a basis of whole moral life. Like these
other virtues, it bears a high value in itself, and like these is also indispensable as a basic presupposition of a
personality in which genuine moral values may flower in their plenitude.
4. Goodness: Goodness is the central characteristics of moral values. Among the different moral values,
there is none which represents more completely the entire reign of moral values, than goodness. The
goodness of a man does not limit itself to generous intentions toward one particular person whom one loves.
When it is said, someone is good, it means that person continually manifests this open benevolence, that his
attitude toward every man has this loving, this generous character. For goodness, like every other virtue, is
not limited to a particular temporary attitude, but it is a basic attitude and position.
Goodness flows from a conscious response of love. It is the most intensive moral life, and not inertia and
dullness; it is strength and not weakness. The good man does not allow himself to be made use of because
he lacks the strength to resist, but he serves freely and humbles himself eagerly.
While the other fundamental attitudes, such as reverence, faithfulness, awareness of responsibility and
 veracity respond to the world of values as a whole, goodness not only responds to this world of values, but
it is the reflection of the whole world of values in the person.
To summarize, moral attitudes encourages a person towards altruism, volunteerism and social service.
Negative impact of moral attitude is that person can use such attitude to defend violence behaviour and
insanity and still society will accept it because moral attitude is a strong emotions. It motivates a person
towards riots, massacre and terrorism. Since moral attitude is tied with strong sentiments, people do not get
along with those who do not share their moral attitude.

POLITICAL ATTITUDE
Political values are important when they frame political behaviour. Political attitudes are the approaches of people
to the areas of public life covered by political psychology such as views on nationalism, political conservatism,
political liberalism, and political radicalism. Political attitudes fall on a range between extremely liberal and
extremely conservative. Abundant of scholars stated that Political Attitude means the beliefs and values which
underpin the operation of a particular political system. These attitudes were seen as including knowledge and
skills about the operation of the political system positive and negative judgments about the system. These
attitudes decide how people participate, whom they vote for and which political parties they support. The factors
which make attitudes are family, gender, religion, race, ethnicity and region. Political attitude tells us which party
someone vote for, what kind of political ideology someone prefer most, which social, economic, cultural,
international policy someone prefer etc.
FACTORS THAT SHAPE POLITICAL ATTITUDE
• Family: Family is generally the first and most persistent factor which influence on young people’s mind for
shaping political opinions. Despite family incongruities and generation gaps, children tend to grow up and
have the political attitude similar to their parents. Though there are generation gaps it is understandable that
children tend to vote the way their parents do. If a family is more politically active the child is more expected
to hold the same principles and attitudes. As children grow older, other influences crisscross the family and
naturally their attitudes tend to diverge from those of their parents.
• Religion: Religious principles often affect the way people vote. Religion is the faith of the people in values
and beliefs. The recent experiences have revealed that the religious right has supported more conservative
candidates for public office in more favour of the Republican Party than to the Democratic Party. Associates
of the “Religious Right” differ in their political attitudes from everyone else. The religious right tends to
support to be more conservative. This tendency is more clearly associated with social issues such as gay
rights, cow protection than with economic issues or foreign affairs.
• Race and Ethnicity: It has been established that for the past half century, African Americans are affiliated to
Democratic Party than any other identifiable group. Some professionals believe that this loyalty is fading.
It is very obvious in several studies that Asian Americans tend to vote conservative, but there is still a lack of
concrete evidence to prove this.
• Economic pressures: Many scholars affirmed that economic pressures are prime stimulus for choosing a
particular political position, and, indeed, this does appear to be an important factor. People who are doing
well in society usually do not want it to change. On the contrary, the poor have little to lose materially and
much to gain from progressive change. Or so it can be supposed. Economics is not the only factor in the
choice of political beliefs, however. Age: Age is also important factor in developing political attitude. Usually,
the young are more likely to be liberal than the aged. This is possibly because the older generations have a
vested interest in the status quo that the younger generations have not yet acquired. Young people lack not
only wealth, but also a sense of commitment and belonging.
• Psychological factor: Some people are also more psychologically suitable for liberalism or conservatism than
others. To be a liberal, one must have a comparatively high tolerance for disorder.
• Nature of People: This is determining factor in shaping political attitude. If person believes that people are
essentially bad, selfish, and aggressive, then one is likely to lean to the right of the spectrum. Anyone who
thinks that people are innately evil will tend to rely on strict laws and firm punishment for violators in the
belief that such measures are necessary to control errant behaviour. On the other hand, people who consider
their colleagues to be essentially well meaning and sensible will lean toward the left. They will try to
avoid inhibiting human liberty by “needlessly” severe laws, and they will try to reason with lawbreakers.
• Gender : It has been observed in our social structure that females tend to develop political attitude according
to their husband or other family members but in many cases it is observed that they have a different political
views. Generally women tends to be liberal as they want equal rights, equal pay, more opportunities etc. But
their political views also depend on religion, family, and class. Wherever chief minister is women (Like
Jayalalita, Mamta Banerjee), women are more motivated to vote for their parties. In present situation,
women also started voting for parties who support “women’s issues,” such as women protection, women
reservation, equal pay, and equal legal rights.
The study of political behavior has political attitudes as its major element. Research in political science has
since that date been focused on empirical research on political behaviour and institutions. Political attitudes have
a prevailing function since they are a predictor for vote choice. Lane (1959) highlighted the importance of political
attitudes in a larger segment of attitudes and beliefs. He connected political attitudes of respondents directly to
other psychological factors.
PROCESS OF FORMULATION OF POLITICAL ATTITUDE
• For smooth functioning of the society and system and to maintain concord and co-ordination within the
society, every society plans the effective governing of its people. Every society develops few mechanisms or
agencies such as the state, the government, the political parties and election or selection of representatives.
• The political attitude formation guide how people nurture their political beliefs and how they pass on their
values to others from one generation to the next.
• Political attitudes formulation process is an indispensable element of a political system. Political attitude
formulation and political attitude move parallel.
• Political attitude formulation is a learning process by which an individual attains orientations, beliefs, values
and norms and behaviour patterns in political system.
• Political attitude formulations decide the pattern of socio-political behaviour. Political attitude formulation
is a psychological concept as it is concerned with the society in general and with individual in particular.
According to Easton and Dennis, there are four stages in the process of political attitude formulation.
• A child identifies authority through particular individual such as parents, policemen and the president of the
country.
• There should be a differences made between private and public authority.
• The understanding about impersonal political institutions such as national legislature, judiciary and voting
behaviour is developed.
• Difference between political institution and person engaged in the activities associated with those
institutions so that idealized images of particular persons such as the president or the congress.
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL ATTITUDE FORMULATION
• Maintaining Political Culture: Maintaining of political culture is vital function of political attitude formulation
in stable conditions. This function is performed by having communication between political cultures from
a generation to another generation. But in present situation, the political socialization does not always act
for maintaining political culture.
• Alteration of Political Culture: Modification of political culture is an important function of political attitude
formulation.
• Building Political Culture: Creating political culture is performed by means of process of political attitude
formulation. Every society needs to create new political culture with the establishment of new political
system.
• Foundation of Present Pattern of Political System: There is no scope for difference of opinions of opposition
into totalitarian state whereas if we see there are in number of opportunities for difference of opinions and
opposition in open societies.
• Continuity and Change: There is continuity and change in attitude formulation and this is an important factor
 of the process of attitude formulation.
To summarize, political attitude is belief and action system that decides an action based on electoral gains. Political
attitude on positive side can lead to showing zero tolerance toward corruption, pro-poor, welfare for weaker
sections, listening to public grievances, but on negative side political attitude can take shape of regionalism,
communalising public to polarise them during election. Political Philosophy is basis of Political party for which it
stands. It is like internal constitution of party. Every political party has healthy and pro-people political ideology
but hardly do they follow it because for electoral gains, political attitude of individual politicians comes into action
and hence bribery, lobbying, fake protests, walkout, insensitive defamation on other parties and perks politics
comes into play.
CONCLUSION
• It would be valuable for us as leaders to work on our skills and experience. You can by all means: read books,
attend courses, embrace opportunities to develop your gifts and get coached. Let’s become as well-equipped
and competent in our field as possible. Never underestimate the importance of attitude.
• Therefore, to have a great attitude in leadership, we must constantly be aware of the things that are
influencing us. As a leader, you’ll be constantly influencing people, but as a person, you yourself will be
constantly influenced by your surroundings. Life can throw you many circumstances, but how you react to
it is still your choice.

*********
 CHAPTER 10: MORAL THINKERS
AND PHILOSOPHERS
MAHATMA BUDDHA
Buddha was a wise person. Even though you are by no means a Buddhist, you will enjoy many of the teachings
and philosophies of Buddhism. There’s no need to stick to one teaching, one person, and one book. We can pick
what feels right to us. The following life lessons are quotes from Buddha. Please remember to stop and think about
what you’re feeling as you read them. Be aware of any tension, feelings, and thoughts that arise and just let them
be.
Life Lesson 1: “A jug fills drop by
drop.”
You can bring attention to a desired goal, but
don’t expect to achieve it overnight. Each
moment of conscious intention is a raindrop
that will in time turn into a stream, and then
a river flowing to its destination.
Life Lesson 2: “Do not dwell in the
past, do not dream of the future,
concentrate the mind on the
present moment.”
The majority of the time you spend dwelling
on the past or worrying about the future is
time wasted. When you feel your mind
drifting away from the present moment,
bring it back, and be completely in the now.
Life Lesson 3: “Hatred does not cease by hatred, but only by love; this is the eternal
rule.”
You cannot fight for peace. Wars cannot be stopped by having more wars. Patience, forgiveness, and love are
what we have to use if we want to make this planet a better place.
Life Lesson 4: “Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of
throwing it at someone else; you are the one who gets burned.”
How often have you held onto anger and replayed it over and over in your mind? When someone has done
something to you, or something has happened, it may feel good to be angry, but anger never solves anything.
It will only keep you stuck and miserable.
Life Lesson 5: “In a controversy the instant we feel anger we have already ceased
striving for the truth, and have begun striving for ourselves.”
Whenever your beliefs are challenged, you will feel resistance. Life is not about who’s right and who’s wrong, it’s
about personal growth. Stay open to new ideas and implement them if they are useful to you.
Life Lesson 6: “In the sky, there is no distinction of east and west; people create
distinctions out of their own minds and then believe them to be true.”
Borders, countries, and race do not exist anywhere but in our minds. We ourselves make these decisions. Isn’t
it time that we start rethinking and start looking at ourselves as one human race? Think about the distinctions you
make every day and how they affect your life. Are all of them what you want them to be?
Life Lesson 7: “No one saves us but ourselves. No one can and no one may. We ourselves
must walk the path.”
You alone are responsible for your life. If your life isn’t where you want it to be, it certainly doesn’t feel like that,
but remember, you have the power to change, if you choose to do so. Making excuses, blaming, and wallowing
will get you nowhere. You alone must take responsibility and walk your path.
Life Lesson 8: “Peace comes from within. Do not seek it without.”
Happiness, peace, and joy all come from within. Sure, external circumstances may make you happy in the short
term, but they cannot bring you long-term joy.
Life Lesson 9: “The mind is everything. What you think you become.”
What do you focus on? Where are your thoughts right now? Where your focus goes, energy flows, so be very
aware of what is going on in your inner space. The mind needs stimulation. It wants to fix things, so much so that
it can create problems in order to have something to solve.
Life Lesson 10: “He is able who thinks he is able.”
If you think you can, you can, but if you think you can’t, you can’t. There will always be obstacles in your way, and
if you are constantly thinking negatively, you will run out of steam.
Life Lesson 11: “You yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your
love and affection.”
Instead of comparing how much or how little care and attention a person “deserves” each one of us should strive
to give love without reserve – the more we give, the more we have.
Life Lesson 12: “Your work is to discover your world and then with all your heart give
yourself to it.”
It is common to take into account just one-side of an experience and to stop looking for a richer understanding of
our life and the world around us. It is also not difficult to become lost in the magnitude of negative things occurring
in our world, but it is important to find our own light and to give ourselves to illuminating the darkness.
Life Lesson 13: “The way is not in the sky. The way is in the heart.”
Your heaven, dreams, and purpose all exist within, not in the clutches of a divine external force.
Life Lesson 14: “To live a pure unselfish life, one must count nothing as one’s own in
the midst of abundance.”
To declare ownership or rights to something is to state that the universe somehow lacks that thing, but to let go
of the idea of securing ownership is to accept the infinite abundance that is available to all and can never cease.
Life Lesson 15: “To be idle is a short road to death and to be diligent is a way of life;
foolish people are idle, wise people are diligent.”
Taking action and making a mistake is better than not taking action at all.
Life Lesson 16: “There are only two mistakes one can make along the road to truth;
not going all the way, and not starting.”
Even the smallest action creates a ripple of potential.
Life Lesson 17: “The foot feels the foot when it feels the ground.”
Sometimes we are not aware of things going wrong or our unaware state of being until we experience a glimpse
of true insight and revelation. If we do not feel our full power and potential then it might be because the right
stimulant to push us into action has not come around… it might be waiting for the first step off the ground before
revealing the path ahead.
“Peace comes from within. Do not seek it without.”

CONFUCIUS 551–479 BC
CONFUCIUS (551–479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn
period of Chinese history. The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality,
correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other
schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favour of the Legalists during the Qin
Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius’s thoughts received official
sanction and were further developed into a system known as Confucianism.
Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts including all of
the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself.
Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death.
Confucius’s principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong family loyalty,
ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and in traditional interpretations) of husbands by their wives.
He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government.
He espoused the well-known principle “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself”, an early
version of the Golden Rule.
“What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.”
Zi Gong [a disciple] asked: “Is there any one word that could guide a person throughout life?” The Master replied:
“How about ‘reciprocity’! Never impose on others what you would not choose for yourself.” Analects XV.24, tr.
David Hinton Often overlooked in Confucian ethics are the virtues to the self: sincerity and the cultivation of
knowledge.
Virtuous action towards others begins with virtuous and sincere thought, which begins with knowledge. A virtuous
disposition without knowledge is susceptible to corruption and virtuous action without sincerity is not true
righteousness. Cultivating knowledge and sincerity is also important for one’s own sake; the superior person loves
learning for the sake of learning and righteousness for the sake of righteousness.

SOCRATESE (BC 469-399)

Socrates is the first systematic moral thinker in Western philosophical tradition. He belonged to the Athenian
republic in ancient Greece. Plato, a great philosopher and disciple of Socrates, gives a poignant account him in The
Apology.
According to Socrates, Ethics has an end or a standard; the precepts or means of achieving the end flow from
ethical theory. But he did not precisely state what it is. The Greek philosophers developed the concept of the
Summum Bonum at a later time. Summum Bonum is the highest good or the ultimate good according to which
values and priorities are established in an ethical system. Socrates (and Plato) referred to the final end of conduct
as 'the art of dealing with human beings'; 'the art of behaving in society'; and 'the science of human happiness'.
Socrates puts moral considerations above all else. The only worthwhile pursuit for men is virtue - the noble and
the praiseworthy. Knowledge is a prerequisite for good behaviour. He preferred the pleasures of self-
improvement and of duty against indulgences, honours and worldly advancement.
• In ‘Apology’, he criticises men for pursuing wealth and glory more than wisdom and virtue.
• In modern terminology, for Socrates, virtue is the highest psychological good and is always to be preferred
to material good.
• The soul can be perfected by acquiring virtues.
• Life is not worth living if soul is destroyed, and wrong doing corrodes it.
Socrates holds that no one knowingly does what is bad. This view is known as moral intellectualism. It means that
only knowledge is needed to make all men virtuous. Socrates thinks that men desire whatis virtuous or good for
them. If they desire bad things or act wrongly, it is due to their ignorance. In this conception, virtue is knowledge
and ensures good action. Further, virtue is sufficient for happiness.
During his trial, Socrates says, "The unexamined life is not worth living." It means that a worthy life is possible only
if we continually reflect on our thinking and remove contradictions and incoherence from it. This is a typically
intellectual conception perhaps inapplicable to common people.
Conscience above the law
From the philosophy of Socrates the question arises about whether an individual can somehow put his own sense
of conscience or moral integrity even above the law. This is a perennial question in political theory. Even today,
we have many activists who try act as self-appointed conscience keepers of the nation. They are often active on
issues such as Naxalism, minority rights, secularism, tribal rights and environment. They also espouse the human
rights of those accused of terrorism. In these matters, the question of balancing security threats to nation and
human/individual liberties becomes important.
Summum Bonum
The Greek philosophers developed the concept of the Summum Bonum after socratese. Summum Bonum is the
highest good or the ultimate good according to which values and priorities are established in an ethical system.

PLATO (BC 428-348)

Idea of Good
For Plato, the good has unconditional worth and is the source of worth in various things; He gives a sublime
philosophical deftnition of the good: "It is the ultimate ground at the same time of knowing and of being, of the
perceiver and the perceived, of the subjective and the objective, of the ideal and the real, though exalted itself
above such a division." Plato regarded the idea of the good and God as identical.
Plato considers the good from three sides. First, he considers the good as Idea or good in itself as mentioned
above. In this aspect, it is distinct from its manifestations in science, truth, beauty and virtue. Secondly, he
considers the good as individual virtue. Thirdly, he regards the good as ethical world in the political State.
Any discussion of the highest good has to consider the conception of pleasure. The doctrine of hedonism proposed
that pleasure is the true good. Plato rejects hedonism because pleasures are indeterminate and relative. Further
pursuit of impure pleasures often results in pain and misery. Plato, however, admits pleasure as an ingredient of
the good by showing the necessary connection between virtue and true pleasure. True and enduring pleasure is
found in the exercise of reason and in the possession of truth and goodness. Good life is virtuous life largely made
up of intellectual studies and rational action accompanied by some painless, pure aesthetic pleasures. Plato's
conception of pleasure is thus spiritual and intellectual.
Virtues of Plato
Socratic doctrine identifies virtue with knowledge. From this it follows that virtue is teachable, and that men can
learn morality just as they can learn any other subject. Morality is not an innate quality or a contingent gift of
nature. Moral beings are not born but made through education.
Whereas Plato makes a fourfold division of morals, and associates them with different parts of the soul. The
four virtues are
• wisdom or prudence
• valour
• temperance
• justice

Plato regards the virtues as forming a complex unity - the one can be manifold, or the manifold one. This may
seem like philosophical word play, but implies that virtues share common features and look similar from
several perspectives. Plato accords a privileged position to justice as the overarching virtue.
Plato introduced a political dimension into individual morals. In his famous dialogue Republic, Plato implies
that only citizens of an ideal State or commonwealth can be moral.

ARISTOTLE (BC 384–322)

Ultimate good for human being
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are the triumvirate of great ancient Greek philosophers. In his ethics, Aristotle
discusses the summumbonum which is the final end towards which human activity is directed. Every human act
has an end or aim. But many ends are means to other ends or ways of achieving the other ends. But finally, we
reach an end which is ultimate and does not serve as a means to any other end. This is summumbonum.
Aristotle defines happiness with the help of his philosophical principles. For Aristotle, every being in nature
has its proper end, and its achievement is the special function of that being. The adequate performance of the
special function is the good for any being. Sensation is the special function of animals, and hence sensual pleasures
cannot be the good for man. Reason is the special function of human beings. Therefore, summum bonum or
ultimate good for men is to be found in the life of reason.
Virtues
The highest virtues belong to the life of reason or intellect. Philosophical contemplation forms part of this life.
Aristotle designates these intellectual virtues as dianoetic. Ethical virtues consist in the subordination of human
passions and appetites to reason. Intellectual virtues rank higher than ethical virtues because they are allied to
man's special function as a rational creature. Another reason for their superiority is that thinking man resembles
God whose life is one of pure thought. Intellectual and ethical virtues together constitute happiness. These are
the absolute values for humanity.
Aristotle opposes the Socratic view that knowledge of morals is sufficient to make a man virtuous. Socrates
overlooks the fact that it is hard to control human passions. A man may reason correctly and discover the correct
moral course. However, he may be overwhelmed by his emotions and take the unethical route. The saying,
"The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" sums up this situation.
Golden Mean and Common Virtues
Aristotle's views on asceticism reflect his tendency to avoid extreme positions. In fact, virtue according to him
implies moderation. Aristotle's celebrated doctrine of virtue defines it as the mean between two extremes. Every
virtue lies in between two vices. For example, courage is a virtue which lies between the two extremes of
cowardice and foolhardiness.
Some common virtues and their extremes in the following table.
Virtue Extreme (1) Extreme (2)
Courage Cowardice Rashness
Munificence (generosity) Pettiness Vulgar profusion
Good temper Spiritless ness Irascibility
Politeness Rudeness Obsequiousness
Modesty Shamelessness Bashfulness
Temperance Insensibility Intemperance
liberality Meanness Prodigality
Proper pride Humility Vanity

Justice
For Aristotle, justice is a virtue of the State and not of the individual. He mentions two types of justice:
distributive and corrective. His concept of distributive justice should not be understood in the modern egalitarian
sense.
• Distributive justice in its modern sense seeks to reduce extreme inequalities in wealth and income. It may
include provision for meeting the minimum needs of the poor. However, in Aristotle's thinking, distributive
justice refers to rewarding people according to merit. Honours and rewards have to be assigned based on
the worth of individuals. Those who are more meritorious will get higher rewards. Aristotle's view can be
seen as an advice to rulers that they should reward meritorious individuals rather flatters and time
servers.
• Corrective justice has, to do with inflicting punishment for wrong doing. Anyone who gains undue profit by
unfair means should be made to suffer corresponding loss through a fine or penalty. Justice consists of general
principles which cannot covet all the possible situations (cases) which arise in social life. Equity consists in
adapting general rules to special circumstances.
Freedom of Will
Aristotle upholds the freedom of human will. He criticizes Socrates for rejecting freedom of will. Socratic doctrine
of knowledge as virtue implies that people who know what is right will necessarily follow it. Hence right action is
the outcome not of voluntary choice but compulsion. Aristotle argues that freedom of human will implies that
men can choose between good and evil. The correct moral choices follow from the exercise of reason. Human
choices are voluntary, except in situations such as when a robber compels at gun point a bank manager to open
the cash chest.
 JOHN RAWLS
Contemporary thinkers generally try to understand the institution of morality. Unlike analytical philosophers, they
avoid hair-splitting and logic-chopping discussions of moral terms or concepts. This recent approach explains the
contemporary interest in John Rawls, whose treatise ‘A Theory of Justice’ has strongly influenced recent moral
philosophy.
John Rawls does not discuss general ethics, but examines a particular species of ethics, namely, justice. But the
wide canvas of ‘A Theory of Justice’ covers several ethical themes ranging from intuitionism and utilitarianism to
the ethics of Kant and Aristotle. As such, it contains the central issues of ethics from within its own interest.
John Rawls argues that the adoption of two fundamental principles of justice would guarantee a just and
morally acceptable society:
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible
with a similar system of liberty for all.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
• To the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, and
• Attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Rawls tries to show how such principles would be universally adopted, and in this way, moves partly towards
general ethical issues.
• He introduces a theoretical “veil of ignorance”. It ensures that all the players in the social game would be
placed in a particular situation. Rawls calls it the “original position”. In this position, everyone only has a
general knowledge about the facts of “life and society.”
• Therefore, each player is to make a “rationally prudential choice” concerning the kind of social institution
they would enter into contract with. As the players have no specific information about themselves, they
cannot adopt a partisan or self-regarding view. They are forced to adopt a generalized point of view that
bears a strong resemblance to the moral point of view.
• "Moral conclusions can be reached without abandoning the prudential standpoint and positing a moral
outlook merely by pursuing one's own prudential reasoning under certain procedural bargaining and
knowledge constraints." This view of Rawls represents "rational choice within a veil of ignorance".

ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1809 –1865)

Life Lesson 1 : Prepare for Success: Before you can succeed, you must prepare
When Lincoln was an unknown attorney in the backwoods of Illinois he was preparing for success, when Lincoln
became an Illinois State Senator, he was preparing for success, and even when he lost the election for the U.S.
senate twice, he was preparing for success. What are you doing in preparation for success? Lincoln said, “I will
prepare and someday my chance will come.
“ Give me six hours to chop down a tree, and I will spend the first four hours sharpening the axe.”
Life Lesson 2 : Hustle: You can’t stroll to a goal, you must hustle
You must move quickly in order to gain the momentum necessary to break free from the gravitational pull of the
commonplace. The best things in life come to those who hustle. Are you hustling?
“Things may come to those who wait, but only the things left by those who hustle.”
Life Lesson 3 : Remember, That Greatness is Possible
If someone else can succeed in the business that you’re in, that is proof that you can succeed as well. If someone
else can become rich in the state that you’re in, that is proof that you become rich as well. You have all that the
greatest of men have had: a mind and a will. Don’t make excuses, if someone else can do it, so can you… And who
knows? You may be able to do it faster and better; never underestimate your abilities.
“That some achieve great success, is proof to all that others can achieve it as well.”
Life Lesson 4 : Become Worthy of a Good Reputation. Work to be, the way you want to
be perceived.
Don’t try to look good, be good. A good name is more valuable than fine gold and “choice” rubies. Practice
becoming honourable. You can be just as honest, have just as much integrity, walk in just as much humility, and
possess just as much discipline as the greatest men who have ever lived.
“Reputation is like fine china, once broken it’s very hard to repair.”
Life Lesson 5 : Make the Years Count
Lincoln didn’t live to a very old age, but the “life in his years” made a profound impact on the world. Are you
making your years count? Are you changing the world? You’re capable of it; if you’re able to read and understand
these words, then you have the ability to make a profound impact, and that’s not just meaningless rhetoric, it’s a
very real reality, but will you grasp it, will you believe it and make it “your” reality.
“And in the end, it’s not the years in your life that count. It’s the life in your years.”
Life Lesson 6 : See the Brighter Side of Things
If you look for something to complain about, you will certainly find it! There’s “always” an opportunity to be
“offended!” Don’t take these opportunities; they “never” lead to anything positive. Learn to see the roses in life;
life is filled with roses, if you’ll take the time to see them.
“We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn bushes have roses.”
Life Lesson 7 : Constantly Improve
If you improve everyday, imagine the improvements you could make over the course of 20 years. You could
become successful “in-just-about” any field in 20 years. You can make a significant impact on the world in 20
years! Remember, slow and steady wins the race; Rome was not built in a day. Work to get a little better everyday,
and it time, you will accomplish your dreams.

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
• “In a day, when you don’t come across any problems, you can be sure that you are traveling in a wrong path.”
Swami Vivekananda (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendra Nath Datta, was one of the greatest
Indian thinker. He was the chief disciple of the 19th century saint Ramakrishna.
• Swami Vivekananda’s inspiring personality was well known both in India and in America during the last
decade of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth. The unknown monk of India suddenly
leapt into fame at the Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in 1893, at which he represented Hinduism.
His vast knowledge of Eastern and Western culture as well as his deep spiritual insight, fervid eloquence,
brilliant conversation, broad human sympathy, colorful personality, and handsome figure made an irresistible
appeal to the many types of Americans who came in contact with him. People who saw or heard Vivekananda
even once still cherish his memory after a lapse of more than half a century.
• Swami Vivekananda once spoke of himself as a “condensed India.” His life and teachings are of inestimable
value to the West for an understanding of the mind of Asia. William James, the Harvard philosopher, called
the Swami the “paragon of Vedantists.” Here are his 15 irrefutable laws of life that will guide you to live your
life to the fullest.
Law # 1 : Love is the Law of Life
All love is expansion, all selfishness is contraction. Love is therefore the only law of life. He who loves lives,
hewho is selfish is dying. Therefore, love for love’s sake, because it is law of life, just as you breathe to live.
Law # 2 : It’s Your Outlook that Matters
It is our own mental attitude, which makes the world what it is for us. Our thoughts make things beautiful,
ourthoughts make things ugly. The whole world is in our own minds. Learn to see things in the proper light.
Lesson # 3 : Life is Beautiful
First, believe in this world - that there is meaning behind everything. Everything in the world is good, is holy
andbeautiful. If you see something evil, think that you do not understand it in the right light. Throw the burden
onyourselves!
Law # 4 : It’s the Way You Feel
Feel like Christ and you will be a Christ; feel like Buddha and you will be a Buddha. It is feeling that is the life,
thestrength, the vitality, without which no amount of intellectual activity can reach God.
Law # 5 : Set Yourself Free
The moment I have realized God sitting in the temple of every human body, the moment I stand in reverence
before every human being and see God in him - that moment I am free from bondage, everything that binds
vanishes, and I am free.
Law # 6 : Don’t Play the Blame Game
Condemn none: if you can stretch out a helping hand, do so. If you cannot, fold your hands, bless your brothers,
and let them go their own way.
Law # 7 : Help Others
If money helps a man to do good to others, it is of some value; but if not, it is simply a mass of evil, and the sooner
it is got rid of, the better.
Law # 8 : Uphold Your Ideals
Our duty is to encourage everyone in his struggle to live up to his own highest idea, and strive at the same time
to make the ideal as near as possible to the Truth.
Law # 9 : Listen to Your Soul
You have to grow from the inside out. None can teach you, none can make you spiritual. There is no other teacher
but your own soul.
Law # 10 : Be Yourself
The greatest religion is to be true to your own nature. Have faith in yourselves!
Law # 11 : Nothing is Impossible
Never think there is anything impossible for the soul. It is the greatest heresy to think so. If there is sin, this is the
only sin - to say that you are weak, or others are weak.
Law # 12 : You have the Power
All the powers in the universe are already ours. It is we who have put our hands before our eyes and cry that it is
dark.
Law # 13 : Learn Everyday
The goal of mankind is knowledge... now this knowledge is inherent in man. No knowledge comes from outside:
it is all inside. What we say a man ‘knows’, should, in strict psychological language, be what he ‘discovers’ or
‘unveils’; what man ‘learns’ is really what he discovers by taking the cover off his own soul, which is a mine of
infinite knowledge.
Law # 14 : Be Truthful
Everything can be sacrificed for truth, but truth cannot be sacrificed for anything.
Law # 15 : Think Different
All differences in this world are of degree, and not of kind, because oneness is the secret of everything. His words
are great music, phrases in the style of Beethoven, stirring rhythms like the march of Handel choruses. I cannot
touch these sayings of his, scattered as they are through the pages of books, at thirty years’ distance, without
receiving a thrill through my body like an electric shock. And what shocks, what transports, must have been
produced when in burning words they issued from the lips of the hero!

MAHATMA GANDHI
Ahimsa (Nonviolence)
Ahimsa is not merely a negative state of harmlessness, but it is positive state of love, of doing good even to the
evil-doer. Ahimsa is a weapon of matchless potency. It is an attribute of the brave, in fact, it is their all. It does not
come within the reach of coward. It is no wooden or lifeless dogma, but a living and life giving force. Ahimsa is not
the way of the timid or cowardly. It is the way of the brave ready to face death. He who perishes sword in hand is
no doubt brave; but he who faces death without raising his little finger and without flinching, is braver.
Satya (Truth)
Truth has no form. Therefore everyone one will form such an idea or image of Truth as appeals to him, and there
will be as many images of Truth as there are men. These will be true as long as they last. For they enable a man to
obtain everything he wants. – Truth should be Truth in thought, Truth in speech, and Truth in action. To the man
who has realised this Truth in its fullness, nothing else remains to be known, because all knowledge is necessarily
included in it. What is not included in it, is not truth and so not true knowledge.
Asteya (Non-stealing)
Non-stealing does not mean merely not to steal. To keep or take anything which one does not is also stealing. And
of course, stealing is fraught with violence We are not always aware of our real needs, and most of us improperly
multiply our wants and thus, unconsciously, make thieves of ourselves. One who follows the observance of Non-
stealing will bring about a progressive reduction of his own wants. Much of the distressing poverty in this world
has risen out of the breaches of the principle of Non-stealing.
Brahmacharya (Self Discipline)
Brahamchraya means control of all the organs of sense. He who attempts to control only one organ, and allows
all the others free play is bound to find his effort futile. To hear suggestive stories with the ears, to see suggestive
sights with the eyes, to taste stimulating food with the tongue, to touch exciting things with the hands, and at the
same time to expect to control the only remaining organ, is like putting one’s hands in the fire and expecting to
escape being hurt. Gandhi saw Brahmacharya as a means of becoming close with God and as aprimary foundation
for self-realization.
Aparigraha (Non-possession)
Non possession means that we should not hoard anything that we do not need today. The less you possess, the
less you want, the better you are. And better for what? Not for your enjoyment of this life but for enjoyment of
personal service to your fellow beings; service to which you dedicate yourself, body, soul and mind. When you
dispossess yourself of everything you have, you really possess all the treasures of the world. In other words,
you really get all that is in reality necessary for you, everything. If the food is necessary, food will come to you.
Sarvatra Bhayavarjana (Fearlessness)
Fearlessness should connote absence of all kinds of fear - fear of death, fear of bodily injury, fear of hunger, fear
of insults, fear of public disapprobation, fear of ghosts and evil spirits, fear of anyone’s anger. Freedom from all
these and other such fears constitute fearlessness. Fearlessness does not mean arrogance and aggressiveness.
That in itself is a sign of fear. Fearlessness presupposes calmness and peace of mind. For that it is necessary to
have a living faith in God.
Sarva Dharma Samantva (Equality of the religions)
Religions have been interwoven. One sees a special quality in every one of them . But no one religion is higher
than another. All are complimentary to one another. “Since this is my belief, the speciality of any one religion
cannot run counter to another, cannot be at variance with universally accepted principles. For I believe in the
fundamental truth of all great religions of the world. I believe that they are all God-given, and I believe that
they were necessary for the people to whom these religions were revealed. And I believe that, if only we could all
of us read the scriptures of the different faiths from the standpoint of the followers of those faiths we should find
that they were at bottom all one and were all helpful to one another”.
Swadeshi (Use Locally Made Goods)
Swadeshi is that sprit in us which requires us to serve our immediate neighbours before others, and to use things
produced in our neighbourhood in preference to those more remote. So doing, we cannot serve humanity to the
best of our capacity, we cannot serve humanity by neglecting our neighbours.
Simplicity
Gandhi earnestly believed that a person involved in public service should lead a simple life. He first displayed this
principle when he gave up wearing western-style clothing, which he associated with wealth and success. When
he returned to India he renounced the western lifestyle he led in South Africa, where he had enjoyed a successful
legal practice. Gandhi dressed to be accepted by the poorest person in India, advocating the use of homespun
cloth (khadi). He and his followers adopted the practice of weaving their own clothes from thread they themselves
spun on a charkha, and encouraged others to do so.

7 SINS OF GANDHIJI
Political
1. Politics without principle
Economic
2. Wealth without work
3. Commerce without morality
4. Pleasure without conscience
Education
5. Knowledge without character
6. Science without humanity
Religion
7. Worship without sacrifice

IMPORTANT COMMENTS AND VIEWS OF GANDHIJI

1. Strength does not come from physical capacity. It comes from an indomitable will.
2. Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.
3. I have so much to accomplish today that I must meditate for two hours instead of one.
4. The future depends on what we do in the present.
5. First they ignore you, then they ridicule you, then they fight you, and then you win.
6. A ‘no’ uttered from the deepest conviction is better than a ‘yes’ merely uttered to please, or worse, to
avoid trouble.
7. You may never know what results come of your actions, but if you do nothing, there will be no results.
8. Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever.
9. An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind.
10. You should be the change that you want to see in the world.
11. Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.
12. The best way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of others.
13. I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people.
14. Freedom is not worth having if it does not include the freedom to make mistakes.
15. The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be measured by the way in which its animals are treated.
16. Nobody can hurt me without my permission.
17. You can’t shake hands with a clenched fist.
18. The more efficient a force is, the more silent and the more subtle it is.
19. The greatness of humanity is not in being human, but in being humane.
20. Your beliefs become your thoughts, Your thoughts become your words; Your words become your actions,
Your actions become your habits; Your habits become your values, Your values become your destiny

RABINDRANTH TAGORE VALUES

Aim of Education According to Tagore: The aim of education as reflected in educational institution founded by
Rabindranath Tagore in Santinlketan is as follows: -
Self Realization : Spiritualism is the essence of humanism; this concept has been reflected in Tagore’s educational
philosophy. Self-realization is an important aim of education. Manifestation of personality depends upon the self-
realization and spiritual knowledge of individual.
Intellectual Development : Tagore also greatly emphasized the intellectual development of the child. By
intellectual development he means development of imagination, creative free thinking, constant curiosity and
alertness of the mind. Child should be free to adopt his own way of learning which will lead to all round
development.
Physical Development : Tagore’s educational philosophy also aims at the physical development of the child. He
gave much importance to sound and healthy physique. There were different kinds of exercises. Yoga, games &
sports prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the education system.
Love for humanity : Tagore held that the entire universe is one family. Education can teach people to realize
oneness of the globe. Education for international understanding and universal brotherhood is another important
aim of his educational philosophy. The feeling of oneness can be developed through the concepts like fatherhood
of God and brotherhood of man all creatures are equal on this earth.
Establishment of relationship between man and God : Man bears the diverse qualities and potentialities offered
by God. These qualities are inborn and innate. The relationship between man and God is strong and permanent.
However the dedication to spiritualism and sacredness will lead to the harmonious relationship with man, nature
and God.
Freedom : Freedom is considered as an integral aspect of human development. Education is a man-making
process, it explores the innate power existing within the man. It is not an imposition rather a liberal process that
provides utmost freedom to the individual for his all-round development. He says, Education has meaning only
when it is imparted through the path of freedom.
Co-relation of Objects : Co-relation exists with God, man and nature. A peaceful world is possible only when
correlation between man and nature will be established.
Moral and Spiritual Development : Tagore emphasized moral and spiritual training in his educational thought.
Moral and spiritual education is more important than bookish knowledge for an integral development of human
personality. There must be an adequate provision for the development of selfless activities, co-operation and love
fellow feeling and sharing among the students in educational [Link] MANDELA

Although it is impossible to summarize what we can learn from this outstanding man in a single blog post, here is
my personal essence:
Greater Good over Ego
What impresses me most about Mandela is how he always put the greater good over his ego. Imagine you were
imprisoned for 27 years under harsh conditions; wouldn’t you be craving for retaliation upon your release?
Mandela had many opportunities to take revenge when he became the president of South Africa. To the surprise
of the black population, he did not make use of these opportunities and instead lead the country to peace.
Incredible Discipline
Mandela had an incredible discipline. His daily morning routine in prison started with running in place for 45
minutes, followed by 200 sit-ups and 100 finger-tips push-ups. “Discipline is Remembering What You Want,” said
David Campbell. Obviously Mandela knew what he wanted and remembered it.
Inspiring People through Acknowledgment
Nelson Mandela inspired people because he valued them. He would learn as much as he could about a person
before meeting them. It is said that he learned all the names and talents of the Springboks team when he brought
the rugby world cup to South Africa in 1995. Although Mandela was very focused when at work, he would interrupt
whatever he was doing for impromptu meetings or greetings, and he always saw the good in others.

*********
 CHAPTER 11: APPLIED ETHICS
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers extending the traditional
boundaries of ethics from solely including humans to including the non-human world. It exerts influence on a large
range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, eco-theology, ecological economics,
ecology and environmental geography. The concept of environmental ethics brings out the fact that all the life
forms on Earth have the right to live.
ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED
Consumption of Natural Resources
Our natural environment is not a storehouse to rob resources from. It is a reserve of resources that are crucial to
the existence of life. Their unscrupulous depletion is detrimental to our well-being. We are cutting down
forests for making our homes. Our excessive consumption of natural resources continues. The undue use of
resources is resulting in their depletion, risking the life of our future generations. Is this ethical? This is an
environmental ethics issue.
Destruction of Forests
When industrial processes lead to destruction of resources, is it not the industry’s responsibility to restore the
depleted resources? Moreover, can a restored environment make up for the original one? Mining processes
disrupt the ecological balance in certain areas. They harm the plant and animal life in those regions. Slash-and-
burn techniques are used for clearing land, that leads to the destruction of forests and woodland. The land is used
for agriculture, but is the loss of so many trees compensated for?
Environmental Pollution
Many human activities lead to environmental pollution. The rising human population is increasing the demand for
nature’s resources. As the population is exceeding the carrying capacity of our planet, animal and plant habitats
are being destroyed to make space for human habitation. Huge constructions (roads and buildings for residential
and industrial use) are being made at the cost of the environment. To allow space for these constructions, so many
trees have to lose their lives. The animals that thrive in them lose their natural habitats and eventually their lives.
However, the cutting down of trees is seldom even considered as loss of lives. Isn’t this unethical?
Harm to Animals
Due to habitat loss, animals may enter human settlements, thus posing a threat to the people living there. In some
cases, these animals are killed. Secondly, animals serve as food sources of humans, for which they are killed. Also,
animal studies cause harm to animals and even their deaths. This destruction has led to the extinction of many
animal species. The reduction in the populations of several other animal species continues. How can we deny
the animals their right to live? How are we right in depriving them of their habitat and food? Who gave us the
right to harm them for our convenience? These are some of the ethical environmental issues that need to be
addressed.
Environmental Ethics and Religion
Different religions have their own theories of how the world was created and in their own ways, encourage the
ideas of protecting the environment or preserving nature because of the association of natural elements with the
Supreme Power that created them. In some religions, certain plants or animals are worshiped considering
them as sacred or symbols of a particular deity. Nature worship is a part of many religious and spiritual practices.
This goes on to say that all religions express concern towards the environment and lay importance on its non-
human constituents.
Anthropocentrism
It is the position that humans are the most important or critical element in any given situation; that the human
race must always be its own primary concern. Detractors of anthropocentrism argue that the Western tradition
biases homo-sapiens when considering the environmental ethics of a situation and that humans evaluate their
environment or other organisms in terms of the utility for them (see speciesism). Many argue that all
environmental studies should include an assessment of the intrinsic value of non-human beings
Conservation Ethics
An ethic of resource use, allocation, and protection. Its primary focus is upon maintaining the health of the natural
world, its fisheries, habitats, and biological diversity. Secondary focus is on material conservation, including
non-renewable resources such as metals, minerals and fossil fuels, and energy conservation, which is important
to protect the natural world. Those who follow the conservation ethic and, especially, those who advocate or work
toward conservation goals are termed conservationists.
Importance of Human Values for solving environmental Problems:
• Value of Nurturing and protecting biodiversity. Making way for flora and fauna to co-exist with us.
• Sacrificing certain comforts for protecting environment. Example- reduction in use of polluting vehicles,
car-pooling, using public transport.
• Saving resources for future [Link] is to stop over exploitation of resources specially exhaustible
and non-renewable resources.
• Control over mining, deforestation in the name of “development”.
If seen in Indian context, our values like giving water to plants considered sacred (Tulsi) and festivals like respecting
rights of other living beings(Nagpanchami), have been of great help to environment. Movements like Chipko
Andolan stands testimony of the extent of people’s commitment towards environment ethics.
ETHICS AND ANIMALS
Animal ethics is a term used in academia to describe human-animal relationships and how animals ought to be
treated. The subject matter includes animal rights, animal welfare, animal law, speciesism, animal
cognition, wildlife conservation, the moral status of nonhuman animals, the concept of nonhuman
personhood, human exceptionalism, the history of animal use, and theories of justice.
VARIOUS ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED
Speciesism
When we give someone moral consideration, it simply means we take into account how they will be affected by
our actions and omissions, attitudes and decisions. Moral consideration need not apply only to sentient
(conscious) creatures. Some people give moral consideration to things such as ecosystems or species, though
generally moral consideration is only given to conscious beings. We can, and do, give greater or lesser moral
consideration to some beings than others. Speciesism is giving different sentient beings differing moral
consideration for unjust reasons.
Abolitionism or abolitionist veganism
It is the animal rights based opposition to all animal use by humans. Abolitionism maintains that all sentient
beings, humans or nonhumans, share a basic right: the right not to be treated as the property of
[Link] vegans emphasise that animal products require treating animals as property or resources and
that animal products are not necessary for human health in modern [Link] believe that everyone
who can live vegan is therefore morally obligated to be vegan.
Animal Rights
It is the idea in which some, or all, non-human animals are entitled to the possession of their own lives and that
their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering—should be afforded the same consideration as
similar interests of human beings.
Dilemma of Meat
The question of whether it is right to eat non­human animals (henceforth “animals”) is among the most prominent
topics in food [Link] most commonly given moral objection to meat-eating is that, for most people living in
the developed world, it is not necessary for survival or health; some argue that slaughtering animals solely
because people enjoy the taste of meat is wrong and morally unjustifiable.
Man-Animal Conflict
The growing human population has forced development in the habitats of wild animals, who used to have their
own game region. Roads, tourist spots, etc. have been set up in the regions which are specific to animal’s mobility
and livelihood.
When the animals, which are relatively not, touched by sentience attack a human settlement, they are branded
as dangerous. What is forgotten here is, the sentient beings themselves have gone up to their dens. The onus lies
on the sentient beings and not on animals. In the guise of taking revenge, many animals have been killed. These
animals acted only naturally, it was sentient beings who acted un-naturally.
Ethics of Animal Experimentation
Many medical research institutions make use of non-human animals as test subjects. Animals may be subject to
experimentation or modified into conditions useful for gaining knowledge about human disease or for testing
potential human treatments. Because animals as distant from humans as mice and rats share
many physiological and genetic similarities with humans, animal experimentation can be tremendously helpful for
furthering medical science.
Case against experimentation
• An important part of the debate over animal rights centers on the question of the moral status of an animal.
Most people agree that animals have at least some moral status – that is why it is wrong to abuse pets or
needlessly hurt other animals. This alone represents a shift from a past view where animals had no moral
status and treating an animal well was more about maintaining human standards of dignity than respecting
any innate rights of the animal. In modern times, the question has shifted from whether animals have moral
status to how much moral status they have and what rights come with that status.
• The strongest pro animal rights answer to this question would be that non-human animals have exactly the
same moral status as humans and are entitled to equal treatment. The ethicists who endorse this position do
not mean that animals are entitled to the very same treatment as humans; arguing that animals should have
the right to vote or hold office is clearly absurd. The claim is that animals should be afforded the same level
of respectful treatment as humans; in short, we should not have the right to kill animals, force them into our
service, or otherwise treat them merely as means to further our own goals.
Case for Animal Experimentation
• Defenders of animal experimentation usually argue that animals cannot be considered morally equal to
humans. They generally use this claim as the cornerstone of an argument that the benefits to humans from
animal experimentation outweigh or “make up for” the harm done to animals. The first step in making that
argument is to show that humans are more important than animals. Below, I will outline one of the more
common arguments used to reach this conclusion.
• Some philosophers advocate the idea of a moral community. Roughly speaking, this is a group of individuals
who all share certain traits in common. By sharing these traits, they belong to a particular moral community
and thus take on certain responsibilities toward each other and assume specific rights. For example, in most
human moral communities all individuals have the right to make independent decisions and live autonomous
lives – and with that right comes the responsibility to respect others’ independence.
• Although a moral community could theoretically include animals, it frequently does not. The human moral
community, for instance, is often characterized by a capacity to manipulate abstract concepts and by
personal autonomy. Since most animals do not have the cognitive capabilities of humans and also do not seem
to possess full autonomy (animals do not rationally choose to pursue specific life goals), they are not included
in the moral community. Once animals have been excluded from the moral community, humans have only a
limited obligation towards them; on this argument, we certainly would not need to grant animals all normal
human rights.
• If animals do not have the same rights as humans, it becomes permissible to use them for research purposes.
Under this view, the ways in which experimentation might harm the animal are less morally significant than
 the potential human benefits from the research.

ETHICS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The ethics of artificial intelligence is the part of the ethics of technology specific to robots and other artificially
intelligent beings. It is typically divided into Robo-ethics, a concern with the moral behavior of humans as they
design, construct, use and treat artificially intelligent beings, and machine ethics, which is concerned with the
moral behavior of artificial moral agents (AMAs).
The possibility of creating thinking machines raises a host of ethical issues. These questions relate both to ensuring
that such machines do not harm humans and other morally relevant beings, and to the moral status of the
machines themselves.
Various Issues that crop up with AI are:
1. Unemployment : People in upper hierarchy can easily mobilize to automation, but the real problem will
emerge for the lowest rung people.
2. Inequality : People are paid for the amount of time spent and quantum of work done. But how would the
cost be distributed for machines?
3. Humanity : Artificially intelligent bots are becoming better and better at modelling human conversation and
relationships. In 2015, a bot named Eugene Goostman won the Turing Challenge for the first time. In this
challenge, human raters used text input to chat with an unknown entity, and then guessed whether they had
been chatting with a human or a machine. Eugene Goostman fooled more than half of the human raters into
thinking they had been talking to a human [Link] milestone is only the start of an age where we will
frequently interact with machines as if they are humans; whether in customer service or sales. While humans
are limited in the attention and kindness that they can expend on another person, artificial bots can channel
virtually unlimited resources into building relationships.
4. Artificial Mistakes : Intelligence comes from learning, whether you’re human or machine. Systems usually
have a training phase in which they “learn” to detect the right patterns and act according to their input. Once
a system is fully trained, it can then go into test phase, where it is hit with more examples and we see how it
performs.
5. Artificial Bias : Though artificial intelligence is capable of a speed and capacity of processing that’s far beyond
that of humans, it cannot always be trusted to be fair and neutral. Google and its parent company Alphabet
are one of the leaders when it comes to artificial intelligence, as seen in Google’s Photos service, where AI is
used to identify people, objects and scenes. But it can go wrong, such as when a camera missed the mark on
racial sensitivity, or when a software used to predict future criminals showed bias against black people.
6. Security : The more powerful a technology becomes, the more can it be used for nefarious reasons as well
as good. This applies not only to robots produced to replace human soldiers, or autonomous weapons, but
to AI systems that can cause damage if used maliciously. Because these fights won’t be fought on the
battleground only, cyber­security will become even more important. After all, we’re dealing with a system
that is faster and more capable than us by orders of magnitude.
7. Robot Rights : What if tomorrow robots demand their rights?
Ethics and Artificial Intelligence
• There is a well-known thought experiment in ethics called the trolley problem. The experiment raises a
number of important ethical issues that are directly related to artificial intelligence. Imagine a runaway trolley
going down the railway lines. There are five people tied to the track ahead. You are standing next to a lever.
If you pull it, the trolley will switch to a different set of track. However, there is another person tied to that set
of track. Do you pull the lever or not?
• There is no clear-cut answer to this question. What is more, there are numerous situations in which such a
decision may have to be made. And different social groups tend to give different answers. For example,
Buddhist monks are overwhelmingly willing to sacrifice the life of one person in order to save five, even
if presented with a more complicated variation of the trolley problem.
• As for artificial intelligence, such a situation could arise, for example, if a self-driving vehicle is travelling
along a road in a situation where an accident is unavoidable. The question thus arises as to whose lives should
take priority – those of the passengers, the pedestrians or neither. A special website has been created by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology that deals with this very issue: users can test out various scenarios out
on themselves and decide which courses of action would be the most worthwhile.
• Other questions also arise in this case: What actions can be allowed from the legal point of view? What
should serve as a basis for such decisions? Who should ultimately be held responsible? This problem has
already been addressed by companies and regulators. Representatives at Mercedes, for example, have said
outright that their cars will prioritize the lives of passengers. The Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital
Infrastructure of Germany responded to this immediately, anticipating future regulation by stating that
making such a choice based on a set of criteria would be illegal, and that the car manufacturer be held
responsible for any injury or loss of life.
• Other countries may go a different route. Take the Chinese Social Credit System, for example, which rates its
citizens based how law-abiding and how useful to society they are, etc. Those with low ratings will face
sanctions. What is stopping the Chinese government from introducing a law that forces manufacturers of
self-driving vehicles to sacrifice the lives of lower-rated citizens in the event of an unavoidable accident? Face
recognition technologies and access to the relevant databases make it perfectly possible to identify potential
victims and compare their social credit ratings.
Conclusion
In order to find this balance, we need to address a number of issues. For example: What goals are we pursuing in
the development of artificial intelligence? And how effective will it be? The answers to these questions will help
us to prevent situations antithetical to the present needs.

ETHICS AND DATA PROTECTION

Privacy, trust and security are closely intertwined, as are law and ethics. Privacy preservation and security
provisions rely on trust. Violation of privacy constitutes a risk, thus, a threat to security. Law provides a resolution
when ethics cannot; ethics can provide context to law (e.g., law allows trading for the purpose of making a profit,
but ethics provides input into ensuring trade is conducted fairly). Privacy breaches disturb trust and run the risk
of diluting or losing security; it is a show of disrespect to the law and a violation of ethical principles.
Data privacy (or information privacy or data protection) is about access, use and collection of data and the data
subject’s legal right to the data.
There are some principles that must be adhered to :
Data Collection and Purpose Principle
• Personal data must be collected in a lawful and fair way for a purpose directly related to a function/activity
of the data user (i.e., those who collect personal data).
• Data subjects (i.e., individuals from whom personal data are collected) must be notified of the purpose
and the classes of persons to whom the data may be transferred.
• Data collected should be necessary, but not excessive.
Accuracy and Retention Principle
Personal data must be accurate and should not be kept for a period longer than is necessary to fulfill the purpose
for which they are used.
Data Use Principle
Personal data must be used for the purpose for which the data are collected or for a directly related purpose,
unless voluntary and explicit consent with a new purpose is obtained from the data subject.
Data Security Principle
A data user needs to take reasonably practical steps to safeguard personal data from unauthorized or accidental
access, processing, erasure, loss or use, while taking into account the harm that would affect the individual should
there be a breach.
Openness Principle
A data user must make personal data policies and practices known to the public regarding the types of personal
data it holds and how the data are used.
Data Access and Correction Principle
Data subjects must be given access to their personal data and allowed to make corrections if the data are
inaccurate.
Conclusion
• Information security professionals are in urgent need of effective and pragmatic guidance for developing data
privacy protection standards for two major reasons. The first is that the information security function in a
technology-driven information-intensive environment becomes more complicated due to new risk (e.g.,
socio- techno risk); the second is that data privacy protection becomes a primary concern to information
security management as privacy infringement occurs frequently and attracts wide coverage in the media.
• Viewing privacy from the perspective of ethics can help enterprises establish and improve their code of
conduct. Considering privacy from an ethical point of view and establishing a code of conduct makes all
individuals in an organization, not just security personnel, accountable for protecting valuable data.

ETHICS AND WAR

War inevitably brings death, destruction and suffering, which both ruin lives and nations. Using religious guidance,
ethical theories and general arguments, I will decide for myself whether or not war can be justified. The most
unjustifiable consequence of war is the loss of innocent civilians’ lives. Civilians, who could have lived to make
a huge impact on the world, pose no direct threat to the ‘enemy’ and might not even share the motives of the
side they have been presumed to support. War eradicates hopes and dreams of millions, destroys homelands,
frightens and oppresses people. Nothing that, in the end, brings more bad than it does good can be justified.
Going to war in the name of peace cannot be justified – it is a complete contradiction: It is using violent means to
achieve the very concept of non-violence.
Many Issues are involved in War:
The degree of devastation
While war will cause destruction, yet nuclear mar is a greater threat. Ethics would be subdues where such type of
war spreads.
Death of civilians
Many innocents, including children, elderly, women etc. die unknowingly. Even if not death, they are constantly
living in threat, in the war zone.
Environment damage
End of certain group of people
Mental Trauma
These all clearly shows inhuman approach.
Although, theories exist about wars, that can be justified. The instance of World War 2 is in case here. The aim of
the war had a larger ethical perspective. History is replete with wars fought for the major ethical concerns. In the
guise of deterrence and war, many weapons of mass destruction have already been developed. It is only time,
when devoid of ethics, a small use of such weapons will only wreck havoc.
But any ethics cannot simply justify the collateral damage that happens in the war.

ETHICS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
With advances, however, come dilemmas — scientific, financial, and especially moral. These conundrums are
likely to multiply as groups with vastly different viewpoints and resources battle over the direction of health policy.
As the first decade of the 21st century reaches its midpoint, Biotechnology Healthcare has generated a variable
of ethical issues. Some of these are:
1. Protecting Human Subjects in Clinical Trials
2. Affordability
3. Privacy
4. Stem cell research
5. Bioterrorism
Need for Biotechnology
Transformations of life through biotechnology have been pursued for the sake of the social benefits they promise.
Cheaper and more effective medicines are possible when produced through biological rather than chemical
means. Farm production can be made more efficient and the use of biological pesticides, for instance, can reduce
the need for chemical pesticides. Some genetic engineering of plants aims to reduce the need for fertilizers,
thereby minimizing the pollution effects of runoff to rivers and coastal waters. One of the first applications of a
genetically engineered organism was the modification of bacteria that could digest oil spilled in the oceans.
Bioremediation and, in general, the improvement of the environment have been the primary aims of a great deal
of biotechnological research.
Ethics and Stem Cell Research
Stem cell therapy has run into controversy following the ability of the scientists to isolate and culture embryonic
stem cells. The controversy primarily revolves around the usage of human embryonic stem cells, which often
results in the destruction of the blastocyst. Similarly, the synthetic biotechnology has also got tangled in ethical
and bio-security issues. The usage of genetically modified organism (GMO) has triggered debates all over the
world. For example, in India, Bt Brinjal is considered as an environmental risk. Also, synthetic biology has triggered
ethical questions as it places patents on living organisms. In addition, regulations placed on bioengineering of
human embryos have created controversies in the field of bioethics. Critics around the world have been calling
for an outright ban on the use of synthetic biology on the human genome.
Ethics and Cloning
• Human cloning might change the shape of family structure by complicating the role of parenting within a
family of convoluted kinship relations.
• There is no guarantee that the first cloned humans will be normal. The fetus might suffer from some disorder
that is not detectable by ultrasound. They may be born disabled. Disorders may materialize later in life.
There is no fool proof research as of yet.
• Large scale cloning could deplete genetic diversity. It is diversity that drives evolution and adaptation. It
prevents an entire species from disappearing because of susceptibility to a disease.
• Proponents of animal rights argue that they possess certain moral rights as living entities and should
therefore be afforded the same ethical considerations as human beings. Stopping there usage in research
work has been one of the most pressing needs.
• There may be expectations that the cloned individuals would act identically to the human from which they
were cloned, which could infringe on the right to self-determination.
• Most pro-life supporters believe that a fertilized ovum is a full human person. When its nucleus is removed
during cloning, that person is, in effect, murdered.
• It might effect relationships. For example, a child born from an adult DNA cloning from his father would be,
in effect, a delayed twin of one of his parents. That has never happened before and may lead to emotional
difficulties.
Issues over Designer Babies
• Gender selection may lead to sex discrimination against women in society.
• Genetic altering is viewed as morally wrong, as one is not accepting its child as it is i.e Unnatural to change
the baby’s features, and nascent stage of technology may lead to greater complexities for designer baby in
future.
• Non-Utilitarian: Wealthy may be able to access the services, while poor may be left out which may create a
distinction between enhanced and un-enhanced individuals in future.
• Selection of traits in children by parents may hamper independent thinking of child, violate basic right of
womb (living being), and lead to production of human robots. For instance: Enhancements of certain
genes that would help him become an athlete.

ABORTION : ETHICAL OR UNETHICAL

Abortion has been deliberated upon since times immemorial and continues to be a topic of contention even today.
This debate can be recapitulated in two terms- Pro Choice and Pro Life. It is multi faceted because it involves the
culmination of many aspects such as religion, ethics, medicine and law. But the abortion debate in India would be
meaningless if it did not take into account the crucial problem of female foeticide. Liberation of women, therefore,
needs to be equilibrated against the rights of the unborn child.
Legality in India
LEGALLY SPEAKING
According to India's abortion laws only a qualified doctor can perform an abortion on a woman at an approved
clinic or hospital. The Indian abortion laws fall under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, which
was enacted by Parliament in 1971. The MTP Act clearly states that a pregnancy can be aborted only under
certain conditions, such as:
• Woman's physical an d/or mental health are • The girl is minor and unmarried. Consent of a
endangered by the pregnancy guardian is needed
• The woman is a "lunatic"
• The woman is facing the birth of a potentially • Pregnancies that ar e a result of failure in
disabled or mal-formed child sterilisation
• The woman is a rape v ictim • The duration of pregnancy is under 20 weeks

Abortion and Constitution of India

The article 21 of Indian constitution provide right to life which includes within its ambit the right to privacy. Right
to life and personal liberty is the most sacrosanct, precious, inalienable and fundamental of all the fundamental
rights of citizens. In this context, every woman owe an individual right, right to her life, to her liberty, and to the
pursuit of her happiness, that sanctions her right to have an abortion.
The Ethical Question
According to international human rights law, a person is vested with human rights only at birth; an unborn foetus
is not an entity with human rights. The foetus is not an independent entity and depends completely on the welfare
of the woman. Without her well-being, one cannot talk about the well-being of the foetus. We also need to
consider the fact that the woman herself is a living human being in the here and now — the pregnancy takes place
within her body and has profound effects on her health, mental well-being and life. Thus, how she wants to deal
with this pregnancy must be a decision she and she alone can make.
Right of Father
It is was also held in 1992 by the Supreme Court that a women has the same exclusive right to abortion as to any
to any other medical treatment. The prospective fathers have no right to be consulted for the same. But ethically,
prospective fathers should have a say, because the act of consenting sex resulted into the baby. Albeit there could
be risk of forced sex, this choice must be given only in the most fair of the cases.
The recent Judgement of SC
The Supreme Court of India recently took a landmark decision to allow a 24-year-old rape survivor to terminate a
24­week pregnancy, as the foetus has abnormalities, and going ahead would severely affect the woman’s health.
This is a landmark judgment. It is because after 20 weeks of pregnancy a woman in India is not allowed by law to
abort a fetus.
Walking the thin line
• The right of a woman to choose what to do with the foetus has to be balanced with the right of the foetus to
survive.
• A victim of rape shall be allowed the choice to abort.
• A child with disability should not be eliminated without devising an inclusive approach of dignity to even
a child with disabilities.
• Greater emphasis should be given to counseling instead of rushing through a law liberalizing abortion.
• Maternal deaths and injuries caused due to unsafe abortion can be addressed through expanding the base
of safe abortions, more so keeping in mind the medical advancements.
• Female feticide needs to be stopped. PC&PNDT Act needs to be strengthened more, and even so more a
social awareness needs to be spread.
• We must treat women in India as equal citizens and consider their rights to control their own body and
fertility and motherhood choices as primary to their empowerment

HONOUR KILLING
An honor killing or shame killing is the murder of a member of a family, due to the perpetrators’ belief that the
victim has brought shame or dishonor upon the family, or has violated the principles of a community or a religion,
usually for reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by
their family, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing in ways which are deemed
inappropriate, engaging in non-heterosexual relations or renouncing a faith.
THERE IS NO HONOUR IN KILLING
• Violates human rights
• Takes away the life of another for one’s own dignity. Violates Article 21 of the Indian Constitution
• Devoid of empathy, love, compassion, tolerance etc.
• lack of rational thinking capability, emotional intelligence
• Victims are subjected to someone else’ sense of right and wrong, justice, morality and traditional values
• Promotes social differentiation
Role of Khap Panchayats
Khap is a cluster of several villages combined by the caste and community people. The all-boys and girls within the
Khap are considered as siblings. The ten to fifteen men who belongs to upper caste or same jats and constitute
common meeting called as Khap Pancahayat.
• These panchayat had some role in settlement of community, family disputes in presence of people. In cases
of Inter-caste marriage or marriage in same gotra or inter-religious marriage or the act committed by parties
that bring dishonour to the family or community, these Panchayat declare such marriages as invalid. In order
to preserve or restore the reputation or honour of the family or community, they even go beyond by awarding
death as a punishment in number of cases.
• Very harmful practice of Khap Pancahayat and the like taking law in to their own hand and pronouncing on
the invalidity and impropriety of Sagotra and their inter-caste marriages and handing over punishment to
the couple and pressurizing the family members to execute their verdict by any means amounts to violation
of rule of law and invasion of personal liberty of the persons affected
Court’s reaction
Supreme Court: “This is wholly illegal and has to be ruthlessly stamped out. There is nothing honorable in honor
killing or other atrocities and, in fact, it is nothing but
barbaric and shameful murder. Other atrocities in respect
of the personal lives of the people committed by brutal,
feudal-minded persons deserve harsh punishments.
Only this way can we stamp out such acts of barbarism and
feudal mentality. Moreover, these acts take the law into
their own hands, and amount to kangaroo courts which
are wholly illegal.”
Bench of Justice Markandey Katju and Gayan Sudha
Mishra said that, Khap Pancahayat means ‘Kangaroo
Court’ and declared as illegal system.
The Constitution of India has been given to the Supreme
Court, Various High Court and Subordinate courts but the
Khap Pancahayat violated the law of the land.
The courts have realized this menace of parallel justice
delivery system and taken hard stance to punish severely.
The recent award of death sentence by a principal court to
the accused in honour killing is affirmation of human
dignity.
Mandatory death sentence in such cases would send a
strong signal to society to refrain from such heinous crimes but it is the duty of State to spread awareness,
promote gender equality and educate its citizens.
Way ahead
• It is high time that a separate law is being made to stop the menace of killing in name of honour.
• We also need to strengthen our integration bonds and spread awareness among all societies.
• Only one law can prevail in a country, and that too Law of the land.
• It is essential to view marriage as an equal partnership.
• The need of the hour is to embrace the concept of consent within marital relation.
• Acknowledging that fact that women have a right over their bodies is essential to promote the concept of
consensual sex.
• Challenging the deeply ingrained stereotypes, widespread entrenched mentality and questioning the biased
values may provide the solutions to the issue of discrimination and violence within marriage.
• Factors like financial empowerment, mindset of society, poverty, literacy should be considered before taking
any action. There is an urging need for moral , wise and social awareness to stop such acts.
• The recent judgement on Privacy by the Supreme court will play an enabling role setting bodily rights as
a crucial facet.
• Only when the individual rights not sacrificed at the altar of one’s dominance, marriage as an institution shall
continue to survive.

MEDIA ETHICS
Media ethics is the subdivision of applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of
media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print media and the internet. The field covers many
varied and highly controversial topics, ranging from war journalism to Benetton ad campaigns. Media ethics
involves promoting and defending values such as a universal respect for life and the rule of law and legality.
Literature regarding the ways in which specifically the Internet impacts media ethics in journalism online is scarce,
thereby complicating the idea for a universal code of media ethics
Issues of Journalism ethics
1. News Manipulation : News can manipulate a nd be manipulated. Governments and corporations may attempt
to manipulate news media; governments, for example, by censorship, and corporations by share ownership.
The methods of manipulation are subtle and many. Manipulation may be voluntary or involuntary. Those
being manipulated may not be aware of this.
2. Truth : The truth may not be alw ays required and must not always be seeked. Truth may conflict with many
other values:
For instance : Revelation of military secrets may be contrary to the Public Interest, even it is true.
3. Privacy : Salacious details of thelives of public figures are a central content element in many media. Publication
is not necessarily justified simply because the information is true. Privacy is also a right, and one which
conflicts with free speech.
Ethics of Entertainment Media
1. The depiction of violence and sex, and the presence of strong language.
2. Celebrity News has become a culture today, missing out on some genuine news of use.
3. Both advertising and entertainment media make heavy use of stereotypes. Stereotypes may negatively affect
people’s perceptions of themselves or promote socially undesirable behavior.
4. An increasingly common marketing tactic is the placement of products in entertainment media. The
producers of such media may be paid high sums to display branded products. The practice is controversial
and largely unregulated.
Media Integrity
Media integrity refers to the ability of a media outlet to serve the public interest and democratic process, making
it resilient to institutional corruption within the media system, economy of influence, conflicting dependence and
political clientelism. Media integrity encompasses following qualities of a media outlet:
• Independence from private or political interests • Transparency about own financial interests
• Commitment to journalism ethics and standards • Responsiveness to citizens
Certain principles to follow in Journalism:
• Obligation to the Truth • Loyalty to nation and citizens
• Discipline of Verification • Maintain a distance from those they cover
• Must welcome public criticism • Must keep the news comprehensive and proportional
• Personal conscience must be applied

*********
 CHAPTER 12: ETHICAL CONCERN IN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
IDENTIFYING PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES
Public servants are servants of the public, of government, of their immediate organisations and of the law.
Their role is traditionally conceptualised as part of an interconnected structure existing alongside but outside
of the private sphere.
In Western society, the dominance of democratic theory means that it is assumed public servants share the values
of wider society, whilst also recognising the need for representative government. Though public servants perform
a myriad of tasks and undertake a multitude of responsibilities, there are common elements to their work.
In 1996, the UN adopted an ‘International Code of Conduct for Public Officials’ which opened with the following
general principles:
• A public office, as defined by national law, is a position of trust, implying a duty to act in the public interest.
Therefore, the ultimate loyalty of public officials shall be to the public interests of their country as expressed
through the democratic institutions of government.
• Public officials shall ensure that they perform their duties and functions efficiently, effectively and with
integrity, in accordance with laws or administrative policies. They shall at all times seek to ensure that public
resources for which they are responsible are administered in the most effective and efficient manner.
• Public officials shall be attentive, fair and impartial in the performance of their functions and, in particular,
in their relations with the public. They shall at no time afford any undue preferential treatment to any group
or individual or improperly discriminate against any group or individual, or otherwise abuse the power and
authority vested in them.
In line with the classic organisational form, the image of the public servant has traditionally been that of a
‘bureaucrat’ - an image which tends to be associated with conservatism, an absence of radicalism or even
hierarchical control. The public servant’s duties today remain many, complex and often seemingly contradictory,
but successful public servants recognise their multiple roles and prepare for them.
• These include maintaining confidentiality, acting in the public interest, regulating, providing quality advice,
adjudicating, avoiding conflicts of interest, ensuring accountability to a range of actors and treating all
colleagues equitably.
• In performing each of these tasks, public servants employ a range of values as a means to guide their
behaviour and to assist them in steering a course through multiple requirements.
The complexity of public service ensures that its value system is unique and specific to its work. Invariably, given
that there are so many elements to it, the components of a value system often compete with one another.
Therefore clarity over an organisation’s values is essential and the appropriateness of a particular value-system is
worthy of regular consideration in the context of changing expectations and functions.
Public servants play a critical role in the implementation of public policy and should understand the importance
of values to all aspects of their work.
• Poor clarity or uncertainty about values can not only lead to ethical and decision-making dilemmas, but also
affects organisational coherence by diminishing team spirit, creating organisational confusion and weak
external communication.
• Public administrators are responsible not only for understanding the values implicit in the decisions they
take, but also for articulating those values clearly for others in the organisation and for external clients. Such
external clients may include not only citizens, but politicians and other stakeholder representatives. A review
of public sector codes and guidelines by Sherman revealed the following values to be the most common:
• honesty and integrity • impartiality
• respect for the law • respect for persons
• diligence • economy and effectiveness
• responsiveness • accountability

CATEGORISING PUBLIC SERVICE VALUES

In order to better conceptualise and contrast values, they are frequently grouped rather than treated on an
individual basis. Arguably, this ‘grouping’ of values reflects not only the growing expectations on public services,
but also recognition of how different elements and tasks within the public service require value-sets that may not
be suitable to others. For example, the American Society for Public Administration identifies five sources for
public administrators’ values: personal values, professional values, organisational values, legal values and public
interest values.

Categories of Public Service Values

Ethical Democratic Professional People
Integrity Rule of law Effectiveness Caring
Fairness Neutrality Efficiency Fairness
Accountability Accountability Service Tolerance
Loyalty Loyalty Leadership Decency
Excellence Openness Excellence Compassion
Respect Responsiveness Innovation Courage
Honesty Representativeness Quality Benevolence
Probity Legality Creativity Humanity

Many values are common to more than one category (such as fairness, accountability, loyalty and excellence), and
value conflicts can occur when similar values are applied in different contexts. By categorising the values, public
servants are provided with a framework that reflects their varied duties and responsibilities.
The most recent analysis of literature on ‘public values’ by Beck Jørgensen and Bozeman (2007) identified seventy
two such values informing the social and organizational environment of public servants. They clustered these
values according to the relationships set out in the figure given below:
The categories and values required for each are as follows:
General social values
• Public sector’s contribution to society: common good, altruism, sustainability, regime dignity
• Transformation of interests to decisions: majority rule, user democracy, protection of minorities
• Relationship between public administrators and politicians: political loyalty
• Relationship between public administrators and their environment: openness-secrecy, advocacy-neutrality,
competitiveness-co-operativeness.
Organisational values
• Intra-organisational aspects of public administration: robustness, innovation, productivity, self-
development of employees
• Behaviour of public sector employees: accountability
• Relationship between public administration and the citizens: legality, equity, dialogue, user orientation.

CONSTITUTIONAL VALUES
One may raise the question of morals relevant to public servants in performing their official tasks. For this purpose,
we refer to values embedded in the constitution. As we mentioned before, they are found in the Preamble and
the Directive Principles of State policy.
Values included in the Preamble are:
• Socialism, secularism and democracy
• Social, economic and political justice
• Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship
• Equality of status and of opportunity
• Fraternity and dignity of the individual
• National unity and integrity
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs)
The Directive Principles of State Policy are ‘fundamental in governance of the country’. Government has to
follow these principles while making laws.
• Equitable distribution of wealth or the socialist pattern of society and equal pay for equal work for both
men and women.
• Provision of adequate means of livelihood to all citizens, men and women.
• Provision of employment to all.
• Free and compulsory education for children.
• Living wage for workers.
• Protection of childhood and youth against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment.
• Organization of village panchayats as units of self-government.
• Prohibition of the consumption except for medical purposes of intoxicating-drinks’ and of drugs injurious to
health.
• Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines.
• Promotion of international peace and security and maintenance of just and honourable relations between
the nations of the world.
• Social welfare measures.

CONTEXT OF ETHICS AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Ethics, whether in an entire society or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced,
during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors. Administrative ethics is no different. It is
the product of several contextual structures and it never ceases to grow and change.
Some of these contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems:
The Historical Context
India has witnessed a long history of unethical practices in the governance system. Kautilya’s Arthashastra
mentions a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of those times indulged themselves. The
Mughal Empire and the Indian princely rule were also afflicted with the corrupt practices of the courtiers and
administrative functionaries, with ‘bakashish’ being one of the accepted means of selling and buying favours. The
East India Company too had its share of employees who were criticised even by the British parliamentarians for
being corrupt.
The forces of probity and immorality co-exist in all phases of human history. Which forces are stronger depends
upon the support these get from the prime actors of politico-administrative system. What is disturbing is that
a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is likely to enhance the tolerance level for administrative
immorality. In most developing nations having a colonial history, the chasm between the people and the
government continues to be wide. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of the governance was not accepted willingly
by a majority of population and therefore, true loyalty to the rulers was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance
between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced substantially in the transformed democratic
regimes, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been total even in the new dispensation.
Unfortunately, even the ruling elite do not seem to have imbibed the spirit of emotional unity with the citizens.
The legacy of competitive collaboration between the people and the administrators continues to exist. The nature
of this relationship has an adverse impact on ‘administrative ethics’.
The Socio-cultural Context
Values that permeate the social order in a society determine the nature of governance system. The Indian society
today seems to prefer wealth to any other value. And in the process of generating wealth, the means- ends debate
has been sidelined. Unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an equal
respect. A quest for wealth in itself is not bad. In fact, it is a mark of civilisational progress. What is important is
the means employed while being engaged in this quest.
The issues of morality may or may not be rooted in the religious ethos of a society. Indian religious scriptures do
not favour pursuit of wealth through foul means. Interestingly, Thiru Valluvar’s Kural, written two thousand years
ago in Tamil Nadu, emphasises that earning wealth brings fame, respect and an opportunity to help and serve
others, but it should be earned through right means only. Can this dictum form the basis of our socio- moral
orientation?
Work ethics may or may not be linked with religious moorings. These are subjective issues but make for an
interesting study. The family system and the educational system are influential instruments of socialisation
and training of the mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the school has
underscored honesty and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is likely to be highly positive and powerful.
Legal-Judicial Context
The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical concerns in governance system.
A neatly formulated law, with a clear stress on the norms of fair conduct and honesty, is likely to distinguish chaff
from grain in the ethical universe. Conversely, nebulous laws, with confusing definition of corruption and its
explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able to instill the fear of God or fear of law among
those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society. Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-
track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality in public affairs. Conversely, a slow-moving judiciary, with
a concern for letter rather than the spirit of the law, will dither and delay and even help the perpetrators of
crimes by giving them leeway through prolonged trials and benefits of doubt.
Likewise, the anti-corruption machinery of the government, with its tangled web of complex procedures,
unintendedly grants relief to the accused who are indirectly assisted by dilatory and knotty procedures. In
India, there is hardly any effective anti-corruption institution. The Lok Pal is yet to be established, Lok Ayuktas are
feeble and toothless agencies, while the state vigilance bodies are low-key actors. The consequences are too
obvious to warrant any explanation.
The Political Context
The political leadership, whether in power or outside the power-domain, is perhaps the single most potent
influence on the mores and values of citizens. The rulers do rule the minds, but in a democracy particularly, all
political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the orientation and attitudes on moral questions.
If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of
gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the administrative system cannot remain immune
to the levels of political morality.
The election system in India is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on
the elections ‘compels’ a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means – more foul than fair.
While fair has limits, foul has none. It is generally argued that the administrative class – comprising civil servants
at higher, middle as well as lower levels – emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the mores, values
and behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators.
The Economic Context
The level of economic development of a country is likely to have a positive correlation with the level of ethics
in the governance system. Even when a causal relation between the two is not envisaged, a correlation cannot be
ruled out. A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in the economic order, is
likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more deprived sections of society
may get tempted to forsake principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their basic needs of existence and security.
Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford to be so), yet what is apprehended is
that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity to compromise with the principles of
integrity.

ISSUE OF ETHICS : CONCERNS

Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major realms of human existence. Broadly, they
could be summarised as following maxims:
• Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator will follow the law and rules that are framed to govern
and guide various categories of policies and decisions.
• Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility
for his decision and actions. He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his
discretion while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to be held accountable to higher authorities
of governance and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions.
• Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with
involvement, intelligence and dexterity. As Swami Vivekananda observed: “Every duty is holy and devotion
to duty is the highest form of worship.” This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfillment
of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and constructively
contribute to society.
• Maxim of Excellence: An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality in administrative
decisions and action and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency. In
a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites
of Total Quality Management.
• Maxim of Fusion: An administrator would rationally bring about a fusion of individual, organisational and
social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behaviour a commitment to such a fusion. In
situation of conflicting goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made.
• Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator would respond effectively to the demands
and challenges from the external as well as internal environment. He would adapt to environmental
transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the prescribed
ethical norms, the administrative system would show resilience and bounce back into the accepted ethical
mould at the earliest opportunity.
• Maxim of Utilitarianism: While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure
that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number.
• Maxim of Compassion: An administrator, without violating the prescribed laws and rules, would
demonstrate compassion for the poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making
decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are
strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness.
• Maxim of National Interest: Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while
performing his duties, would keep in view the impact of his action on his nation’s strength and prestige. The
Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including civil servants), while performing their
official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises
the level of service rendered and the products delivered.
• Maxim of Justice: Those responsible for formulation and execution of policies and decisions of governance
would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, impartiality and objectivity
and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth.
• Maxim of Transparency: An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner
so that those affected by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to
understand the reasons behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were
made.
• Maxim of Integrity: An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and
not use his power, position and discretion to serve his personal interest and the illegitimate interests of
other individuals or groups.

*********
 CHAPTER 13: SOURCES OF
ETHICAL GUIDANCE: LAWS, RULES,
REGULATION AND CONSCIENCE.
INTRODUCTION
MEANING OF LAW IN ETHICS
We begin with the views of the great medieval Roman Catholic philosopher, St Thomas Aquinas. He defined law
as “ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has the care of the community.” Law
imposes an obligation on people. It makes people act or desist from acting; or it prescribes some actions and
prohibits some other actions,
As law is an injunction to act, it has to satisfy certain criteria. It has to be reasonable. What the law prescribes
must be good, possible and just. It has to accord with human nature or lie within its possible physical and
psychological domain. It has to equitably allocate advantages and disadvantages among the members of society.
The law should aim at general and not individual good. Aquinas says that people cannot be expected to follow
laws unless legislators proclaim the laws and give them wide publicity.
RULES AND REGULATIONS
• The terms ‘rules’ and ‘regulations’ have the same meaning in Ethics. However, the two terms are sometimes
given different meanings in legal contexts. Every law contains a provision for making necessary for rules its
implementation. The rule making powers are with government’s executive branch. Rules cannot go beyond
the law and are subject to ratification of legislature. Rules are subordinate legislation.
• The term ‘regulation’ refers nowadays to regulations which regulatory authorities – like Central Electricity
Regulatory Commission - issue for regulating a particular sector like power, insurance or telecom. However,
this is a current usage connected with regulating certain economic activities. But in Ethics, the terms ‘rule’ and
‘regulation’ have the same meaning.
Differences between Laws and Rules
• Rules or regulations are meant to clarify the meaning
or content of laws. But sometimes, they fail to do so.
• Regulations focus on or relate to individual good
whereas laws seek to increase public good. Laws can
be enacted only by those who exercise sovereignty (or
state power) or the lawfully constituted government
(or its legislative wing).
• Regulations can be laid down by one’s superiors, by
organizations or by head of a family. Rules or
regulations (in wider moral contexts) can be laid down
by private persons and entities.
• Laws of a nation operate within its territorial
boundaries. Citizens when abroad are not governed
for most purposes by their national laws. Rules or
regulations prescribed, for example, in official codes apply to government servants even when they are
abroad.
• Similarly, rules which monks accept as part of their religious order, apply to them even outside the country.
Students should note that the conception of rules or regulations we outlined is from Ethics and not from Law.
But there could be commonalities between the ethical and legal conceptions.
 TYPES OF LAW ACCORDING TO ACQUINAS
Aquinas distinguishes God’s eternal law from temporal laws which men make in historical time. Eternal law is
derived from the idea of God as the ruler of the world. Temporal laws consist of the natural law and the positive
laws. Natural law has come to being with time and the emergence of mankind. It is attuned to human nature and
men can discover it with their reason.
• There are two kinds of positive law. If laws are passed by the free will of legislators, they are human or man
made positive laws.
o Aquinas divides the human positive laws into secular and religious (canon) laws. Divine positive laws are
made by God.
o Aquinas mentions two divine laws: the Old Testament and the New Testament. Both are parts of the
Bible; the former contains the religious doctrines of Jews; and the latter of Christians.
NATURAL LAW
Aquinas defines natural law in religious terms. It is the “participation of the eternal law in the rational creature”.
It is “an imprint on us of the divine light”.
According to St. Paul, the natural law is written in the hearts of men. We can understand natural law as divine
moral ideas found in human heart.
How can we be sure of the existence of natural law? One answer is that men from ancient times, irrespective of
their level of civilization, distinguished between right and wrong actions. They also believed that men should
pursue good and eschew evil. As these ideas arose along with the emergence of mankind, they can be regarded
as part of the natural mental makeup of humanity.
Parts of Natural Law
• Aquinas mentions the primary, secondary and tertiary principles of natural law. Primary principles of natural
law are universal rules of conduct and can be easily perceived by human reason.
o Examples of these principles are doing good, avoiding evil and following the dictates of reason. Human
beings have a natural love of good and abhorrence of evil. All the remaining moral principles follow
from the primary principles.
• Secondary principles can be derived without much difficulty from the primary principles. A person of ordinary
intelligence without ‘vincible’ ignorance can easily know them. ‘’Vincible’’ ignorance, unlike invincible
ignorance can be easily overcome with a little effort - which men need to make. From the primary principle
of being good, it follows that one should respect elders and be considerate to others.
• Tertiary principles of natural law cannot be easily derived from the primary principles. They often
presuppose involved reasoning. People who are unaware of these principles incur no blame for it is a case of
‘invincible ignorance’. An example is of a person who believes it right to cheat a rich man to help the poor.
The three levels of natural law explain why people arrive at different moral conclusions on even similar
matters. Aquinas says that in theoretical thinking while it is easy to see general principles or common notions,
the conclusions which follow as their implications are hard to grasp. Similarly, while men subscribe to common
principles of actions, their responses vary in similar particular instances.
Aquinas argues that natural law not only tells what is good but also casts a moral duty on us to follow it. We
are under a moral obligation to obey the commands of natural law. It is a universal law and applies to the entire
humanity irrespective of race, nation, religion and sex.
• As we have noted, people may interpret or understand natural law in different ways. But they have to follow
it according to their best reflective understanding. In practical terms, this means that people should think
carefully about the moral aspects of their actions.
• Infraction of laws entails sanctions and punishments. But the consequences of disobeying the natural law
are unclear. This is true in case of all moral laws which lack the coercive power of legal enactments. For
instance, if one violates the Indian penal code by committing theft, he will, upon conviction, be
 imprisoned. Normally, legal offences are a subset of moral lapses. To the extent a moral violation is also a
legal offence penal law will punish the offenders. But if violates the command to love one’s neighbour, secular
law will not punish him. All religions mention that sinners will suffer in hell. But such concepts are non
empirical and fall outside the domain of logical discourse.
CIVIL LAWS
Aquinas divides positive laws as divine and human. He discusses the relation between positive civil laws and
the natural law. Interestingly, he holds that positive civil laws partake of the character of law in so far as they are
derived from the natural law.
• When they depart from the natural law, they are perversions of law. He makes a point that men are under no
obligation to follow those parts of civil law which fail to conform to natural laws.
• The medieval theological context of the discussion is no longer relevant. But what is relevant is the
revolutionary observation that under certain circumstances people will be justified in defying the law. In
modern day language, this is an issue of legitimacy.
According to Aquinas, laws have to meet the following conditions to qualify for people’s obedience.
• Civil laws have to conform to the natural law. They should not prescribe what the natural law prohibits or
forbid what the natural law prescribes.
• Civil laws are made by a lawful government with proper authority.
• It is morally possible to follow them.
• They are not for individual but general social good.
If a law fails to meet anyone of the above conditions, citizens need not obey it. This is the basic idea which
underlies the concept of civil-disobedience. In civil disobedience, people disobey unjust laws which though
duly enacted, violate higher moral principles. Thus, during the salt Satyagraha, Mahatma Gandhi violated the Salt
laws then in force. Similarly, pro-life groups in many Western nations oppose laws which permit abortion.

CONSCIENCE AS SOURCE OF ETHICAL GUIDANCE

Until now, we have discussed law as ethical guide to human action. Laws are external guides to men. In contrast,
conscience acts as an internal moral guide to them. Conscience comes into play when mind passes a judgement
on the rightness and wrongness of a particular act.
• Conscience is a capacity, intuition or decision that helps to distinguish right from wrong. In psychological
terms, conscience is defined as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against
his moral values and feelings of pleasure and well-being when our actions, thoughts and words are in
conformity to value systems of people.
• Conscience can morally judge past actions or actions under contemplation. Conscience is different from
moral laws. Moral laws are general and cover many actions. Conscience applies laws and rules to particular
actions. Conscience in a way completes human individuality or ego or selfhood. Both ego and conscience can
think about actions, ascertain. their meaning and evaluate their moral worth.
Historical Evolution of Ideas on Conscience
• The concept of conscience used in moral philosophy has changed considerably over time. In fact, the earlier
views on conscience have been discarded.
• Both Aristotle and Stoics described human consciousness, (recognition) of moral value and of moral law
simply as reason, or the ruling part of the soul. It is the scholastic writers who propounded the doctrine of
conscience as a special form of knowledge of moral laws which God reveals to human soul.
• This theory of conscience or of moral knowledge is called intuitional. Its chief tenet is that the knowledge of
good and wrong is immediate or intuitive” and not as stated by the empirical view of conscience, the result of
processes of association and reflection. That conscience is innate or inborn is also usually associated with
this view.
Moral Sense
The immediate insight or intuition which discerns the moral worth of actions is called the “moral sense”. Some
philosophers regarded moral sense or conscience as a special organ or faculty of special knowledge. Our
knowledge of right or wrong is given to us by some special moral sense, or by some special intuitions of reason,
such as the “self-evident axioms” of mathematics and logic. We often give immediate reactions and pronounce
cocksure judgments. This makes us feel that we have a special sense or faculty for discerning moral truth. Some
thinkers thought of the moral sense as a feeling; others considered it as kind of sense, with the good or bad of an
act resembling a quality like a colour. In either case, we are supposed to sense or intuit immediately the right or
wrong acts.
MORAL REASON
• According to the theory of moral reason, conscience does not give us infallible knowledge of the right or wrong
of particular acts, but general principles which apply to classes of acts.
• Medieval scholastics and modern ethical writers such as Buder and Price subscribed to this form of
intuitionism sometimes called “dogmatic intuitionism”. It is based on ideas from mathematics and logic than
from those of sense perception.
• Mathematical reasoning relies on certain axioms which at one time were considered as immediate
apprehensions that are universal and necessary. But axioms are now regarded as not self-evident truths but
as postulates or assumptions.
• It is possible to replace one set of assumptions with another set. Modern theorists deny that we have an
underived and immediate “sense” of the rightness and wrongness of particular acts. They also deny the
existence of universal and necessary intuitions of the rightness and wrongness of types or classes of
behaviour.
Aspects of Conscience
It commonly observed mat conscience has three aspects.
• First, it has knowledge of certain specific forms of conduct. This is the aspect we have in mind while speaking
of conscience telling or informing us of duties or of an enlightened or unenlightened conscience.
• Secondly, we consider it as vested with authority which imposes duties on us. Thus we speak of the authority
and majesty of conscience and of its commands;
• Thirdly, conscience is associated with certain emotions. We speak of an approving or disapproving or
remorseful conscience, of a tender or a hardened conscience of the pangs and the pricks of conscience. These
emanate as part of our responses to moral distinctions, either in particular acts, or in the recognition of moral
law in general.
Conscience can act as source of ethical guidance for bureaucrats, politicians and citizens
in a democratic system
• Conscience is the intrinsic intuitive capacity to discriminate between right and wrong. “Inner Voice” is
important especially in democracy as it has various participants such as citizens, NGOs, corporates to be
administered by the politicians who are elected by them only.
• But at individual level, every person has conscience which assists them to take important decision. Thus it can
act as strong tool to evade away the individual self-centred thinking.
• Political Level: Conscience can help to lesson corruption, nepotism and profit seeking behaviour. Thus
provoke them to act in benevolence of society at large and uphold the constitution principles. At each and
every decision they should keep in mind that they were elected to serve the citizens and not to serve their
own needs and greed.
• Bureaucratic Level: The crisis of conscience is important whether to just mere follow the orders from
superior’s v/s to follow the right path of judgement. The intrinsic voice of serving the nation maintaining
highest standards of honesty and probity is important as they are link between citizens and political
figures.
• Citizen Level: Collective and individual conscience of inhabitants is very important because it describes the
existing society conditions such as keeping surrounding clean, actively contributing in elections, dissent to
undemocratic principles. Therefore adhering to it will also control mass prejudice such as riots and lynching
of offenders.
Furthermore, it is important to dynamically excel and improve at individual and institution level. Thus if everyone
acts and adhere to their principles values, the moral degradation can be controlled and faith in governing
institutions can be reinstituted.
Conscience is consistent guide to ethical decision making
• It is arguable topic whether or not the conscience is the most reliable form of decision making or not.
However, there are many different opinions on conscience when it comes to decision making. The idea of the
conscience has developed from early Christian views, however it has now developed through the
psychological views of it being linked or part of the mind. The notion of the conscience was also later
developed by Freud who advocated that the conscience could be explained best by using scientific knowledge
instead of using religious views and opinions on the conscience.
• Secular perspectives of the conscience advocate the statement that the conscience is not a reliable guide to
ethical decision making as it determines that there is subjectivity within moral values due to individual
experiences and nurture. Ethical decision-making help people to make the correct decisions when it comes to
moral judgement. However, the secular approaches do not provide a precise method of understanding what
the right path is.
• St Paul thought the conscience was a moral guide, which is within and does not need any rules or theories to
be followed. St Paul’s idea of the conscience is widespread to everyone. Butler believed that the conscience
was a God given ability to reason. Due to the fact that they were both christians St Paul and Butler established
on many of their ideas. Butler thought that the conscience should be understood as a judge within everybody,
a judge that makes moral decisions for people.
o He recommended that as it is within people and appears to have a higher authority we therefore must
listen to it, and take on board the decision in which our conscience makes. One of the main weaknesses
is the idea that not everyone can have the same type of conscience as young children and people with
mental illnesses will not have the same.
• Saint Augustine visualized the conscience as the voice of God speaking to people from within. It is the law of
God in the hearts of people that they use to understand right and wrong actions. For him, the conscience must
always be in every circumstance turned towards the good and away from all that is evil.
• With religious viewpoint, the conscience is a reliable guide to ethical decision-making as it relies on our innate
ability to determine what is good and bad.

*********
 CHAPTER 14: ACCOUNTABILITY AND
GOVERNANCE
INTRODUCTION
• Accountability is today at the core of all democratic discourses. In a manner of speaking, it has been the
cause’ or the rationale, as well as the stimulus and accelerator of any people seeking freedom, whether from
alien masters or from the holders of authority, whether legal or prescriptive, within the national frontiers.
• In England itself, the nobles and barons had won the Magna Carta, a charter of rights, from King John in the
11th Century. In colonial America there was the issue of “No taxation without representation”. So, at the
heart of the problem of accountability is the question of control of the purse, viz raising and spending of public
resources or the exercise of authority or the control of power. Thus, in a democracy, it s related to
empowerment, participation and control of authority by the people. However, even in a monarchial system,
a certain modicum of accountability for actions was expected or prescribed, whether viewed conceptually or
historically. So, negatively. the concept of accountability aims to prevent the misuse or abuse of power and
authority, while, positively, it seeks to ensure the satisfaction of people’s demands and a better order of
things, which can be termed ‘management’, ‘administration’ or even ‘government’ as such.

MULTI-FACETED CONCEPT
• Accountability has various facets or aspects. As a concept it has a complexity of its own, and, naturally, as a
consequence in implementation and even in enforcement. That is why it is often called an amorphous concept.
We hear of diffused responsibility and that nobody can be held accountable for any act of commission or
omission.
• Thus one has to be clear not only about the locus and focus but also of the structures and different layers of
authority.
• In practical terms, it is the question of a conscious design of the system to pinpoint accountability in specific
individuals, But even otherwise, it may be said that like electricity, it may not be visible to the naked eye.
but it is felt, can be realized and even perceived in the end result. It has been rightly said: “Accountability begins
with individuals in simple societies. It ends with instructions in complex societies.”
• With increasing political and social consciousness, there is a need to demonstrate a sense of accountabiIity on
the part of not only individuals holding political and public offices but all public institutions, collectively
excercising any power on the public, on their behalf or in their name.
• That is why there is public insistence that not only politicians and political parties but other sections of society
like industry, trade and commerce, the judiciary and the legal profession, medical and academic or teaching
professions, science and technology also have to be held to account for their activities and conduct as groups
and individuals.
• It is strongly contended that even voluntary organizations, co-operative institutions or non-governmental
movements and organizations which are considered to be a countervailing force to State power too cannot
escape the imperatives of accountability. The mode and manifestation of accountability will naturally take
different forms. A strong need for building an environment of accountability in society and in government is
being felt. It is in this context that there has been all over the world, particularly in our country, and other
developing countries, extensive discussion about the social responsibility of various segments or institutions
of any influence.

RESPONSIBILITY, ACCOUNTABILITY AND RESPONSIVENESS

Usually, the terms accountability and responsibility are used interchangeably. Sometimes a distinction is made
between the two. Accountability is considered to be more external in character and responsibility as more
concerned with the inner life or something within as an individual.
• Even in the case of such sophistry, one reinforces the other. It is the sense of responsibility which will pave
the way for a ‘responsible society’ or a ‘responsible government’ and strengthen the climate of external or
visible accountability and its operation in society. So, the two are inextricably linked and intertwined. It is the
psychological dimension of accountability or responsibility which becomes important.
• Constitutional
democracy is really
based upon the political
responsibility of
individual citizens and
enlightened citizenry as
a whole. The
philosophical and
metaphysical element,
thus, does have a
relevance to the
problem of responsibility
and accountability. The
entire concept is not
simply mechanistic. The
deeper nuances lead to
the question of values
and ethics in this wide
spectrum of
accountability.
• It is from this angle that
we emphasise that
accountability is
threefold- to one self, to
the professional group
or organization that one
may belong to, and to
society at large. And it is the lack of harmonization between these three that causes discontent,
dissatisfaction and leads to confrontation and violence in society. It has to be remembered that
accountability begins when individuals or institutions are given tasks or power on behalf of fellow citizens,
but it is demanded not of serfs but from autonomous or free citizens.
• Serfs in Greece and Rome were only ordered, by their masters to carry out task. No accountability was
expected of them. It is wrong to juxtapose the two as opposing categories. There is no contradiction and
conflict between the two. Conceptually and operationally, the claims of autonomy and the compulsions of
accountability have to be looked upon as two aspects of the same coin.
• The operationalisation of accountability depends upon the nature of the constitutional and political system
of each country, its history and traditions and the framework of laws and regulations operating therein. The
processes, procedures, institutions and instrumentalities, accordingly, develop and are conditioned.
• While in Athenian democracy or the village democracy of ancient India, the mode of accountability, its
working and impact were simple. In a parliamentary democracy and federal form of government in today’s
international and complex society, the efficacy of the concept of accountability hinges on how carefully the
mechanisms, institutions and instrumentalities are designed to ensure the goals of accountability. So, we can
 never be oblivious of the constitutional and political framework and its requirements.
• While discussing the problem of accountability in a specific situation one has to deal with the problems of
delegation, of discretion (how, why and in whose favour), of the relevance of formal law or even the relevance
of natural justice to political and administrative responsibility, and the relative merits and feasibility of
individual as opposed to collective forms of responsibility or accountability.
• We are aware as to how the concept of judical review has expanded enormously in India during recent years
through public interest litigation (PIL) by individuals or social activist groups. This underscores its far-reaching
implications and consequences for individuals exercising power required by the courts to pay compensation
to aggrieved individuals personally or sometimes to compensate the state exchequer.
• This obviously rest on the assumption that the errant individual office holder should be made to bear this
burden as the constitutional democracy is designed for that very purpose. As Herbert J. Spiro goes on to argue
and link the process of accountability and responsibility with the fundamental question of legitimization of
political power under constitutional and democratic governments or why obey government:
• “It was achieved by dividing and subdividing the power once held by a unitary sovereign monarch, until all
citizens have come to share it. Consequently, all share responsibility for the manner in which the one-time
sovereign wielded. Politics is the process by which distribution of this responsibility throughout the political
system is determined. Government is the structure of responsibility. And the problem of the citizen’s
responsibility for government has become at least as important as that of the justification of his obedience to
government.”
• And those who are entrusted with authority or power under the constitution cannot themselves claim to be
beyond its purview!
• Some political philosophers and constitutional commentators have conceptually distinguished the meaning
of responsibility in three different ways-
(1) Responsibility as accountability;
(2) Responsibility as cause (explicit or implicit causal responsibility);
(3) Responsibility as obligation.
These are not really exclusive of each other either philosophically or practically. H.L.A. Hart in his Punishment and
Responsibility gives a four-fold classification. viz.
(a) Role-Responsibility;
(b) Causal Responsibility;
(c) Liability-Responsibility;
(d) Capacity-Responsibility.
Another political scientist, Donald Wismithburg, distinguishes four uses of the term:
(a) more obligation,
(b) responsiveness,
(c) accountability and
(d) legitimacy.
All these shades of meaning or nuances of terms ‘responsibility’ or ‘accountability’ are mutually supportive and
have practical connotation as has been evident in India during the constitutional and political discourse during the
past few decades.
Political and bureaucratic or administrative accountability flows from their congruence. “Responsiveness’ as a
term was popularized in the context of citizen-administration interface. decentralized decision-making and
political processes, popularly called grassroots democracy.
Responsiveness to whom and in what manner and with what intent, is the question that was raised.
Responsiveness to popular will and public interest and submission to the interests and whims of fleeting political
masters has been a nagging problem in administration.
Similarly, it has been seen in the recent politics of India as to how even constitutional legitimacy and authority
become completely eroded due to the erosion of moral authority through allegations of graft, corruption,
cronysim, favouritism, venality and similar moral criminal misdemeanors in the higher echelons of political
authority.
There has been public insistence on the fixation of responsibility and enforcement of accountability as confidence
in constitutional democracy has come to be questioned.

INSTRUMENTS OF ACCOUNTABILITY
In India we have adopted a parliamentary form of government. The pattern of accountability is inbuilt into the
system, though the grievance of the people is that it has got enfeebled in the course of enforcement due to the
very deinstitutionalisation of the system which is supposed to take care of it.
• Our government is politically and constitutionally accountable to Parliament and hence to the people. Thus,
this is the democratic concept of popular accountability and ministerial accountability. Ministerial or Cabinet
responsibility can be subdivided into collective responsibility of the Cabinet and the individual responsibility
of the minister. It is conditioned by the particular situation.
• Ministerial responsibility has also been looked at as moral responsibility or even punitive responsibility. It
is in the context of public trust or a fiduciary relationship between the governor and the governed. Again,
there is financial accountability. Accountability for probity is concerned with the avoidance of malfesance. It
has really developed through ages independent of political accountability. It is here that the concept of
independent audit comes in.
• The Indian Constitution has created the autonomus office of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India,
which is supposed to ensure the financial accountability of the government to the people through
Parliament by submitting its reports on financial transactions. Parliament has a permanent committee system
to enforce responsibility.
• The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and the Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU) have done
commendable work in this connection.
o Sometimes when any matter has become controversial or agitated the public mind, ad hoc parliamentary
committees are set up, such as those that examined the purchase of the Bofors guns or the securities
scam. The parliamentary committees function on the basis of directions of the Speaker or the conventions
of the British parliamentary system or as developed in the working of our own parliamentary system. The
members of the committees are supposed to be non-partisan in their approach to inquiry.
o The ‘action-taken’ reports are presented by the government to Parliament. As is well known the
committees have no executive authority. They only make suggestions or recommendations and also
criticize at times administrative functioning. But the power to accept or reject recommendations rests with
the government. The effectiveness of the committee system depends on the responsiveness of the
government itself and the pressure of public opinion as is exercised through Parliament.
• It is through ministerial responsibility that control on bureaucracy or administration is exercised.
Answerability of the minister for his department is the hallmark of democracy. In the U.K. and elsewhere, a
good deal of literature has been generated on the subject. This brings us to the crucial question of the
relationship between the minister and his secretary. It is for the minister to hold his civil servants to account,
but he cannot escape his parliamentary and ultimate responsibility for the acts of omission or commission of
his department. It is sometimes referred to as constructive or moral responsibility.
• The public expects the minister to keep the civil servants in check. It may suffice to point out that Justice
M.C. Chagla in the Mundra case said: “ It is clear that a minister must take the responsibility for actions done
by his subordinates. He cannot take shelter behind them, not can be disown their actions.” According to him,
the assumption is that the policy once laid down by the minister is carried out by the civil servant. and if the
latter feels that to do so, he may be punished or dismissed, the responsibility of his action must be assumed
by the minister. Similar views were expressed quite strongly by the Joint Parliamentary Committee set up
to look into the securities scam in India.
• Further, we have a written Constitution that enshrines the rule of law, and we come across the term ‘legal’
or “judicial’ accountability of the political as well as of the permanent executive. This has come very much in
focus recently due to some striking cases of political malfeasance.
• The PIL has become fashionable as people nurse the grievance that politics and administration have both
become unaccountable and insensitive. But one is not sure if it is the permanent remedy. Antibiotics cannot
be a substitute for efforts to lead a healthy life.

ACCOUNTABILITY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

From the view point of democratic governance as J.D. Steward has done, we can look at the concept of public,
popular or electoral accountability as steps in the ladder of accountability :
• Accountability for probity and legality.
• Process accountability
• Performance accountability
• Programme accountability
• Policy accountability
It is a ladder that leads from accountability by standards to accountability by judgement.
• In administrative vocabulary, the concept of accountability is related to the concepts of rule of law,
transparency, administrative sensitivity and responsiveness, procedural and administrative reforms, result-
orientation, implementation and performance as well as long-term policy perspectives and policymaking.
This will also pave the way for macro-level as well as micro-level accountability.
• In a democratic country, public accountability is an assertion that all authority is derived from the people.
But the significance of authority as the right to call the weilders of power to account needs to be supplemented
by the notion of power as the ability to call them to account, through the exercise of control over performance
the principal element in accountability.
• Those who are entrusted with authority must be made to realize that for their allotted tasks, they have to
work and they also must be made to realize that the authorities above mean it seriously. Accountability, in
simple terms, means to render as an account of one’s action and so it relates to measures in terms of
performance fully understood by accepted standards.
• It is this realization that is the beginning of the ethos and culture of accountability. Though a complex
concept, it must be understood that it is more than just an effort at fighting corruption. It really aims at and
facilitates good governance, which can really ensure the credibility and stability of a democratic system.
Accountability of Public Servants
• In most countries, public officials exercise varying degrees of power in discharging their functions and
responsibilities based on the authority vested in them. To ensure that there is proper and responsible use of
this power and authority, all democratic countries have developed systems and procedures of checks and
balances. They have also put in place incentive mechanisms to reward good performance. These systems and
procedures can broadly be termed as mechanisms that promote accountability.
• In all democratic countries, civil servants are accountable both to the political executive and to citizens for
ensuring responsive, transparent and honest policy implementation and service delivery. But ensuring
accountability for performance is not a simple task in government service; there are immense complexities
involved in making public officials answerable for outputs and outcomes.
• Setting performance targets and their measurement is easier in respect of service delivery agencies
particularly when the service provided is tangible and thus an easily measured unit but for many public
organizations where the output is policy related and therefore, not very concrete, assessment of
performance becomes much more complicated.
• The diffusion of responsibility and authority across different levels in Government and the lack of linkage
between authority and accountability also lead to a system where plausible alibis for non-performance
abound, particularly for activities that cut across departmental dividing lines or across different functional
divisions within departments.
• The accountability mechanisms in any country are broadly categorized as those that are located within the
State and those outside. Accountability of the executive arm of government to Parliament and to the citizens
of the country is of course the fundamental feature of a democracy.
• The final expression of accountability in a democracy is through the medium of periodic elections which is an
instrument for punishing and rewarding the Government of the day, and therefore, serves as an ultimate
instrument of accountability.
o An independent judiciary embodies the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers and is another
important element in the system of checks and balances that exists in any democratic country.
o In India, constitutional and statutory bodies such as the office of the Comptroller & Auditor General, the
Election Commission, and the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) are examples of other oversight
mechanisms that are autonomous but lie within the framework of the State.
• Analysts have categorized these accountability mechanisms into “horizontal” accountability mechanisms
which refer to those located within the State as against ‘vertical’ accountability mechanisms which are those
outside the State and include the media, civil society and citizens. Below table shows the categorization of
such accountability mechanisms in India.

Institutions and Mechanisms that Promote Accountability

Outside the State (Vertical)
• To the people through elections
• Through RTI Act to citizens High effectiveness
• Citizens’ oversight committees
• Civil society/watchdog bodies
• Media Low effectiveness
• Service delivery surveys
• Citizens’ charters Low to medium effectiveness
Within the State (Horizontal)
External
(Outside the Executive)
• Parliament
• Judiciary
• Lokayukta
• CAG
• CVC
Internal (Within the Executive) • Superior officers
1. Rewards/punishments
2. Disciplinary procedures
3. Performance Management System
• CBI/police/vigilance
• Internal Audit
• Grievance Redressal Mechanisms
The Sixth Central Pay Commission observed as follows:
The institutional structures of top down management and isolated managerial efforts have proved inadequate for
satisfying performance i.e. delivery of results and outcomes. There is over-reliance on ‘command’ models of
administrative effort for service delivery. Citizens and service users are stakeholders and participants not just
‘customers’. This role needs to be institutionalized in the administrative structures linked to the specific
organizational service delivery. This participation of stakeholders in the process design and their institutional
integration into the decision and delivery framework can be based on a ‘cooperative model’ of consultation and
co-production. Institutional norms and practices become habits and routines and have to be consciously analyzed,
confronted and substituted with alternate institutionalized practices. This perspective of purpose is important also
for determining the type of Performance Related Incentive Scheme (PRIS) developed and adopted. The importance
of a systems shift from top down monitoring to stakeholder-citizen participation and co-production with
transparency and checks is critical for better public service delivery.
Fitness Bar
The public perception today is that government servants are unresponsive to the needs and concerns of citizens
and the system does not address this problem because the mechanisms to ensure accountability, integrity and
efficiency of public servants do not appear to be adequate. The common perception is that initiation of disciplinary
action against incompetent and erring government servants is more an exception than the rule. This is
supported by a plethora of anecdotal evidence. Data obtained from the UPSC and the CVC clearly bring out that
there are very few cases where disciplinary proceedings result in imposition of substantial penalties.
The life-long job security provided to a government servant further leads to such a distorted incentive structure
because it is a fact that under the present system, very rarely is a government servant punished or removed for
poor performance. As a result, an element of complacency and inertia has got internalized in the civil services. In
fact, it has been noted that this trend not only manifests itself in terms of indifference to and disregard of citizens’
complaints and concerns but also in the form of indiscipline and insubordination.
In the section ‘Dismissal Procedures’, the Commission has recommended a major revamp of the present system
of disciplinary proceedings against government employees to ensure greater accountability and to minimize, if
not eliminate, misconduct and indiscipline. In addition, the Commission feels that there is also need to find a
systemic solution to the issue of complacency that stems from the lifelong job security coupled with lack of penal
consequences for non performance or inadequate performance.
While the performance of government organizations and their sub-units are periodically subjected to in-depth
reviews, seldom are efforts made to link organizational performance to the performance of an individual civil
servant. In fact, at present, annual confidential records of civil servants are the only mechanism to assess the
performance of a government servant and these records are used to evaluate the fitness of a civil servant usually
at the time of promotion. The Commission is of the view that there is need to have a comprehensive in- depth
assessment at important milestones in an officer’s career. These assessments, in view of the Commission, should
be carried out on completion of 14 and 20 years of service.
The first review at 14 years would primarily serve the purpose of apprising the public servant about his/her
strengths and shortcomings for his/her future advancement. This should also be used for assessing his/her training
needs. The second review at 20 years would mainly serve to assess the fitness of the officer for his/her further
continuance in government service. These performance evaluations could be conducted by committees
constituted for this purpose. So far as the second review is concerned, as this would involve a more intensive
assessment about a public servant’s fitness to continue in service, this may be entrusted to an empowered
committee comprising both government officers as well as external experts. The second review would involve
a very careful scrutiny and analysis of the officer’s general reputation, performance and his/her potential to hold
leadership positions involving higher responsibilities in government. To the extent possible, feedback from
citizens, wherever available, should be used as an input in this exercise. A personal interview with the officer
should normally be a part of this process. The detailed modalities of this assessment would need to be worked
out by government.
The services of public servants who are found to be unfit after the second review at 20 years, should be
discontinued. A provision regarding this should be made in the proposed Civil Services Law. Besides, for new
appointments it should be expressly provided that the period of employment shall be for 20 years only. Further
continuance in government service would depend upon the outcome of the intensive performance reviews.
The Commission feels that these reviews combined with the changes suggested in the performance management
system, disciplinary proceedings and the reforms in the recruitment and training of civil servants would make the
entire system much more pro-active, responsive and accountable.

WAYS TO PROMOTE ACCOUNTABILITY TO CITIZENS

Accountability also means answerability i.e. questions asked of public officials have to be answered by them. There
are two types of questions that can be asked. One type as under the RTI Act merely seeks information/ data and
involves one way transmission of information. It promotes transparency and to a much lesser degree
accountability in Government. The second type of question enquires not just as to what was done but why; and
therefore involves a consultative two-way flow of information with the citizens usually providing a feedback in
respect of the working of government departments and service delivery of public agencies. Such mechanisms
include citizens’ charters, service delivery surveys, social audits, citizens’ report card and outcome surveys.
Recommendations
a. A system of two intensive reviews – one on completion of 14 years of service, and another on completion
of 20 years of service - should be established for all government servants.
b. The first review at 14 years would primarily serve the purpose of intimating to the public servant about
his/her strengths and shortcomings for his/ her future advancement. The second review at 20 years would
mainly serve to assess the fitness of the officer for his/her further continuation in government service. The
detailed modalities of this assessment system would need to be worked out by government.
c. The services of public servants, who are found to be unfit after the second review at 20 years, should be
discontinued. A provision regarding this should be made in the proposed Civil Services Law. Besides, for
new appointments it should be expressly provided that the period of employment shall be for 20 years.
Further continuance in government service would depend upon the outcome of the intensive performance
reviews.

********
 CHAPTER 15: BUSINESS ETHICS AND
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
NEED OF BUSINESS ETHICS
In an article in the New York Times in 1970, Milton Friedman wrote about “the social responsibility of business.”
Having expounded his view that the only social responsibility of business was “to increase its profits” he described
those who took a contrary view as “puppets of the intellectual forces that have been undermining the basis of
a free society” and their opinions as a “fundamentally subversive doctrine.”
• Friedman’s views on monetary economics dominated the last quarter of the 20th Century and it would not
be an exaggeration to say that in most countries of the developed world they are still a critical driver of
economic policy.
• His views on the social responsibility of corporations, however, appear to have fared less well. Today over 90%
of major businesses have specific programs dedicated to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Most CEOs
talk about their organisation’s commitment to a wide range of philanthropic, employee engagement and
other benevolent activities at almost every possible opportunity.
The limits of altruism alone
• While this development is undoubtedly a positive one it is also true that as Friedman also noted “the business
of business is business”. CSR is a good thing as far as it goes but the greater opportunity for the business
community is to find ways to leverage their networks, their capital, their people and their technology to help
create practical, sustainable, market based approaches that help benefit society in general and low income or
underserved populations in particular.
• As long as CSR stays fundamentally altruistic in its motivation it is unlikely ever to be considered as being
core to business and is unlikely ever to scale or to provide lasting solutions to critical social challenges.
• Finding those practical, sustainable and market-based approaches is at the heart of Corporate Social
Innovation. They should not be a distraction from the business of making money, but rather a complement to
it. They are not an example of corporate altruism. They look at key questions of company strategy, such as
how can we find new markets, develop new products and expand sales? How can we strengthen and increase
the resiliency of our supply chains? How can we find new sources of talent? How can we leverage our access
to capital? How can we forge new partnerships outside of our established networks to help us better reach
a broader client base?
• The greatest challenge for the modern CEO is not whether or not to try to use the company assets and
resources to develop opportunities for social innovation. The evidence is overwhelming that all their key
stakeholders see it as a key part of corporate stewardship. Talent, especially millennium talent, want to work
at companies that care about social and environmental challenges, customers want to buy from those
companies, governments want to create regulatory and tax structures that incentivise them, and even
shareholders now recognise that building brands and minimising non-financial risk are critical contributors to
maximising shareholder value. The key challenge is therefore not whether to embrace corporate social
innovation but rather how to do it.
Why Should One Be Ethical?
There is already something odd about this question. It is like asking, “Why are bachelors unmarried?” They are
unmarried by definition. If they were married, they would not be bachelors. It is the same with ethics. To say that
one should do something is another way of saying it is ethical. If it is not ethical, then one should not do it.
Perhaps when business people ask why they should be ethical, they have a different question in mind: what is the
motivation for being good? Is their something in it for them? It is perfectly all right to ask if there is a reward
for being good, but this has nothing to do with whether one should be good. It makes no sense to try convince
people that they should be good by pointing to the rewards that may follow. One should be good because “good”
is, by definition, that which one should be.
As for motivation, good behavior often brings a reward, but not every time. Think about it. If it were always in
one’s interest to be good, there would be no need for ethics. We could simply act selfishly and forget about
obligation. People invented ethics precisely because it does not always coincide with self interest.
Doing Well by Doing Good
• Although ethics is not the same as self interest, business executives often want to be assured that it is the
same. They want to make certain that “one can do well by doing good,” meaning that one can succeed in
business by being ethical.
• There is no denying that one can often do well by doing good. An ethical company is more likely to build a
good reputation, which is more likely to bring financial rewards over the long term. But good behavior cannot
be grounded in tangible reward alone. People who are interested only in reward will behave ethically
when it suits their purpose, but they will go astray whenever the incentives change.
• There is a deeper confusion here, too. To look to ethics for motivation is to misunderstand what ethics is all
about. It is like studying finance to find a reason to make money. Finance does not teach one to want to be
rich. It teaches one how to be rich, assuming one wants to be rich. So it is with ethics. Ethics teaches one how
to be good, assuming one wants to be good.
• It is important to know that one can normally do well by doing good. Otherwise ethical people could go into
business only with a high risk of failure. Business ethics, however, addresses the opposite question: how can
one do good by doing well? It begins with the premise that managers want to do something good with their
lives and investigates how to accomplish this through business. In other words, it treats profit and business
success as means to a greater end: making the world a little better.
The Duty to Make Money
Granting that a business person’s ultimate objective is to make the world better, how is this best achieved? A
common view is that it is achieved by making as much money as possible. The best thing business people can do
for society is to be good business people, which is to say, to maximize the company’s profit. They should therefore
stick to finance, marketing and operations management rather than waste time with ethics.
Economist Milton Friedman articulates this view in an essay that is quite popular with business students, “The
Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase its Profits.” According to Friedman, corporate officers have no
obligation to support such social causes as hiring the hard-core unemployed to reduce poverty, or reducing
pollution beyond that mandated by law. Their sole task is to maximize profit for the company, subject to the limits
of law and “rules of the game” that ensure “open and free competition without deception or fraud.”
Friedman advances two main arguments for this position.
• First, corporate executives and directors are not qualified to do anything other than maximize profit.
Business people are expert at making money, not at making social policy. They lack the perspective and
training to address complex social problems, which should be left to governments and social service agencies.
• Second, and more fundamentally, corporate officers have no right to do anything other than maximize
profit. If they invest company funds to train the chronically unemployed or reduce emissions below legal
limits, they in effect levy a “tax” on the company’s owners, employees and customers in order to accomplish
a social purpose.
o But they have no right to spend other people’s money on social welfare projects. At best, only elected
representatives of the people have such authority. Sole proprietors can spend the company’s money any
way they want, since it is their money, but fiduciaries and hired managers have no such privilege. If they
contribute corporate money to arts or community development, it must be with an eye to increasing
profit, perhaps by attracting better employees or improving the company’s image. If they want to
contribute to other social causes, they are free to join civic organizations and donate as much of their own
money as they please.
 INTRODUCTION TO CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
• Corporate Governance has become one of the most commonly used phrases in the current global business
vocabulary. It is a hot topic across the globe these days and in India is the most talked about subject after the
collapse of Satyam in 2008.
• Till about two decades ago, it was relatively an unknown subject. The subject came into prominence in late
1980s and early 1990s when the corporate sector in a number of countries was surrounded with problems of
questionable corporate policies or unethical practices.
• Junk Bond fiasco of the USA and failure of Maxwell (Maxwell Communication Corporation and Mirror Group
Newspapers, UK, 1991), BCCI (Bank of Credit and Commerce International, 1991) and Polypeck in the UK
resulted in the setting up of the Treadway Committee in the USA in the year 1987 and the Cadbury Committee
in the UK in 1991.
• India too had its share of scams, scandals, flagrant violations of rules and regulations. There were rampant
cases of exploiting of minority shareholders, siphoning of funds, blatant violation of laws, non-compliance of
rules/ laws, surreptitious dealings and inadequate non-disclosures. Ill-famed Harshad Mehta Stock Scam of
1992 and the collapse of Satyam are the glaring examples of corporate frauds in the country.
WHAT IS CORPORATE GOVERNANCE?
The term ‘Governance’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Gubemare ‘which means ‘to steer ‘usually applying to
the steering of a ship (steer means to direct or control the course of a ship, boat, car, etc). Thus, ‘Governance’
implies direction or control that is one of the prominent functions of management. Based on this meaning, the
father of Corporate Governance Sir Adrian Cadbury (1992) defined the concept as the way in which companies
are directed and controlled. His focus is on the way a company is directed and controlled.
WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD CORPORATE GOVERNANCE?
• Good Corporate Governance is the broader view of Corporate Governance that focuses on relationship
between a company and broad range of other stakeholders. It is based on the satisfaction of all kinds of
stakeholders, CSR and ethics.
• Good Corporate governance is about how an organization is managed? It is about commitment to values,
ethical business conduct, and exercise of powers in a responsible way. Corporate Governance and Corporate
Excellence are closely connected. It is difficult to achieve excellence without good governance in long
term.

NEED FOR GOOD CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN INDIA

In the last decade, corporate fraud and governance failure is occurring frequently which is why we require good
corporate governance in the country. India provides proper norms and laws aligned with international
requirements to govern a corporate. Some of the important reasons are discussed below which raised the need
for corporate governance in India.
• A corporate has a lot of shareholders with different attitudes towards corporate affairs, corporate governance
protects the shareholder democracy by implementing it through its code of conduct.
• Large corporate investors are becoming a challenge to the management of the company because they are
influencing the decision of the company. Corporate governance set the code to deal with such situations.
• Corporate governance is necessary to build public confidence in the corporation which was shaken due to
 numerous corporate fraud in recent years. It is important for reviving the confidence of investors.
• Society having greater expectations from corporate, they expect that corporates take care of the
environment, pollution, quality of goods and services, sustainable development etc. code to conduct
corporate is important to fulfil all these expectations. Takeovers of the corporate entity created lots of
problems in the past. It affects the right of various stakeholders in the company. This factor also pushes the
need of corporate governance in the country.
• Globalization made the communication and transport between countries easy and frequent, so many Indian
companies are listed with international stock exchange which also triggers the need for corporate
governance in India.
• The huge flow of international capital in Indian companies is also affecting the management of Indian
corporates which require a code of corporate conduct.
PRINCIPLES OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
Corporate governance has evolved around certain key principles, which form the base of rules and guidelines set
for the corporate.
• Transparency: Disclosure of the relevant information about corporate in timely and accurate manner is
necessary. It helps stakeholder to know their rights and day to day activity of the corporate.
• Accountability: It ensures the liability of the person who takes decision for the interest of the others. Hence
persons like managers, chairmen, directors and other officers should be accountable to other stakeholders
of the corporate.
• Independence: Independence of top manager is important for smooth functioning of the corporate. Board
of Director must work without the interference of any interested party in the corporate.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK IN INDIA
The Indian framework on Corporate Governance has been vastly in sync with the international standards. Broadly,
it can be described in the following:
• The Companies Acts 2013 has provisions concerning Independent Directors, Board Constitution, General
meetings, Board meetings, Board processes, Related Party Transactions, Audit Committees, etc.
• SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) Guidelines ensure the protection of investors and have
mandated the companies to adhere to the best practices mentioned in the guidelines.
• Accounting Standards issued by the ICAI (Institute of Chartered Accountants of India) wherein the ICAI is an
autonomous body and issues accounting standards. The disclosure of financial statements is also made
mandatory by the ICAI backed by the Companies Act 2013, Sec. 129.
• Standard Listing Agreement of Stock Exchanges applies to the companies whose shares are listed on various
stock exchanges.
• Secretarial Standards Issued by the ICSI (Institute of Company Secretaries of India) issues standards on
‘Meetings of the board of Directors’, General Meetings’, etc.. The companies Act 2013 empowers this
autonomous body to provide standards which each and every company is required to adhere to so that they
are not punished under the Companies Act itself.
ISSUES IN CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN INDIA
Although there exist many issues in the field of Corporate Governance especially in India, an effort has been made
to highlight only the major ones here:
• Board Performance : The requirement of at least one woman director is necessary, and also the balance of
executive and non-executive directors is not maintained. Evaluation is not performed from time to time and
transparency is lost somewhere. The performance is not result oriented. These requirements are not always
met with.
• Independent Directors : Independent directors are appointed for a reason which does not seem to be
fulfilled in the current scenario. Even after SEBI guidelines being issued to the corporates, for the
appointment of an audit committee or giving of a comprehensive definition of the independent directors,
the actual situation appears to be worse.
• Accountability to Stakeholders : The accountability is not restricted to that of the shareholders or the
 company, it is for the society at large and also the environment. The directors are not to keep in mind their
own interests but also the interests of the community.
• Risk Management : The risk management techniques are to be mandatorily be undertaken by the directors
as per the Company Laws and they have to mention in their report to shareholders as well. This is not being
done in the most sincere manners required for the job.
• Privacy and Data Protection : This is an important governance issue. Cybersecurity has evolved to be the
most important aspect of modern governance. Good governance can only be achieved once the directors
and other leaders in the company are well known about the hazards in this field.
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) : Being among the few countries to legislate on CSR, it is mandatory
for companies to invest minimum 2% of the profits in the last 3 years for CSR activities. Otherwise proper
reasons should be mentioned in the reports in case of failure. The companies seem to be reluctant towards
making such investments.

EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CSR

KAUTILYA ON CSR : Kautilya emphasized ethical practices and principles while conducting business.
CSR & HINDUISM : Merchants belonging to the Hindu religion gave alms, got temples and night shelters
made for poor. Hindus followed Dharmada where the manufacturer or seller charged a specific amount
from the purchaser which was used for charity.
CSR & ISLAM : Islam had a law called Zakaat which ruled that a portion of one’s earning must be shared with
the poor in the form of donation.
CSR & SIKHISM : Similar to Islam’s zakat, Sikhs followed what they called daashaant.

India has the world’s richest tradition of corporate social responsibility. Though the term CSR is comparatively
new, the concept itself dates back to over a hundred years. CSR in India has evolved through different phases, like
community engagement, socially responsible production and socially responsible employee relations. Its history
and evolution can be divided into four major phases.
PHASE 1 (1850 TO 1914)
• The first phase of CSR is known for its charity and philanthropic nature. CSR was influenced by family
values, traditions, culture and religion, as also industrialisation.
• The wealth of businessmen was spent on the welfare of society, by setting up temples and religious
institutions. In times of drought and famine these businessmen opened up their granaries for the poor
and hungry.
• With the start of the colonial era, this approach to CSR underwent a significant change. In pre-
Independence times, the pioneers of industrialisation, names like Tata, Birla, Godrej, Bajaj, promoted the
concept of CSR by setting up charitable foundations, educational and healthcare institutions, and trusts for
community development. During this period social benefits were driven by political motives.
PHASE 2 (1910 TO 1960)
The second phase was during the Independence movement. Mahatma Gandhi urged rich industrialists to share
their wealth and benefit the poor and marginalised in society.
His concept of trusteeship helped socio-economic growth. According to Gandhi, companies and industries were
the ‘temples of modern India’. He influenced industrialists to set up trusts for colleges, and research and training
institutions. These trusts were also involved in social reform, like rural development, education and
empowerment of women.
PHASE 3 (1950 TO 1990)
This phase was characterised by the emergence of PSUs (Public Sector Undertakings) to ensure better distribution
of wealth in society. The policy on industrial licensing and taxes, and restrictions on the private sector resulted in
corporate malpractices which finally triggered suitable legislation on corporate governance, labour and
environmental issues.
Since the success rate of PSUs was not significant there was a natural shift in expectations from public to private
sector, with the latter getting actively involved in socio-economic development. In 1965, academicians, politicians
and businessmen conducted a nationwide workshop on CSR where major emphasis was given to social
accountability and transparency.
PHASE 4 (1980 ONWARDS)
In this last phase CSR became characterised as a sustainable business strategy. The wave of liberalisation,
privatization and globalisation (LPG), together with a comparatively relaxed licensing system, led to a boom in the
country’s economic growth.
This further led to an increased momentum in industrial growth, making it possible for companies to contribute
more towards social responsibility. What started as charity is now understood and accepted as responsibility.

NATIONAL VOLUNTARY GUIDELINES

National voluntary guidelines are applicable to all businesses irrespective of size, sector or location. These
guidelines were designed with the aim of assisting enterprises to become responsible entities much before
the CSR Act (Companies Act -2013) came into force. In fact various propositions from NVG have been taken into
consideration for structuring the Companies Act. The principles behind the guidelines are as follows:
• PRINCIPLE 1 : Businesses should conduct and govern themselves with ethics, transparency and accountability
PRINCIPLE 2 : Businesses should provide goods and services that are safe and contribute to sustainability
throughout their life cycle.
• PRINCIPLE 3 : Businesses should promote the well-being of all employees
• PRINCIPLE 4 : Businesses should respect the interests of, and be responsive to, all stakeholders, especially
those who are disadvantaged, vulnerable and marginalised.
• PRINCIPLE 5 : Businesses should respect and promote human rights.
• PRINCIPLE 6 : Businesses should respect, protect, and make efforts to restore the environment.
• PRINCIPLE 7 : Businesses, when engaged in influencing public and regulatory policy, should do so in a
responsible manner.
• PRINCIPLE 8 : Businesses should support inclusive growth and equitable development.
• PRINCIPLE 9 : Businesses should engage with and provide value to their customers and consumers in a
responsible manner.

SPECIFIC FEATURES OF COMPANIES ACT, 2013

• The provisions of the CSR Act apply to all companies that have any one of the following in any financial year
• Net worth of INR 500 crores or more
• Turnover of INR 1,000 crores or more
• Net profit of INR 5 crores or more
• An average of the previous three financial years profit will be considered for calculating the 2% for CSR.
• CSR policy of a company should ensure that surplus arising out of a CSR activity will not become part of
business profits.
• CSR policy should specify that the CSR corpus will include the following:
a) 2% of average net profit;
b) any income arising thereof;
c) Surplus arising out of CSR activities.
• Companies may collaborate or pool resources with other companies to undertake CSR activities and any
expenditure incurred on such collaborative efforts will qualify for computing CSR spending.
• All companies falling under the provision of Section 135 (1) of the Act should report, in the prescribed
format, the details of their CSR initiatives in the director’s report and on the company’s website.
• In case a company has failed to spend 2% of the average net profit, the reason for doing so should be
mentioned in the annual board report.
Key Concerns
The Act does not prescribe any penal provision if a company fails to spend the stated amount on CSR activities.
The Board will need to explain reasons for non-compliance in its report.
The threshold limit of Rs.5 crores net profit for applicability of CSR requirements seems, in comparative terms, to
be on the lower side vis-à-vis net worth and turnover thresholds of Rs.500 crores and Rs.1,000crores respectively.
This may result in companies getting covered under CSR even when they do not meet net worth/ turnover criteria.
It is not absolutely clear whether a company will need to create a provision in its financial statements for the
unspent amount if it fails to spend 2% on CSR activities in a particular year.
Conclusion
• CSR as a concept has been the focus of various deliberations and much research over the past few years; and
has come to occupy an important place in the academic and business arena. Evolving all the time, it has
morphed from a purely philanthropic to a systemic and, finally, strategic activity. India is the first country to
have legislated CSR mandates. Others like Sweden, Norway, UK, South Africa, Ghana and Ivory Coast follow
some specific codes for sustainable and socially accountable business practices, like Social Labour Plan (SLP)
and Local Content Law (LCL). The US, though it has a rich presence of industrial firms and big corporates, has
only some mandates for reviewing reports on corporate spending. There is no strong legislation, as in
India, for CSR spending.
• After the enactment of the Companies Act-2013, it is estimated that approximately 2,500 companies have
come in the ambit of mandated CSR; the budget could touch approximately INR 15,000 crores. It is very likely
that the new legislation will be a game-changer, infusing new investments, strategic efforts and accountability
in the way CSR is being conceived and managed in India. It has opened new opportunities for all stakeholders
(including the corporate sector, government, not-for-profit organizations and the community at large) to
devise innovative ways to contribute to equitable social and economic development.
• Currently, CSR in India is headed in a positive direction as there already exists a multitude of enabling
organiations and regulatory bodies such as the Department of Public Enterprises (DPE), Ministry of Corporate
Affairs (MCA), and Indian Institute of Corporate Affairs (IICA). These institutions have already set the wheels
in motion and are playing an important role in making CSR a widespread practice and in ensuring success in
reducing inequalities without risking business growth.

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 CHAPTER 16: INTERNATIONAL
ETHICS
INTRODUCTION
International ethics refers to the good that international interactions, exchanges, relations can bring to our
planet earth and to all life forms and which can be harmed by unfriendly, hostile, uncooperative behaviours. Aware
that the harms that one country can do to another and to the international space and relations, international ethics
offers insights into how nations and other entities treat other nations and its people. International ethics is a good
which can be harmed and also knowledge of international ethics provides us with insights to assess the good and
harms, the rights and wrongs, which can occur in the international space. For example, the UN has been
promoting various principles of friendly and cooperative and peace related humanitarian international actions
by all the member countries.
• This community of nations which stands to respect other nations and their interests, is itself harmed by the
dominant nations willing to impose their interests and will on other poorer nations and poorer nations
unwilling to cooperate without being treated as equals. Various agencies of the UN by their presence and
action in various countries, promote certain universal principles that transcend the boundaries of individual
nations and the ethical principles pursued by individual nations. International ethic is not simply an ethic of
some dominant country, it is not simply an ethic of a powerful country having obligations towards others
because of the power they have over others.
• International ethics may be fruitfully defined as that which enables one to participate more actively in
shaping and building good international community. The vision of international community that every country
has and reality of an international community provides us with food for thought on what ought to be the
nature and purpose of investing in international relations to build an international community.
• The challenges of international conflicts have to be addressed with courage to embark upon studying what
international community promotes and builds, whether perpetual peace and justice provide the much
needed foundation on the basis of which it can thrive and flourish. What would be necessary for the existence
of such an international community of peace and justice between nations and people?

PHILOSOPHY OF INTERNATIONAL ETHICS

Realism focuses on a single reality, international power. It is the power that one nation has to influence another
nation directing and shaping its destiny in the direction it desires namely into a kind of tacit servitude of serving
and protecting its interests at the cost of the other. In the international realm, realism holds that the only thing
that really matters is power – what power a country has. Nothing else matters – morality, ethics, law, and political
systems, legal systems, cultural systems – are all irrelevant. The argument appears to be that in international
sphere human nature is such that no one can be trusted each seeks to dominate the other. Either one country will
dominate the other or the other will try to dominate the first, so it is better to be the dominating or dominant
country.
• The realist approach to international sphere or international relations is simply to deny any role for common
or shared ethics, and create an ethically neutral zone or an ethics free zone which can be filled by the power
of one who is dominant.
• Obviously others will perceive realist conception of international space, international relations based solely
on the principle of power as quite unjust. There is nothing in realist conception or in realism that prevents
someone from making an ethical assessment of the power motivation and the dominant actions of the
dominant country and be able to withstand such pressure and claim it to be unethical or unjust. For many
people, the attempt to control other people and direct their destinies in the international sphere is
repugnant and demoralizing. The
• old saying may be invoked implicitly, that power corrupts and that absolute power corrupts absolutely. When
power is the sole basis of international relations and international action, assessments will be coloured by
such perceptions.
• Realism conceives the international sphere as a space where “anarchy” prevails and there are no rules. Why
would anyone follow rules made externally or made by another? What binding power those rules have that
are not made internally? Is a country free if it follows the rules made by another? This claim that there are no
binding rules in the international sphere that international relations are committed to follow appears
questionable. What if there were agreements between international parties, would those agreements be
binding and if so would the rules on the basis of which such agreements made appear to hold. As a test case,
consider “human rights” or “human dignity”. Do these rules hold in the international sphere and in
international relations? Who will enforce them if they hold? Who will hold another accountable for their
violations? Thus in realist conceptions, if power is the only thing that works in international relations, then
human rights violations or human dignity violations will continue to occur and there will be no one to stop
them except a power greater than itself.
• Thus the realist position or realism tends towards a preference for war as the ultimate way to resolve
international conflicts to bring about international order by imposing the order of the winners of the conflict.
• Realism sentiments within Nations may make it rational to pursue power, create power distance and
dominance over its neighbours and at the same time seek to balance power by aligning sufficient number of
states for a country to counter the power influence of those nations opposed or against it. In this way realism,
in thought, word and deed, creates and spawns a world fundamentally divided into two. There will be no
unipolar world for sure, the fact that one exists after the collapse of the Soviet Union is only a temporary
phase, somewhat illusionary. The world soon responds by restoring and creating balance of power. What
exists, through the realist conception is only a multiplicity of different bipolar worlds and their coalitions. Such
a world where balancing power exists certainly will not rule out world wars or wars in general.
• Pursuing realism and realist policies will be detrimental to our common world with its common vision of a
humane future for everyone.
o Realism is incapable of enabling such an achievement.
o Realism as a field is necessary ingredient for creation of a superpower and a relative independence or
servitude as the case may be for others in relation to it. Since currently only one country still retains the
status of a superpower, and others are expected to follow its lead, the silent dreams of many others to be
superpowers of the 21st century are just fantasy illusions. The power flows have rules.
o Realism contradicts in so far as it conceives of power in terms of “anarchy”, without any rules. Philosophy
hopefully uncovers and lays bare the rules that power follows to exert its control and its direction.

Realism is a theory of balance of power that maintains the power balance in the world. All we can expect is that
the most powerful nation on earth will have no one to challenge its power and so there will be peace. This is just
a conventional thinking. Deeper reality shows, its power is already being challenged, the name and form of war
has changed, shadows overcast over many relations have not disappeared, they remain. There is no real peace.
Realism does well in terms of trade as trade terms are set by the powerful against the weak to reflect the power
imbalance and the power advantages. That’s how the world works perhaps, but it is hardly a philosophy for what
ought to be, it is hardly a philosophy of normative considerations. There will be some international sphere, limited
and defined by trade relations and by wars. International ethics then, in so far realism is concerned is just the field
of international trade wars and international war and peace and the necessity of having some kind of
“international justice” dictated and dominated by the rule of the powerful, the dominant country in the relation.
Idealism and International Ethics
Idealism focuses on “common interests” between nations, and not necessarily at the power or power distance
or at power balance. It seeks to build the international sphere on the basis of idealist values that are of common
interests to nations participating in any international issues and problems.
• Idealism built on common interests appears to be stronger in power than unilateral power of realism and
hence can have the potential to replace realism in thought, word and deed and as a philosophical thought.
 Idealism has the potential to create more lasting hopes of peace and of a growing international sphere where
mutual interests and common concerns are addressed more earnestly in the true spirit of pursuing what can
be regarded as human purposes of human flourishing. Thus the rise of idealism holds out a promise, even
though conflicts remain.
• Idealism points to trade interests between nations as common interests and as platforms to build better,
growing and mutually beneficial international relations. The rise of international and global market place and
the growing interdependence between nations are shown to be aiding and being supported by idealism.
Human beings and humanity as a whole is capable of displaying high levels of idealism. In idealism, the
international system, international order and the international sphere follow rules, laws and institutions. In
idealism, thus ethics, morality, laws, legal systems, international institutions all have a central place. Thus
idealism contrasts sharply with realism which emphasized only power. The world becomes less dramatic and
less dangerous, even though conflicts are far from removed.
• International treatises, the UN organizations and the system, have a central role and supports idealism and
idealist thinking endorses it. These provide international ethics guidance, even though it is voluntary, it has
rational force of assent and appeal to conscience to be accepted and guided by it. All different institutions of
the UN may not have the same force, but in their respective contexts, the values and beliefs expressed and
communicated do hold respect. Idealism may hold out the “olive branch”, a symbol of the covenant between
God and Man by offering the best humanity has to offer collectively for the world and for the future of the
world for its future generations. Idealism is a movement towards peace and peace initiatives and strategies,
as opposed to outright power play in wars or through wars. International sphere includes more than power
and politics. It challenges the dominant views of realism which holds that war is a necessary consequence or
necessary evil too easily justifiable by the powerful. Idealism does not rule out the possibility of war, but holds
out an “olive branch” to those who can see reason and faith.
Cosmopolitanism and International Ethics
Cosmopolitanism shares something in common with idealism, namely, do the right thing. The right thing to be
done is to behave as you would want others to behave. Behave in ways that you think others should behave. It
focuses on how we interact in a global community. What is relevant is the global community since we interact
with people in other countries. It holds that since we interact with other countries, we have a moral duty to treat
people of that country morally as moral people. Hence the prescription in cosmopolitanism is to “do the right
thing”. Cosmopolitanism thus empowers international ethics and the development of “global values and ethics”
fully.
• Cosmopolitanism argues for following morally lawful behaviour. Where rules and laws do not exist, it would
require that we come together and negotiate the rules and laws that are ethical to follow and follow them in
our relations with people of other countries and in our interactions with people of other countries.
• Cosmopolitanism is able to welcome people of all origins and identities without any discrimination or
treatment of them as means to some ends. It will give importance to people, their freedom and rights rather
than sovereignty of nation states. Some may even use it to argue for a world government which overrides
national interests and boundaries. It is certainly capable of universality in thought, word and deed, although
we may not yet see the development of such possibilities today.
• Cosmopolitanism focuses on the international community as having an important and in some cases decisive
role on determining what a country or nation should or should not do morally. Such developments may be
resisted by nations who feel they are at the receiving end of world opinion or world politics and which prefer
their national identity and sovereignty sentiments.
Equality of Life and International Ethics
Every life may be considered as having equal moral weight. In this belief, valid if one holds such beliefs, it is the
global interest that count as much as domestic interests. No preference is given by governments or by anybody
else to the welfare of citizens of that country. There are no differentiating factors recognized by such governments
that distinguish between the welfare of its citizens and those belonging to another country.
• Everyone has equal rights. Everyone is treated equally in equal respects. In such cases and in the context of
such beliefs of equality of life, it becomes meaningful to make sacrifices for others. People rarely sacrifice
themselves for their own near and dear ones. But people sacrificing themselves for others in the international
space are truly worthy examples of human greatness and the greatness to which human spirit can rise.
• Respect for life of the unborn in the international sphere implies that countries do not push their own
agendas under the guise of controlling rising populations in their own and other countries.
• Respect for life should guide international ethics, in thought, word and deed. When that day comes when we
respect the right to life of the unborn, it will be truly a day of universal peace. If you have to make decision
about which world you want to live in, without knowing what position you will be in, you would choose a
world that protects the weakest of the weak, the least advantaged.
• Such a world is full of meaning of life and in such a world equality of life will be an accepted principle. Such a
world would accord the unborn right to life, in the principle of equality of all life.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

Proponents of realism, or realpolitik, in international affairs often make the claim that there is no room for
morality in state decision making. States do what they must because they are locked in a battle for survival against
other states. In this way of thinking, ethics are a luxury for which leaders and states have no time. Further, thinking
about doing “what is right” could be dangerous, distracting leaders from doing “what is necessary”. On the other
side, some liberal thinkers argue that all our acts have moral implications, nowhere starker than in the
international realms of war and peace, intervention, human rights, globalization, and development. As humans,
we cannot separate ourselves from the ethical repercussions of our actions.
As the interaction, competition and collaboration among the nations is continuously increasing, we find that it has
raised many ethical issues in the global arena. It is observed that though the world is becoming a better place to
live in terms of economic prosperity, but in terms of equality, peace, environment and human rights, there have
been number of issues involving some ethical concerns also. Here we will discuss some of the ethical issues
which have been cause of concern in international affairs:
• Management of Common Goods : The ‘Global Commons’ refers to resource domains or areas that lie outside
of the political reach of anyone nation State. International law identifies four global commons namely: the
High Seas; the Atmosphere; Antarctica; and Outer Space. There have been ethical issues regarding each of
the ‘global common’.
• High Seas : These areas have historically been guided by the principle of the common heritage of humankind
- the open access doctrine or the mare liberum (free sea for everyone). However, now the countries have
started claiming sovereignty over these High Seas considering their heavy strategic importance in geo- polity
and for commercial use (though this restriction is in violation of UNCLOS provisions). This restricts the right
of other countries on these resources. It raises the basic ethical question- Is claiming sovereignty over the
High Seas ethically correct?
• Antarctica : These days we notice that Antarctica is facing rapid environmental degradation due to human
pressures such as pollution, and the effects of global warming. Whether it is ethically correct for the countries
to spoil the environment of the Antarctica which may have greater repercussions in coming time?
• Climate Change : Countries are divided on the issue of ‘CBDR’ (common but differential responsibilities) and
on technology transfer and funding arrangements.
• Outer Space : More and more satellites are being launched by more and more countries in the outer space.
This has created congestion in outer space risking the collision of satellites. Further, China tested its capability
to destroy a satellite in outer space. This has raised ethical questions related to peaceful use of outer space.
• Humanitarian Interventions : In recent decades, American and some European countries have intervened in
the internal affairs of other countries on the ground that the voice of public is not being respected and there
is violations of basic human rights. Though these efforts look apparently bona fide, but it has also been argued
that the intervention was mala fide and was encouraged by the geo-strategic reasons. This raises the ethical
 question whether it is right for a country to interfere in the internal affairs of another country and who would
take the moral responsibility for the loss of human lives which always occur in these interventions?
• Disarmament : Ironically, the cause of disarmament is being promoted by those countries that have massive
reserves’ of nuclear armaments, missiles and nuclear powered submarines. Further, countries like USA
impose economic and other sanctions on countries like Iran to prevent it from developing nuclear weapons.
There are unanswered questions like how it is ethical for a country to impose sanctions on others without
discarding their own nuclear arsenals.
• Intellectual Property Rights : The developed countries are depriving the poor countries from accessing the
new technologies by the restrictive clauses of intellectual property rights. Ironically, the same restrictive
provisions are also applied on things like life-saving medicines. In this debate, it is essential to determine
whether it is justifiable for a country/company to defend its intellectual property rights on the ground of
commercial benefits, or they should ethically share the technology for the greater cause of humanity.
In these ethical issues, the major ethical dilemma faced by a country would be to choose between the ‘national
interest’ and ‘ethical responsibility’. It has been observed that countries went on to pursue their national interest
without giving weightage to their ethical responsibility (for example, countries are trying to. find out new sea
route across Arctic, without considering that this would be doubly harmful as the global warming is already causing
melting of Arctic ice). This would, in long turn, would be detrimental not only for the other countries but for the
promoter country also. Therefore, it becomes necessary to consider the ethical grounds in international arena, as
only a holistic approach can ensure equal and sustainable development for the world and its people.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL FUNDING - CONDITIONALITY

Conditionality is a concept in international development, political economy and international relations which
describes the use of conditions attached to a loan, debt relief, bilateral aid or membership of international
organizations, typically by the international financial institutions, regional organizations or donor countries. In the
context of international funding, ‘conditionality’ is typically employed by the International Monetary Fund, the
World Bank or a donor country with respect to loans, debt relief and financial aid.
• In other words, conditionality refers to policy changes which an aid donor agency stipulates a government
must undertake in order to obtain, or retain, access to the donor’s financial support; it is an exchange of
money for policy action. It arises most frequently in connection with the ‘adjustment’ programmes of the
International Monetary Fund and World Bank but bilateral donors have made greater use of it in recent years.
• Conditionalities may involve relatively uncontroversial requirements to enhance aid effectiveness, such
as anti-corruption measures, but they may also involve highly controversial ones, such as austerity or the
privatization of key public services, which may provoke strong political opposition in the recipient country.
Other types of conditionality that often occur are aid which is tied to be used in a specific way (for example,
many countries tie aid to the purchasing of products from donors’ countries).
Issues Involved in Conditional Funding
Following issues (inherently ethical) related to conditional funding arises in international arena:
• The donors shape the policy framework and strategies through impositions, seriously undermining the rights,
choices and decisions of the people to determine their own demands and actions needed for their own
development.
• Local societal diversities and local ownership are ignored by conditionality.
• It is argued that aid conditionality infringes on countries democracy and sovereignty.
• Policy conditions can interfere with the formation of an independent and mature democracy and political
framework.
• It is argued that economic policy decisions, such as whether to privatize essential services or liberalize trade
barriers within any given country - developing or developed - should be made by national governments and
not influenced by leverage of increased external funding.
• Democratic ownership implies mutual accountability, transparency, and participation in policies and
programmes, where both donors and governments feel equal, sharing responsibility and seeing Civil Society
Organisations as key players. Domination by the government or the donors in the process undermines the
 basic principles of democratic ownership.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN INTERNATIONAL FUNDING

FOR PROMOTING HUMAN RIGHTS
• These days, International human rights and humanitarian non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are major
players on the world stage. They fund human rights projects, actively participate in human rights and humanitarian
work, and criticize human rights violations in foreign lands. They work in cooperative networks with each other,
with local NGOs, and with international organizations. They consult and lobby governments and international
organizations, sometimes participating in high level negotiations and diplomacy for global policy
development.
• Here, the important ethical concern is the issue of government funding for INGOs as many INGOs do accept
funds from developed countries. Their independence and legitimacy is therefore suspected by the government
of host countries, especially by the less-than democratic governments. It is argued that they are operating in
these countries not for the genuine concern of human rights but for increasing the trust deficit between the
government and citizens, as mandated by their funding agencies.

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 CHAPTER 17: PROBITY IN PUBLIC
LIFE
Introduction
• Probity in public life is an important footstep in building the character of a nation and its citizens. A modern
and developed nation sustains itself on the commitment of its citizens to the principles and values of public
service. A country is not respected for its forests and mountains, roads and rivers, monuments and structures
but the quality of its human resources.
• A value-driven society is the hallmark of a progressive nation. Today, as democracy takes roots all over the
world, people demand Good Governance. The principles of good governance, namely transparency and
accountability; fairness and equality; efficiency and effectiveness; respect of the rule of law; and high
standards of ethical behaviour, represent the basic foundation upon which a responsive and open government
can be built.

STANDARDS IN PUBLIC LIFE

The Committee on Standards in Public Life, an independent public body to advise government on ethical
standards across the whole of public life in the UK, defined seven principles, which should underpin the actions of
all who serve the public in any way. These are:
• Selflessness : Holders of public office should take decisions solely in terms of public interest. They should
not do so in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their family, or other friends.
• Integrity : Holders of public office should not place themselves under any financial or other obligations to
outside individuals or organizations that might influence them in the performance of their official duties.
• Objectivity : In carrying out public business, including making public appointments, awarding contracts,
or recommending individuals for rewards and benefits, holders of public office should make choices on
merit.
• Accountability : Holders of public office are accountable for their decisions and actions to the public and must
• submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate to their office.
• Openness : Holders of public office should be as open as possible about all the decisions and actions that they
take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider public interest
clearly demands.
• Honesty : Holders of public office have a duty to declare any private interest relating to their public duties and
to take steps to resolve any conflicts arising in way that protects the public interest.
• Leadership : Holders of public office should promote and support these principles by leadership and example.
Catalyst to Stability
Probity in public life is the key to stability and growth. Even as India marches ahead maintaining a robust rate of
economic growth, corruption continues to be a major area of concern.
• The country is rated very low in the Corruption Perception Index by the Transparency International. According
to one UNDP report for South Asia, if India’s corruption level were to decline to that of Scandinavian countries,
its GDP would increase by 1.5 per cent and FDI by 12 per cent.
• Mr Bimal Jalan, well known economist and former Governor of RBI, has in his book Future of India estimated
that all things remaining the same, if there were no corruption, India’s growth rate would have been nearly 8
per cent per annum in 1980s and 1990s rather than close to 6 per cent. Ethical management of resources is,
therefore, of utmost importance to optimize the benefits of growth.
• People make Institutions and Institutions the nation. Corruption undermines democratic institutions and
poses a serious threat to the development of a nation. All the institutionspolitical, judicial, investigative and
vigilance, civil services, media and the civil society-have an important role to play to enhance probity and
integrity in public life and change the society for the better.
• Political leaders have an onerous task of leading by example. They must display exemplary values and
behaviour in their personal and public conduct.
• The elected representatives are always under the scanner. Hence, the standards set in politics have a profound
and cascading influence on the masses. Political corruption leads to a vicious cycle of bureaucratic corruption,
business corruption and criminalization of politics.

• Unless the elected representatives and the political leaders lead by example in upholding probity and honesty
in their public lives, there will be little progress in this regard. Abuse of power in public offices, excesses in
elections and floorcrossing after elections to get into power are major afflictions of the political process over
the years. Large, illegal and illegitimate expenditure in elections is another root cause of corruption.

TRANSPARENCY IN GOVERNANCE
The civil services must constitute the basic fabric in the process of nation building and our quest to promote
excellence in public service. A clean civil service is the key to the well being of society. Civil servants must maintain
the highest standards of personal integrity and probity in public life. They must be the drivers to create
transparent and accountable systems of governance. The PM emphasizing the importance of ethics in
governance recently said:
As a society, we must evolve to a level where probity becomes a way of life, where honesty is a routine
expectation. If we have integrity, then nothing else matters, if we don’t have integrity then also nothing else
matters. I firmly believe that we must set personal standards of integrity as public servants and messages
should flow from the top downwards and not the other way round. The values of integrity, impartiality and
merit remain the guiding principles of our civil services.
• The civil service also needs to be politically neutral today. The independence which the civil servants
enjoyed earlier must be restored. Interference in day to day functioning of officers, arbitrary transfers and
postings etc. are sources of conflict and are not in public interest. It is necessary to spell out the relationship
between the political executive and bureaucracy in a comprehensive manner. Security of tenure to allow
the bureaucracy to function independently and objectively must be granted.
• Judiciary is an important institution in the fight against corruption. However, the judicial process in India
takes a long time and immediate steps need to be taken to arrest further delays. Reforms in appointment
of members of judiciary must be brought out. A National Judicial Council should be constituted, in line with
universally accepted principles where the appointment of members of the judiciary should be by a collegium
having representation of the executive, legislature and judiciary.

VALUE OF PUBLIC OPINION

Nothing is as important as education, and educated public can play a vital role in reforming the system and
restraining corruption. A vigilant public would insist on openness in government and assert their importance in
the affairs of state. It is not difficult to achieve a reasonably honest society if there is greater education and some
amount of pressure from the electorate. Public opinion can be shaped by the media-both print and electronic
and also by NGOs.
• NGOs can play an important role in mobilizing citizens and educating them about their rights and
responsibilities. They are instrumental in sensitizing the people about the dangers of corruption and also help
in taking effective action to check corruption. The successful initiatives of some of the civil society groups
underscore the criticality of educating people and raising their awareness to fight corruption.
• A free media can be a potent medium in highlighting instances of corruption, misconduct and declining ethical
values. In recent times we have also seen how investigative journalism has come to the forefront in trying to
expose corruption be it the on-camera recording of acceptance of bribery, the high profile human trafficking
case or the recent case of collusion between the prosecutor and the defender lawyer in a high profile
 case.

SYSTEMIC REFORMS
Systemic reforms are required to improve systems and processes to bring in transparency and increase
accountability. The government apparatus must be modernized. Large chunks of government money in the
developmental programmes create opportunities to people wanting to exploit the system.
• The multiplicity of layers in decision making process, complex procedures and outdated rules and regulations
contribute to corruption and need urgent reforms. Simplification of rules and procedures must be brought out
so that the scope of corruption is reduced.
• Simpler administrative process will reduce hassles for common man and reduce scope for corruption.
Opportunity for corruption is greater in a system with excessive discretion in the hands of the official
machinery. Such opportunities can be curbed by maximizing transparency in the system and introducing strict
accountability for actions. Public administration should be open to public scrutiny.
• Transparency ensures equity. It helps in reducing discretion to favour influential people. Transparency and
integrity should be fostered in government contracts and in public bidding at all levels. E-governance initiatives
like the electronic voting, e-seva in Andhra Pradesh, computerization of land records (Bhoomi project
in Karnataka), computerization of the railway reservations have helped in reducing the scope for
malpractices and bring greater transparency.
• Liberalization in certain areas has resulted in the withdrawal of the government from areas where it used to
be dominant. Liberalization aids competition and competition promotes good governance. Therefore,
introduction of an element of competition is a useful tool to check corruption.
• Further, the people must be empowered by ensuring accessibility to information, facilities and rights
available to them. RTI has been a success story to bring accountability for public actions and promote ethical
values.
• Auditors are one of the main gatekeepers of financial probity. Framers of the Constitution in practically all
democracies of the world have created a role for Public Audit as being the cornerstone on which the credibility
of government is built up in the eyes of the polity.
• Public audit provides independent assurance to all stakeholders that audited institutions have complied with
the intent of the Legislature as well as the orders of the Executive. An effective audit strengthens governance
by providing for accountability and protecting the core values of government. Public audit helps in bringing
transparency in operations of the government and bringing to light improprieties committed by persons
holding high positions.
• In order to ensure adequate coordination between institutions involved in combating fraud and corruption,
cases of fraud and misappropriation are also referred to vigilance authorities for investigation.

A NEW ETHOS
• Holders of public office should be accountable to the public for their actions. Integrity in public
administration cannot be compromised at any cost. Public service institutions are expected to manage their
affairs in accordance with a public service ethos, based on a distinct set of values and the highest ethical
standards of probity and propriety.
• The nation is poised on the path of rapid development. We are on the threshold of being an economic super
power. This progress has been due to the diligence, resilience and commitment of our people. We need to
strive harder. And indoing so let none impede our efforts by seeking shortcuts for self aggrandizement. Since
our time in world history has come, each one of us needs to take up the challenge to make this great country
of ours more prosperous, more progressive and a model in probity.

*********
 CHAPTER 18: COMBATING
CORRUPTION IN PUBLIC LIFE
TOWARDS A MULTI - PRONGED STRATEGY
AN ecological approach to the understanding of the sources and dynamics of corruption presupposes a multi -
pronged strategy of containing corruption in public life.
• It is not possible in any short treatise to dwell upon all the possible strategies for combating corruption, since
a holistic analysis would demand a focus on socio- cultural, economic, political, administrative, legal, judicial
and even technological aspects of reforms in the governance system. Hence. only a few significant aspects
are being dealt with in this paper.
• The literature on combating corruption is replete with ideas for transforming the institutional structure of
society. Broadly, the following themes find place in the contemporary Indian literature on effecting integrity
in public systems:
a) Socio-cultural transformation is the key to any change in the ethical conduct of political and
administrative leadership and even the people at large.
b) Election system needs reforms. It has to be made less expensive and more rational. Donations to political
parties should be more transparent and laws governing political parties should be made stricter.
c) People with high integrity alone should be recruited by parties for membership and leadership positions.
d) The system of transfers should be regulated by law, the scope of arbitrariness in promotions and in
disciplinary action should be minimized.
e) In governmental decision-making involving appointments, grants, privileges, subsidies and other
benefits, discretion should be minimized.
f) To mitigate the adverse impact of politician-administrator nexus, important decisions, particularly those
having high financial stakes and implications, should be taken or reviewed at the level of the Chief
Secretary, Chief Minister, Cabinet Secretary, Prime Minister and the Cabinet.
A few other suggestions for challenging corruption in public life are discussed in the following sections.

CONSTITUTIONAL STATUS TO OMBUDSMAN

AND CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSIONER
In 1966, the Administrative Reforms Commission of India had recommended the appointment of two-tier
Ombudsman type authorities at the Central and state levels in India to prevent misuse of discretion and corruption
by politicians as well as administrators.
• So far, the central authority, to be known as Lok Pal has not been set up, despite six attempts to create it
through parliamentary legislation. A bill is still pending in the Parliament which is designed to establish a multi-
headed powerful body, based on the experience of Scandinavian countries, Britian and other ·countries.
• Likewise the Central Vigilance Commissioner, who currently is playing a visibly effective role, can prove to be
penetrating and profound in impact, in case it is provided a constitutional status. The Indian experience
underscores that constitutional authorities such as the Comptroller and Auditor General of India and the
Chief Election Commission can create a discernible impact on the functioning of the governance system.
There is little doubt that with constitutional teeth, CVC, Lok Pal and Lok Ayuktas will prove to be
efficacious’.
Sectoral Ombudsmen
• Even when a Lok Pal is appointed and the Lok Ayuktas start functioning effectively, it may not be possible
for these authorities to tackle all the complaints and grievances received by them. In India, where the level
of satisfaction from government agencies is low and where these agencies are not trusted substantially for
their fairness and integrity, the number of petitions from the common man are bound to be phenomenal
in number.
 • There has to be therefore a filtering process which facilitates the handling of grievances at the more
appropriate functional levels. Therefore, it would be prudent to create sectoral ombudsmen in crucial
operational areas of governance, particularly those which are at the cutting edge level. It may be suggested
that sectoral ombudsmen may be created for the power sector, water supply, railways, road transport,
postal services, telecommunication, police, insurance etc.
• The experience of Banking Ombudsman, set up a few years ago, has been more than satisfactory. The
need is to extend this institutional pattern to other areas. There would be no need for any constitutional
amendment for this purpose. Only enabling laws will have to be framed. These sectoral ombudsmen, on
the British and the Scandinavian pattern, will help in improving the citizen administration relationship and
trust at the cutting edge level and in containing corruption at the most basic level of government
functioning.

ENHANCING EFFECTIVENESS OF THE LEGAL AND THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM

While the complicated and confusing laws should give way to fool-proof legislations, which should be least likely
to be misused by the culprits, the judicial system must become active to prevent further erosion of national ethos
and ethics. An unethical society’s decline is bound to lead to its inevitable fall. History is testimony to the fact that
no corrupt society has ever flourished.

Criminal law is more effective if criminal case are disposed of quickly. Presently, in the Indian courts, including
the special courts for hearing anti-corruption cases, the quantum of pendency is high. It might be a rational step
to introduce shift system in the courts. In the second shift, retired judges and judicial officers whose reputation is
high, may be appointed on a contractual basis.
The performance of special courts that have been constituted under the provisions of the Prevention of
Corruption Act of 1988 should also be reviewed with a view to make these institutions more efficient, and
effective. These could be made real fast-track courts. An alternative judicial system in the form of administrative
tribunals could also be strengthened.
During the British times, an awareness of the importance of curbing corruption through legal means had become
manifest through Section 161 of the Indian Penal Code of 1860, which defines corruption as the acceptance of
any gratification whatever, other than legal remuneration, as a motive or reward for doing or forbearing to do any
official act or for showing or forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person, or rendering or attempting to
render any service or disservice to any person. Thus, bribe-taking and favouritism were treated as the main corrupt
activities under the Indian Penal Code.
International experience shows that strict legal, judicial and administrative control measures can help in mitigating
corruption. If corruption is made a high-risk activity and if a corrupt person has substantial chances of being
caught, punished and even jailed, such risks are bound to act as deterrents to corruption.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROTECTION TO WHISTLEBLOWERS

The Constitution Review Commission of India should recommend provisions for protecting whistleblowers
who sound the alarm of serious malpractices, corruption or fraudulent activity in government or public sector
organizations. On the pattern of the USA, Britain, Australia and Canada, such a protection will encourage personnel
in government with good conscience to stand up and expose the wrongdoing without fear of being victimized.
Such a law, which could be called the Public Interest Disclosure Act will help promote probity and integrity in
public life.
Though the American law extends to the private sector as well, the Indian legaligation could be modeled on the
Australian pattern under which whistleblowers in the government or public sector will be covered. The proposed
law under consideration of the Constitution Review Commission envisages that a whistleblower can report his
public interest concern to a “regulator”, who will be an authority independent of the organization concerned.
Under the present scheme of things, the Chief Vigilance Commission could be such a “regulator”.
Such a legal measure will encourage whistleblowers to raise their voice internally, i.e. within the organization
before going to a regulator. The media will also gain encouragement form such a legislation to play a constructive
role in cleansing public life. Here it may be mentioned that the Nolan Committee of Britain used the term
‘whistleblowing’ to mean the confidential raising of problems within an organization or within an independent
review structure associated with the organization, not in popular pejorative sense of leaking information to the
media. The Nolan perspective would be feasible even for India, for it will check the clandestine leaking of
information by an employee to media, but would not restrict the media to play its useful role on its own.

AMENDMENT OF ARTICLE 311 OF THE CONSTITUTION

The inquiry and disciplinary procedures relating to the conduct of civil servants of the Central as well as state
governments are subject to Article 311 of the Constitution of India. Article 311(2), as amended after the
Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976, lays down that no person who is a member of a civil service
of the Union or an all-India service or a civil service of a state or holds a civil post under the Union or a state shall
be dismissed or removed or reduced in rank “except after an inquiry in which he has been informed of the charges
against him and given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in respect of those charges.” Prior to the Forty-
second Amendment, the whole procedure followed under Article 311 was so cumbersome that it generally went
in favour of the accused. As the Santhanam Committee had remarked “Article 311 of the Constitution as
interpreted by our courts had made it very difficult to deal effectively with corrupt public servants.” The
constitutional provisions were abused by the accused and this led to a reluctance on the part of the superior
authorities to initiate and take strict action against their subordinates who were suspected to be guilty of
misconduct or corruption. It was during the Emergency that an amendment to Article 311 was introduced, which,
after permitting a “reasonable” opportunity to the accused, laid down :
Provided that where it is proposed after such an inquiry, to impose upon him any such penalty, such penalty
may be imposed on the basis of the evidence adduced during such inquiry and it shall not be necessary to give
such person any opportunity of making representation on the penalty proposed.
Overall, Article 311 can cause an indefinite protraction of the disciplinary procedure. Experts feel that in India. the
opportunity given to a civil servant to defend himself in case of penalty imposed on him is much more than found
in most advanced countries of the world, including the United States. Experience shows that over- security in
service to a civil servant encourages complacency and even misconduct. It is in this context that jurist P.P. Rao
suggests that Article 311 should be amended so as to facilitate the termination of service of civil [Link] of
doubtful integrity on payment of some compensation without an inquiry. Essential safeguards, however, should
be ensured so that the power of termination is lodged at a very high level, with checks and balances to prevent
its misuse or abuse.

STREAMLINING INVESTIGATION AND PROSECUTION

Presently, at the Central as well as the state levels, there are a number of investigating agencies dealing with cases
of corruption. Prominent among them are the Central Vigilance Commission, State Vigilance Commission, CBI,
Anti-Corruption Departments, etc. There is a clear lack of coordination among the myriad investigating agencies
engaged in anti-corruption operations. Hence, there should be set up a nodal agency to coordinate the functioning
of parallel investigative bodies. Such a body, as the Vohra Committee hoped, would help muster adequate
evidence against the accused through a coordinated functioning of these agencies. Certain reforms in this respect
are in the offing while others have been initiated.
There are frequent delays by the competent government authorities in according permission to the investigation
agencies to prosecute the accused public employees as per legal provisions. This unnecessarily lengthens the
process of prosecution. Sometimes, such permission is even denied to the prosecution agencies. For instance, the
Central Bureau of Investigation, responsible for investigating cases under the Prevention of Corruption Act
registered 110 corruption cases between 1969 and 1996 against IAS officers. Less than three percent lost their
jobs. Paradoxically, permission for prosecution by the government was not granted in 30 per cent of these cases,
which is required under section 197 of the Criminal Procedure Code in case of government officers. It is time that
serious thought was given to the amendment of Section 197.
Further, the Vohra Committee set up by the Home Ministry of the Government of India to investigate the nexus
between crime syndicates and politicians, observed that senior investigating and revenue service chiefs were
unwilling to express their views for they did not believe that the government was actually committed to check
criminalization of politics. This demoralized the investigating agencies and discouraged them to pursue the
corrupt. The trend must be checked. The solution lies in granting autonomy to the investigating agencies and
giving a fixed tenure to the chiefs of these agencies. Already steps are being taken to ensure stability of tenure to
the chief executives of these agencies under the direction of the Supreme Court. The need is to carry forward this
practice to the state level agencies.
In February, 2001, the Central Vigilance Commissioner, N. Vittal had directed the Chief Vigilance Officers of all
organizations to initiate parallel departmental proceedings independent of the court proceedings. As the
procedure of investigating agencies is time-consuming and the proceedings of courts are slow and tardy, this delay
gives benefit to the people and agencies accused of corruption. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and
other anti-corruption agencies, including the state police organizations have been directed to forward case
documents to respective CVOs within two months of commencement of open investigation. After receiving
the document, CVOs will have to appoint a commission of inquiry. This will undoubtedly hasten the process of
investigation.

TRANSPARENCY AND RIGHT TO INFORMATION

Most corruption is an upshot of secrecy and avowed confidentiality in the conduct of government affairs. Laws
relating to official secrecy in India particularly the Official Secrets Act of 1923, have resulted into inaccessibility of
information about and knowledge of government policies, rules, regulations, decisions, accounts and
discretionary acts.” Little wonder, most citizens are unable to obtain justice at the hands of manipulative and
‘intelligent’ bureaucrats. The Official Secrets Act of 1923 is a replica of the British Act of 1911 as amended in 1920.
The provisions of the section 5 of the Act are so comprehensive that almost all information about the government
can qualify to be categorized as an official secret. Still, worse, nowhere the words ‘secret’ or ‘official secret’ have
been defined in the Act, thus giving a lot of leeway to the civil servants to interpret the provisions of the law for
their defence. Thus, the Official Secrets Act is a convenient smokescreen to deny the public even legitimate access
to government information.

STRENGTHENING THE ETHICAL COMPONENT OF HRD

It is unfortunate that currently a large number of fresh entrants to the all-India, Central and State service explicitly
accept that their main aim of entering civil service is to gain power, wealth and status. Means are relegated to
background.
• Values or morality do not count much for a good number of civil servants. Resultantly, even when training of
civil servants has a component of values in its package, it has hardly any impact on these probationers’ mind-
set. Devoid of ethics, public service becomes an instrument of unbridled lust for money and power.
• Exceptions are always there. Quite a few young men and women even today enter the civil services with a
sense of idealism to serve the poor and to do their job with honesty and commitment.
• Nevertheless, in the absence of supportive and encouraging seniors (and political leaders), they tend to fight
a lonely battle, occasionally lose it, and then compromise with the reality and eventually get sucked up
by the powerful system.
• When idealist civil servants, in the initial phase of their career, decline to succumb to the unfair demands of
immoral politicians, they (the civil servants) are humiliated and transferred to unattractive positions.
• These civil servants, in a state of shock and confusion, generally give in to external pressures and sooner than
later, their fire of idealism gets doused and they stop resisting the onslaught of unethical demands.
• Sometimes, they become accomplices to the corrupt practices of their political bosses and even close their
eyes to the illegal gratification of their juniors. As a final step, they start amassing wealth with a vengeance.
Honesty is brutally murdered by a ruthless hostile environment.
In this perspective, it may be advisable to transcend the present system of recruiting civil servants, mainly on the
basis of a written examination and an interview by the public service commission.
• This time-honoured practice only judges the intellectual caliber of a prospective civil servant and not his values
and ethical orientation. As an alternative, recruitment system of higher level civil servants could learn a lesson
or two from the pattern followed by the defence services.
• Accordingly, there should be multi-stage recruitment system where the behaviour, values and psychological
orientations of candidates could be observed and tested by experts in two-to-three days camps focusing on
simulation of actual field situations in administration.
• Long interaction with psychologists and other expert-selectors will unravel the inner-self and external
behavior of individuals much better. The ethical side of a person will become visible to a substantial extent in
such interactive prerecruitment camps.
Further, the induction and in-service training presently imparted to civil servants has hardly any stress on
ethics. This imbalance must be rectified at all levels. The International Association of Schools and Institutes of
Administration (IASIA) has recommended that the instruction of Public Administration should include, inter
alia standards of conduct which prohibit the use of a public office for self-interest and promote respect, fairness
and justice by public officials.
Another point relates to the appraisal of an employee’s performance on the ethical front. There is presently a
column on the ethical conduct of a civil servant in the Annual Performance Appraisal (APA) to be filled in by his
immediate superior. As per rules, in case of an adverse remark in an APA, whether in relation to performance,
probity or. behaviour, it must be communicated to the employee concerned and he or she must be given opportunity
to explain his or her viewpoint. At most times, on the basis of a representation by the aggrieved employee, the
adverse remarks made by his senior officer are expunged. As a result, most reporting officers refrain from recording
adverse remarks on the APA of their juniors, obviating the chances of their opinion being quashed.
In this backdrop, it may be suggested that in the APA, there should be a column on the ethical conduct of a civil
servant, which should be filled by the reporting officer. However, the entry of this column should not be communicated
to the ‘reported’ officer even if the entry is adverse. Thus, this ‘confidential’ entry in APA will reflect the ethical
standards of an employee. Over the years, the ethical profile of a civil servant would be formulated through such
entries. Though no immediate disadvantage would occur to an employee on account of such entries, yet while
making placements to ‘sensitive’ positions, this profile can be an important reference point.

TONING UP ADMINISTRATIVE EFFECTIVENESS

Several years ago, Gunnar Myrdal in his Asian Drama had branded India a “Soft State”. There is excessive leniency
and complacency in the execution of laws in India and even in general administrative practices. Superior officers
rarely exercise supervision over subordinates with effectiveness. And, there is too much of acceptance of the
deviation from and violation of laws and rules. Greater tightening of the administrative system would help ensure
accountability of the junior towards their seniors.
Corruption is not always taken recourse to get something done which is apparently illegal. In a large number of
cases, it takes the form of ‘speed money’ that is intended to expedite administrative decisions or actions. Such
corruption can be controlled through system change in government administration and by ensuring that delays are
minimized in administrative action. Those responsible for delays must be punished through various mechanisms.
A question arises as to why have a number of investigating and prosecuting agencies been created to deal with
corruption? Clearly, to fill a gap that exists in the administrative system per se. Leslie Plamer rightly remarks that
the compulsions to create these various institutions is a testimony to the fact that the heads of departments have
fallen short in fulfilling their responsibility of supervision. In the early 1970s, Prakash Tandon, former Chairman of
the Punjab National Bank, had remarked that proper supervision by senior officials over their junior colleagues
would obviate the need for any drastic administrative reforms.
The Central government and a few state governments have also taken up simplification of laws, rules and
procedures for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of their institutions. Over forty departments of the
Union government have set up task forces or have initiated internal exercises. The assumption behind this move
is Greater the simplification of procedures, more the efficiency and less the corruption. However, it appears that
the efforts made in this direction are superficial. It is ironical that in a country beset with a high degree of illiteracy,
most of the application forms and other memoranda are printed in English or in complex vernacular language.
Resultantly, a common man is unable to understand and comprehend the contents of forms of applications that
he is expected to fill and sign. A gullible and innocent person can be easily taken for a ride by the more intelligent
middleman or agents. There is a clear need, therefore, to simplify all applications in simple vernacular language
and besides, on the American pattern, it should be legally specified that the information sought on any
government from is absolutely essential.
Likewise, there is need for simplification of procedures involved in tendering, licensing, purchasing, land-sale, land
allotment, maintenance of land records, taxation, excise and other aspects of government regulations. Self-
assessment ought to be made the rule of revenue administration.
Mentioned above in brief, are a few measures that can be helpful in containing corruption in public life in India.
Though a holistic approach will be ideal in tackling the menace of corruption, one cannot wait for all the strategies
to synchronize simultaneously. Therefore, incremental and segmented approaches may have to be taken recourse
to, but even these ought to be consistent and continuous.

2nd ARC RECOMMENDATIONS TO COMBAT CORRUPTION

The Second Administrative Reforms Commission in its fourth report entitled Ethics in Governance (2007) has
perceived ‘Ethics’ as the set of standards society places on itself and helps to guide behaviour, choices and action.
The commission regrets that it is unfortunate that corruption has, for many, become a matter of habit, ranging
from ‘grand’ corruption to ‘retail’ corruption. If good behaviour is consistently rewarded and bad behaviour is
consistently punished, the bulk of the people follow the straight and narrow path. In matters of ethics, both values
and institutions matter. Values need to be sustained by the institutions; otherwise they will be weakened and
dissipated.
The SARC is of the view that in India, corruption and abuse of office has been aggravated by the following three
factors:
1. Colonial legacy of unchallenged authority and propensity to exercise power arbitrarily. Power is worshipped
in India.
2. Enormous asymmetry in the Indian society. Approximately 90 per cent of our workforce is in the unorganized
sector. Notably, 70 per cent of the organized workers with job security and regular monthly wage are
employed by the state directly or through public sector undertakings. The educated, economically better- off
and the powerful are a minority but they rule over the illiterate, the poor and the powerless majority.
3. Since independence, most of the public policies have placed the citizen at the mercy of the state. Over
regulation, excessive state control, monopoly of the government in many sectors and an economy of scarcity
call have created conditions conducive to unbridled corruption.
The SARC has taken a holistic view of ethics and has emphasized the significance of strengthening ethics in
business, all other professions, and civil society organizations. In fact, ethics should be reflected in citizens’
behaviour in all walks oflife. Only then a positive ethical climate can be designed and nurtured.
The SARC is of the opinion that over-centralization, diffuses accountability and enhances the temptation to abuse
authority. Local government has not been allowed to take roots in India and the weakened citizenry has further
aggravated corruption. Experience shows that decentralization, competition, transparency and technology
mitigate corruption. Further, enforcement of the rule of law and deterrent punishment to the corrupt are critical
to build an ethically sound society.
The quality of politics has a dominant influence on the quality of morality. If politics attracts, give rewards to men
and women of integrity, competence and passion for public good, then society is safe and integrity is maintained.
On the other hand, inexhaustible appetite for illegitimate funds in politics intensifies corruption.
Agenda for Action
The SARC has appreciated the election reforms initiated by the government, the Right to IInformation, e-
governance and automation which have cumulatively proved to be effective in containing corruption. However,
several other measures are needed for mitigating it. Some of these are as follows:
1. Strengthening pro-active vigilance to eliminate corruption.
2. Identifying procedures, rules and regulations and factors that lead to corruption.
3. Code of conduct for political executive and civil servants.
4. Preventing harassment to honest civil servants.
5. Whistle-blower legislation.
6. Limiting executive discretion.
7. Awarding exemplary punishment to the corrupt.
8. Institutional framework for investigative corrupt practices.
9. Prevent economic offences, frauds and money laundering leading to even funding of terrorists.
10. Check black money.
11. Forfeiture of Benami properties and illegally acquired assets.

POLITICAL REFORMS
The SARC has underscored the importance of introducing effective reforms in the political system, some of which
are mentioned below:
1. A system of partial state funding will reduce illegitimate and unnecessary election expenses.
2. The issue of disqualification of members on the ground of defection should be decided by President/
Governor on the advice of the Election Commission.
3. Section 8 of the Representation of People’s Act, 1951 needs to be amended to disqualify all persons facing
charges of grave, heinous offences and corruption.
4. Appointment of Chief Election Commissioner and other Commissioners of Election Commission will be made
by the President on the recommendation of a collegium headed by the Prime Minister and the following
members:
• Speaker of Lok Sabha
• Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha
• Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha
• Law Minister
The Government of India has remarked that the issue of election reforms is being addressed separately hence no
action on the above recommendations has been initiated.
Ethics Code for Ministers
A Code of Ethics to provide guidance on how ministers should uphold the highest standards of constitutional and
ethical conduct should be made. A Code of Ethics, in addition to the Code of Conduct for Ministers that is already
in vogue, should be instituted. Dedicated units in PMO and CMO should monitor the observance of COE and COC.
The Prime Minister and the Chief Minister should be duty-bound to ensure their implementation. Schemes such
as MPLADS (Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme) and MLALADS (Member of Legislature Local
Area Development Scheme) should be abolished. This recommendation has not been accepted by the
Government.
Under the RTI ACT, MPs and MLAs should be declared as ‘Public Authorities’ except when they are discharging
legislative functions. The Government has not considered this recommendation necessary.
A National Judicial Council should be constituted under the Constitution to
• Recommend appointment of SC and HC judges (Not Accepted by the Government).
• Conduct oversight ofjudges, enquire into their alleged misconduct and impose minor penalties (Accepted by
the Government).
• Recommend to the President on removal ofjudges (Not Accepted by the Government).
• Lay down COC for judges, including subordinate judiciary (Accepted by the Government).
The whole issue of judicial reforms is under consideration of the Government of India. As ofmid-2013, no
decision has been taken on this part.
Prevention of Corruption Act
The SARC has recommended that the following should be classified as offences under the Prevention of
Corruption Act:
• Gross perversion of the Constitution and democratic institutions amounting to wilful violation of the oath of
office.
• Abuse of authority unduly favouring or harming someone.
• Obstruction of justice
• Squandering public money
The Government has not accepted this wider view of SARC in defining corruption.
Sanction for Prosecution
Requirement for prior sanction for prosecution under PCA should also apply to retired public servants for acts
performed by them while in service. This recommendation has been accepted by the Government.
For Government of India officials, an Empowered Committee, comprising the CVC and Departmental secretary,
should sanction prosecution. In case where a Secretary is involved in a matter of corruption, the committee would
comprise of the Cabinet Secretary and CVC. This recommendation has not been accepted by the Government.
The SARC has suggested that sanction for prosecution should be given in two months, otherwise reasons for
refusal may be placed before the legislature annually. This recommendation has not been accepted by the
Government.
• Collusive Bribery : An offence could be classified as ‘collusive bribery’ if the outcome or intended outcome of
the transaction leads to a loss to the state, public or public interest. It should be made a part of section 7 of
the Prevention of Corruption Act.
• Punishment for collusive bribery should be double than that of other cases of bribery. (Not accepted by the
Government).
• Liability of Corrupt Public Servants to Pay Damages : In Prevention of Corruption Act, a new chapter should
be added: For acts of corruption, public servants to make good the loss caused to state or citizens and be liable
for damage. The Government has observed that the Comptroller and Auditor General of India may examine
this suggestion.
• Speedy Trials under PCA : The SARC has recommended that CrPC should be amended to provide for fixing a
time limit for various stages of trial. This recommendation has not been accepted by the Government. Special
Judges should be declared under PCA to focus on corruption cases. Day-to-day proceedings should take place
in courts for the PCA cases. The Supreme Court and High Courts should ensure that unwarranted
adjournments and avoidable delays do not take place while dealing with the corruption cases. This
recommendation has been accepted by the Government.
• Private Sector : PCA should be amended to include private sector providers of public utility service and NGOs
receiving substantial fund from government-Rs One crore during any of the preceding three years, or more
than 50 per cent of its annual operating cost. The Government has asked the CAG to examine this matter.
• Confiscation of Property : The Corrupt Public Servants (Forfeiture of Property) Bill as suggested by the Law
Commission should be enacted without further delay. Besides, immediate implementation of the Benami
Transactions (Prohibition) Act 1988 should be effected. Both these recommendations have been accepted by
the Government.
• Whistleblowers : As proposed by the Law Commission, legal protection should be provided to Whistleblowers
exposing false claims, fraud or corruption by ensuring confidentiality and anonymity, protection from
victimization in career, and other administrative measures should be taken to prevent them bodily harm and
harassments. Harassing or victimizing a whistleblowers in retaliation should be considered a criminal offence
with penalty and sentence. Legislation should include corporate Whistle-Blowers as well.
• Protecting Honest Civil Servants : Allegations of corruption should first be investigated through secret
verification! enquiries with the help of experts, if needed. Prosecution is to be instituted only on the basis of
strong evidence. Profiling of officers should be undertaken and referred to before proceeding against them.
A special investigation unit should be attached to the proposed Rashtriya Lokayuktal Lokayuktal Vigilance
Commission to investigate allegation of corruption against investigating agencies. The Government has
accepted the above recommendation and a bill is already before the Parliament.
• Serious Economic Offences : Anew law on Serious Economic Offences should be enacted. A SEO involves a
sum exceeding Rs. 10 crore, or is likely to give rise to widespread public concern, requires specialized financial
knowledge for investigation and prosecution, or involves significant international dimension, and appears
to be complex to the union government and financial institutions. This recommendation has been accepted by
the Government.
• Constitutional Protection to Civil Servants : Articles 310 and 311 ofthe constitution should be repealed.
Instead, suitable legislation to provide for all necessary terms and conditions of service should be
provided under Article 309 to protect the bonafide actions of public servants against arbitrary action in Article
309. This recommendation has not been accepted by the Government.
• The Rashtriya Lokayukta : A constitutional authority, Rashtriya Lokayukta, should be appointed. Its role and
jurisdiction should be defined in the constitution. Its composition, mode of appointment etc. should be
determined through a parliamentary legislation.
• State Lokayuktas : A State Lokayukta should be a constitutional [Link] member of this multi-
member body should be its chairperson.
• Ombudsman for Local Bodies : A Local Bodies Ombudsman should be constituted for a group of districts to
investigate cases against the functionaries of local bodies. The state Panchayati Raj Act and the Urban Local
Bodies Act should be amended accordingly. It should report to competent authorities for action. When action
is not taken as per recommendation, reason should be made public.

• Strengthening Investigation and Prosecution : The State Vigilance Commissioner/ Lokayuktas may be
empowered to supervise the prosecution in corruption related cases. Its investigative agencies should acquire
multi- disciplinary skills and should be conversant with the working of various offices/departments. They
should draw officials from various departments.
• Citizens’ Initiative : Citizen’s charters should be made effective. Besides, citizens should be involved in the
assessment and maintenance of ethics in important government institutions and offices. Further, rewards
should be instituted to incentivise citizens’ initiatives. Moreover, school awareness programmes on the
importance of ethics and combating corruption should be conducted. The Government has accepted this
recommendation.
CONCLUSION
• The foregoing analysis makes it clear that administrative corruption is rooted in administrative as well as non-
administrative sources. The need is to catalogue all the possible factors impinging on the problem of
corruption and then tackle those which fall within the zone of feasibility.
• Here again would be short-term as well as long-term measures. Rationality requires that both sets of measures
should be initiated concurrently in a planned manner.
• What is perhaps a most significant priority in the battle against corruption is to initiate and sustain systemic
as well as systematic administrative reforms which can directly or indirectly contribute to the mitigation of
corruption.
• In a country like India, where the level of literacy is low and the share of rural population is very high,
administrative procedures require maximum possible simplification: less comprehensible procedures lead
to over-dependence on the bureaucracy. Therefore all developmental programmes and schemes should
be explained to the beneficiaries in the language comprehensible to them and, along with this, the procedures
for obtaining benefits of government programmes must also be explicated. The purpose is to ‘educate’ the
vulnerable citizens and to guard them against exploitation rooted in ignorance. Education and alertness also
act as antidotes to corruption.

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 CHAPTER 19: CONTROLLING
ELECTORAL CORRUPTION IN INDIA
While democracy begins with a set of fundamental principles of liberty and equality, it presupposes certain
regulative ideals that need to be reflected in institutional arrangements and procedures. One of these is the
election related expenditure and consequent accountability of stakeholders, particularly the political parties
and their contesting candidates. Indian citizens are increasingly impatient with corruption and many quite
correctly feel that elections are the starting point of corruption.
INDIAN DEMOCRACY stands out as a model for many emerging democratic countries around the world. Free
and fair elections are the hallmark of a well functioning democracy. While we are justifiably proud of our
democracy, there are a number of areas that need to be strengthened for us to realise the true potential of a well
functioning democracy. Our election system, starting from the selection of candidates, to the manner in which
funds are raised and spent in election campaigns, does call for significant changes.
There has been a growing concern over the years in India about several aspects of our electoral system. The
Election Commission has made changes in
several areas to respond to some of the
concerns and made a number of
recommendations for electoral reforms. But
there remain some critical issues that might
need legislative action to bring about the
required changes.
The foremost challenge before the Election
Commission is how to control corruption in
elections that corrodes the values of free, fair
and participative democracy, authorisation
and representation and ultimately the profile
of our legislatures. There are various
provisions in the Constitution,
Representation of the People Act, 1951,
Indian Penal Code 1861 to check corrupt
practices resorted to during elections.
The following activities are already defined
as corrupt practices in connection with
elections:
• Bribery, i.e., any gift, offer or promise to
a person to stand or not to stand or
withdraw or not to withdraw from election or to vote or refrain from voting during election.
• Undue influence or threat to free exercise of electoral right
• Appeal based on communal or sectarian angle or by use of national symbols
• Promoting enmity amongst various classes or communities
• Glorification of sati
• False statements relating to personal character or conduct of any candidate reasonably calculated to
prejudice the prospects of that candidate’s election
• Use of vehicles for transporting voters
• Incurring expenditure over limits prescribed or not maintaining account as prescribed
• Taking assistance of government servants for
furtherance of the prospects of some candidate’s
election
• Booth capturing.
A “Model Code of Conduct” has been evolved by the
Commission with the consent and consensus of all the
political parties. This was evolved to ensure free and fair
elections by providing level playing field for all political
parties and candidates.
By and large, the Commission has been enforcing the model
code successfully. This code comes into force immediately on
the announcement of elections. Generally, all political parties
and contesting candidates adhere to the model code.
Wherever violations of the model code have been noticed or
have been reported to have taken place, the Commission has
initiated and enforced corrective action. The model code has
thus helped in ensuring a level playing field for all political
parties and candidates.
It may be pertinent to mention that in the enforcement of the
model code, the media in general has cooperated with and helped the Commission. The media has reported
whenever violations of model code have taken place which has helped the Commission to take quick, corrective
and preventive actiori against violations of the model code.
The Commission has taken various measures to check corruption:
• Apointment of senior officers of Administrative Service from other states and Revenue Service Officers of
Central Government as Observers to act impartially as ears and eyes of the Commission, without any influence
of the state government, appointment of micro-observers in critical and sensitive polling stations who remain
stationed in those polling stations throughout the period when poll is taken, videography of critical events of
the election process and also at hypersensitive and sensitive polling stations to the extent possible.
• Videography of proceedings inside the polling stations was earlier not permitted. In deference to the
observation of the Hon’ble Supreme Court, in Civil Appeal No. 9228 of2003 (Janak Singh vs Ram Das Rai
and others) now videography of the poll proceedings is also permitted inside the polling stations without
compromising the secrecy of individual voter.
• The advanced technology of webcasting is now used to show live the proceedings of poll directly from the
identified polling stations. Videography team is also tagged to monitor movement and activities of candidates
with doubtful! criminal records, meetings addressed! attended by ministers, top national, state level leaders
of recognised parties, inducement! bribing of voters by distribution of items like saree, dhoti, blanket, etc.,
vulgar display of expenditure like huge cutouts, etc.
All these steps by the Commission have to a large extent checked corruption during the elections.
However, the financing of elections has become a major issue. It is widely believed that the cost of fighting
elections has reached far above the legal spending limits. This has resulted in lack of transparency, widespread
corruption, and the pervasiveness of the so-called ‘black money’. The Commission has made proposals on issues
like disclosure and audit of assets and liabilities of candidates and parties, reporting and inspection of election
expenses, voters’ education, etc.
All these approaches yielded positive results in curbing corruption. The Investigation Directorates of Income
Tax Department were associated to keep vigil over the movements of large sums of cash through airports, hotels,
farm houses and also to watch the financial brokers/ hawala operators.
The Commission took some extraordinary measures starting last year to deal with the corrupt phenomenon of
“Paid News”-that seeks to circumvent the ceiling on election expenditure and also cause undue influence on
the voters by camouflaging political advertisements as
news.
• The menace has been engaging the attention of
Parliament, government, political parties, media,
Press Council, etc. for a long time.
• The Commission responded to the situation by
constituting vigilance committees at district and
state levels to account for such practices.
• In the election in Bihar and also in the recent five
elections, a large number of notices have been
issued in reported cases of paid news.
• The Commission is now involved in creating a policy to deal with politically aligned broadcast and
publication during election times which disturb the level playing field.
Besides the above, the Commission has proposed electoral reforms, which will bring transparency in the electoral
system. These, inter alia, include prescribing ceiling on the election expenditure by the political parties, annual
auditing and public disclosure of accounts by the political parties, making bribery of voters a cognizable offence
and restrictions on fund-raising by party functionaries and barring the persons convicted of heinous crimes
from contesting elections. The Commission has simultaneously embarked on extensive voter education
programmes and associated the citizens’ forum for propagating ethical standards in voting.
The Election Commission would like to see the following major reforms in our electoral system:
(i) De-criminalization of politics-Under the present law, there is a disqualification against a person convicted
by the court. But, during the pendency of the trial, there is no bar against contesting election. The
Commission has been suggesting that there should be a disqualification even during pendency of trial
provided the offence is punishable by imprisonment of five years or more and the court has framed charges.
This proposal if accepted and the law amended suitably will address the issue of criminalization of politics
to a large extent.
(ii) Bring radical changes in the provisions
regarding receipts of funds by political
parties and the manner in which such
funds are spent by them so as to
provide for complete transparency in
the matter of source of income and
spending on elections by the political
parties. The accounts of political parties
should be got audited by the auditors
approved by the CAG. The audited
accounts should then be placed in public
domain.
(iii) “Paid News” in connection with elections should be listed in the category of the electoral malpractices, with
stringent punishment. The Commission has suggested a provision for punishment by minimum of two
years’ imprisonment.
(iv) The candidates are required to disclose their
criminal antecedents and their assets and
liabilities in an affidavit when they file their
nomination. In order to ensure proper
compliance with the disclosure requirement,
the punishment for suppressing information or
for giving false information should be more
stringent. The Commission has recommended
that Section 125A be amended so that there is
more stringent punishment of minimum two-
year imprisonment for concealing or providing
wrong information in the affidavits.
(v) Advertisements of achievements by
ministries/ departments should be
prohibited during the period of six months
before the date on which the term of the House
(Lok Sabha or Legislative Assembly as the case
may be) is due to expire.
(vi) There should be complete prohibition on campaign during the last 48 hours before the close of poll. At
present the ban is not applicable to campaigning through print media and also the candidates making house
to house contact with the electors. The house to house visits during this crucial period provide an opportunity
for indulging in corrupt practice of bribing the voters with cash. The Commission wants that its
recommendation about Section 126 banning any type of campaign should apply to the print media as well,
and house to house visits by candidates/supporters should be specifically prohibited during the said 48 hour
period.
(vii) False declaration in connection with elections to be an offence-Section 31 of the Representation of People
Act, 1951, contains a provision providing for punishment with imprisonment up to one year for making a
false declaration in connection with preparation! revision of electoral roll. There is no such provision in
the RPAct, 1951, in relation to conduct of elections. During the course of an election, the Election Commission
has observed several cases of such false statements/ declarations before the election authorities by
candidates, political parties, etc. A provision for punishment for false statement! declaration would be a
deterrent against frivolous complaints and petitions. Thus, the Commission has recommended that there
should be a provision for penal action against those making any false declarations in connection with an
election. Such a provision would provide for a similar punishment for false declarations in connection with
conduct of elections, such as false complaints of booth capturing or false complaints about the conduct of
election officials.
(viii) Punishment for electoral offences to be enhanced-Undue influence and bribery at elections are electoral
offences under Sections 171 B and 171 C, respectively, of the IPC. These offences are non-cognizable
offences, with punishment provision of one year’s imprisonment, or fine, or both. Under Section 171G,
publishing a false statement in connection with an election with intent to affect the result of the election
is only punishable with a fine. Section 171H provides that incurring or authorising expenditure for promoting
the election prospects of a candidate is an offence. However, punishment for an offence under this Section
is a small fine of Rs. 500. Thus, the Commission feels that considering the gravity of the offences under the
aforesaid Sections in the context of free and fair elections, the punishments under all the four Sections should
be enhanced. This was recommended by the Commission in 1992.
These are just some of the many recommendations for electoral reforms made by the Commission.
o There have been demands from the political parties to enhance the existing ceiling on election expenses
for the various legislative bodies. This ceiling may be further rationalised in due course of time.
 o Election Commission of India (ECI) has increased the expenditure limits for candidates, contesting in
Lok Sabha and Legislative assembly polls. The election commission has hiked the poll expenditure limit
up to ₹95 lakh for the Lok Sabha elections. Earlier, a candidate was allowed to spend up to ₹70 lakh.
For the state assembly elections, the expenditure limit has been enhanced to ₹40 lakh from ₹28 lakh.
o latest expenditure revision for the Lok Sabha elections for bigger states has been raised by 35%--
from ₹70 lakh to ₹90 lakh. On the other hand, for small states, the revised expenditure limit increased
by 38%--from ₹54 lakh to ₹65 lakh.
o In the case of states assembly election, the revised poll expenditure limit for candidates will now be
₹40 lakh for the large states, up 42% from ₹28 lakh. Whereas, candidates in smaller states will be able
to spend a maximum of ₹28 lakh--40% higher than the previous limit of ₹20 lakh.
• The first and the foremost reform that we would like to see is to prevent persons with criminal background
from becoming legislators. The other important reforms should be: empowerment of the Commission to
issue guidelines regulating registration and de-registration of political parties, making ‘paid news’ an
electoral offence, increasing the period of punishment for electoral offences, punishment for false affidavit
by candidates along with nomination.
• For de-criminalization of
politics, the Commission has
sent proposal to the
government for disqualifying a
person against whom charges
have been framed by a court for
an offence punishable by
imprisonment of five years or
more from contesting election.
Recently, the Commission, in
response to a Bill drafted by the
Government to prevent persons
against whom charges concerning heinous offences like murder, rape, dacoity, kidnapping, sedition, etc.
have been framed by a court, from entering election fray has proposed inclusion of a few more serious
offences that are mentioned in sub-section (1) of Section 8 of RP Act, 1951.
o In sum, it can be stated with some satisfaction that the Election Commission of India has travelled a good
distance in dealing with corruption in the electoral arena. This has been recognised globally. Muscle power
and incumbency power that could take the sheen off our electoral achievements are matters of the past. The
next hurdle is the influence of money power. The ECI has resolved to fight this out and cleanse the Indian
election system of this corruption sooner than later.

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 CHAPTER 20: PUBLIC SERVICE
DELIVERY SYSTEM

PUBLIC SERVICE
Public service is defined as the service performed for the benefit of the public, especially by a nonprofit
organization. Why, in the public’s view, do we have public services? The alternative not having public services
– seems to be unthinkable and even alarming for many people. Citizens feel that public services help to level
the playing field in an otherwise unequal society.
In modern, developed countries, the term public services often include:
• Electricity • Education • Environmental protection
• Fire service • Gas • Health care
• Law enforcement • Military • Public broadcasting
• Public library • Public security
Historically, the widespread provision of public services in developed countries usually began in the late
nineteenth century, often with the municipal development of gas and water services. Later, other services such
as electricity and healthcare began to be provided by governments.
The public:
• want public services to be based on notions of the public good, rather than just what’s good for me;
• understand the public good largely in terms of universalism, with equality of access to benefits;
• are prepared, with prompting, to consider types of equality that relate to outcomes rather than access;
• see more potential in playing a strong adult role in public service development locally rather than nationally; and
• struggle to see a compelling or urgent case for reforming public services to cope with economic pressures
and social changes, and divide evenly on whether to support service cuts or tax rises.
PEOPLE’S PRIORITIES FOR PUBLIC SERVICES
The key priority for the public is ensuring that a good basic standard of services is available locally. Fairness is
seen as important in delivering this but this does not preclude greater help being available for those more in need.
There are also different types of fairness that are important to the public.
Much research focus on fairness in terms of universal provision, but evidence suggests that fairness in outcomes
is also viewed as important, and fairness is also valued for its perceived social benefits.
• A number of factors that drive satisfaction with customer service across public services can be identified:
delivery, timeliness, information provision, professionalism and staff attitude. However, the importance
of different factors can-also vary for different types of service; in health, for example, being treated with
dignity and respect is seen as especially important by the public.
• More local control, personalisation and choice are seen as less vital as ends in themselves. The public say
these are important when asked directly but if they have to make tradeoffs then they prioritise core service
standards over these principles.
• Accountability is seen as important in principle, both in its positive and negative senses (whether about
ensuring that outcomes reflect public priorities or about ensuring that public services deal effectively with
situations where things have gone wrong). However, less is currently known about how the public sees
accountability in practice than in principle.
• While the public doubt authority, they nonetheless do look to government to take a lead - and this is likely
to be even more the case in the economic hard times. The public is often sceptical about the role that the
private sector would play in delivering services, but there is also support for pragmatic approaches; for
example they are more open to private sector involvement if it can be shown that it means patients are
treated more quickly. Voluntary sector involvement is seen as a good idea in principle, although there is little
public awareness of how it works in practice.
• There may well be scope for a new relationship between government and citizens, which could be
conceptualised as an adult-adult relationship model. It would recognise that not everyone will want
significant involvement in public services, but would nonetheless encourage members of the public to
take responsibility and potentially change their attitudes and behaviours, where to do so would benefit
society and public services.
• This adult-adult relationship requires the state to play a supportive role. The public believe there is room for
government to enable, encourage and enforce behavior change as part of a supportive relationship between
citizens and the state (recognising that which mechanisms appropriate will depend on the situation).
• The public want to have more say over services in principle. In practice, though, few actually get involved;
instead, there is a spectrum of interest among the public in getting involved with how· services are designed
and delivered. There is evidence to suggest that feeling they can influence services if they need to may be
more important to the public than actually getting involved in practice.
• There is a particularly acute need for an adult-adult dialogue about public services when thinking about
tightening public spending. The need for tough choices to be made on public spending has not yet filtered
through to the public, and convincing the public will require both a clear rationale for cuts and reassurance
about maintaining the quality of public services.

QUALITY OF SERVICE DELIVERY

There is today a general expectation that Government ensure the delivery of high quality public services
designed around the needs of the citizen. The procedures for applying for the various services (whether £lee or
on payment of charges) should not be too cumbersome and should be time-bound and output oriented.
In fact just as almost every Indian has an opinion about who should be included in India’s cricket team, most
people seem to have views about the administrative reforms and systemic and public manpower improvements
required for appropriate and accountable public service delivery. The following are the actors who are involved in
the public service delivery system:
• Policy makers who determine which services should be provided, how, and at which point of contact with
the recipients of each particular service;
• Senior and middle level government officials who prepare guidelines and detailed procedures for delivery of
particular services, supervise the work of the service providers, monitor the progress of service delivery,
provide feedback to policy makers who may accordingly consider policy changes, and periodically themselves
review the guidelines and procedures - and who also need to ensure that the citizens know which services
are available and how to apply for or to access them;
• The actual service provider at the point of interface with the citizen or recipient (the provider may be a
government office or a private agency to whom the work has been outsourced) who has to ensure that
services are provided as per the quality/nature prescribed and within the time frame prescribed in the
guidelines and that the recipient knows where and how to apply for the service and also knows what are the
enclosures, if any, that need to accompany an application or request for a particular service;
• The recipient or citizen who applies for certain public services that are available from government as per well
publicized checklists of what is to be enclosed with or attached to an application, and who individually or
collectively (or through pressure groups, political parties, citizen - government dialogue forums, etc.) lobbies
government if he or she feels that certain services that need to be provided are not on offer by government
and thus tries to influence policy decisions regarding public services to be delivered, and who expresses
satisfaction! dis-satisfaction and provides feedback either formally or informally about delivery of specific
public services;
• Evaluators whether from within government or outside who evaluate the quality and speed of actual delivery
of specific services, as also the impact of such outputs, and thus provide feedback to policy makers
and senior government officials;
• NGOs and pressure groups of’ citizens who try to influence the public service delivery system
• Mass media channels in the public or private sector who create awareness, about services being delivered,
the philosophy behind public service delivery, the procedures involved in accessing public services, and
the short-comings being observed in actual practice;
• Trainers who endeavor to build up appropriate knowledge, skills and the attitudes and the mental makeup
of the abovementioned actors and
• External consultants who may advise about how to improve public service delivery but need to leave it to
the policy makers, senior and middle officers and actual providers to operate the delivery system.
Public Service delivery may be viewed as a two-stage process: one of “through puts” or “within puts” where
units or wings of government agencies provide the wherewithal based upon which services are provided to the
unit or wing which is to actually provide the service to the citizens, and the second of outputs which the actual
service provider is to make available to the citizen. For example if medicines are to be provided at a government
hospital then the “through puts” or “within puts” would include fixing of norms and guidelines as well as
procedures on the one hand, as well as the procurement of medicines, inventory control and storage,
transportation of medicines to the hospital, etc. on the other, while the output would be the actual delivery of
medicine to the patient. The Public Service Delivery System would have to concern itself with all actions required
to be taken at both stages.
Training and capacity building for Improved Public Service Delivery Systems has to concern itself with all the actors
as well as the activities and processes mentioned above. While the training would need to cover knowledge and
skills required for improving the quality and timeliness of public service delivery, the mindset and attitudinal
changes may prove equally-if not more-important. Adoption and updating of technology also need to form part
of the training inputs. Many non-technological and non- IT enabled interventions and efforts would also be
necessary, as also conducive, to improved public-service delivery. In fact many government functionaries blissfully
assume that once computerization is introduced and spreads in their departments it would automatically result
in improved public service delivery. They have to be oriented and trained that this is not so and they would
be required to put in much effort themselves to achieve improved delivery.·
Much of the complexity of procedures is due to the fear of wrong delivery to non-eligible, non-deserving persons
or in a manner that is not prescribed for a particular category of recipients. Thus process and procedural
Simplification for any particular service may be dependent upon how easily any wrong delivery can be reversed
and how significant may be the impact of wrong delivery. If the possibility of such reversibility is low or if the
adverse impact of wrong delivery is likely to be high, then stringent and rigorous checking and cross-verifying
procedures would be necessary to prevent wrong delivery, otherwise procedures and cross checking could be
simplified or relaxed.
In either case the service levels and quality to be prescribed would need to be worked out and made public. This
would indicate whether any processes need to be changed or process re-engineering needs to be undertaken
(continuous process improvement in an incremental manner verses process re-engineering) and whether the
institutional design needs change or inter agency coordination needs stepping up. Process flow charts, procedural
reviews, bench marking of services, improvements in performance of service delivery channels and mechanisms,
delivery performance incentives, and simplification of forms and proformas, all need to be reviewed periodically,
Citizens expectations in terms of quality, quantity, place and time of delivery, speed, transparency, afford
ability reliability, accessibility (which can be influenced by location of service delivery points, behaviour of
particular on the- spot service provider, price, and cumbersome or inconvenient procedures) need to be worked
out while determining procedures, as also while determining whether any flexibility should be permitted for
special situations and, if so, who should be competent to permit such flexibility. Unclear procedures and fuzzy or
blurring responsibilities for various throughputs or outputs need to be avoided.
While procedures are laid down or refined for achieving specific service delivery objectives, gradually an
obsession to observe rules can outweigh the achievement of delivery objectives and governments can get so mired
in procedures and processes that they often lose sight of their public service obligations. There is always a
danger that the formats and procedures may assume greater importance than the contents of public service
delivery and that process indicators may become more important than output indicators, with outcome indicators
often being totally left out of the equation.
All the above can be tackled by appropriate and repeated as well as regular, training. In fact even audit staff
needs to be trained to focus more on outcomes than procedures because otherwise public servants would
emphasize procedures rather than results to avoid audit paras.
• Training courses in preparing citizen’s charters and finalizing the norms for each specific department for a
Chartermark or Sevottam scheme are likely to prove as useful as courses on benchmarking; procedure review;
the tactics of public service delivery reform (including sequencing speed of reform and building up support for
the reform); process re-engineering; the setting of performance standards; the measurement of service
delivery; making use of citizen feedback to bring about improvements; resolving complaints regarding service
delivery; PPPs in service delivery; publicly making known information about the requirements, procedures,
norms, places of access and conditionalities for delivery of specific services; evaluation and assessment of
service delivery, etc.
• Sharing of best practices and successful and unsuccessful experiences for learning from them is also part of
the training inputs that would prove useful-though it needs to be emphasized while sharing experiences, that
successful experiments or reforms are not necessarily replicable but may be adaptable, or transplantable after
suitable adaptation and modification, keeping in mind the changing context in which they are to be
introduced.

*********
 CHAPTER 21: CODE OF CONDUCT
AND CODE OF ETHICS
INTRODUCTION
Ethical codes have been existence since ancient times. They underpinned ancient religion and society. Ten
Commandments, for example, belong to the religious code of Jews. Buddhism has ethical codes for householders,
monks and nuns. The ancient Greek city state Athens had its code covering culture and politics. Ethical codes are
systems of morals which cover many aspects of life. They usually consist of general obligations and admonitions,
or what one should do and refrain from doing.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN CODES OF ETHICS AND CODES OF CONDUCT
• There is a tendency to use the two terms interchangeably. Codes of ethics usually contain general values while
codes of conduct clearly spell out the principles which are derived from values. In the words of Jeremy
Bentham, a principle is “a general law or rule that guides behaviour or decisions” whereas values articulate
“an aspiration of an ideal moral state.”
• On the connection between values and principles in the domain of public administration, Terry Cooper
says: An ethical principle is a statement concerning the conduct or state of being that is required for the
fulfilment of a value; it explicitly links a value with a general mode of action. For example, justice may
be considered a
• Significant value, but the term itself does not tell us what rule for conduct or state of society would follow if
we include justice in our value system. We would need a principle of justice to show us what pattern of action
would reflect justice as a value. A common form of the justice principle is “Treat equals equally and unequals
unequally.”
Nowadays many companies post ethical codes on their web sites. They do not often distinguish between a code
of ethics and a code of conduct.
• A code of ethics will first specify values that underlie the code and will describe a company’s obligation to its
stakeholders.
o It will describe how the company conducts its business.
o It will describe the manner in which the company proposes to implement its values and vision.
o It will guide the staff about the Company’s ethical standards and on how to achieve them. In contrast, a
code of conduct is generally addressed to and meant for the use of employees alone.
o It usually lists unacceptable behaviours or actions; employees have to obey the code; and it may be
silent on values.
Values are general moral obligations; principles are the expected ethical conditions or behaviours which follow
from values.
• Values refer to political and social visions and exalted goals which societies seek to achieve. In contrast, codes
of conduct have a narrow focus.
• Codes of conduct are particular rules of conduct either imposed from higher levels of an organization or
voluntarily accepted as the requirements of a profession or occupation.
• A code of ethics differs from a code of conduct in another way. A code of ethics or a code of morality has a
wide canvas. It may virtually cover all aspects of a man’s life. It will contain prescriptions and prohibitions
which cover one’s personal, social, economic, political and religious life. Codes of ethics apply to the culture,
education, and religion of a whole society. Codes of conduct generally cover an individual’s official or
professional conduct.
 PROFESSIONAL CODES OF CONDUCT
These are often regulations which are voluntarily adopted by members of various professions and occupations.
They define the standard practices which all members follow to ensure uniformity and acceptable quality of
service which maintain their reputation and credibility.
• For example, various professionals such as nurses, doctors, engineers, accountants, auditors and lawyers
have professional codes.
• Such standards, also known as professional standards, are also prescribed by regulatory agencies for some
professions.
• One of the ‘earliest professional codes is ‘the Hippocratic’ Oath which physicians follow to this day.
Hippocrates was a physician of ancient Greece; ‘and prescribed ‘rules which’ cover a physician’s
responsibilities towards patients and patient confidentiality. One part of the Oath says: “Into whatever houses
I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief
and corruption”
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Professional ethics cover the personal, and job-related, standards of behaviour expected of professionals.
Professionals possess and use specialist knowledge and skill. The manner of using such knowledge while providing
a service to the public is considered a moral issue and is termed professional ethics. Professionals can make
informed judgments in various situations based on their skills. The general public is unable to make such decisions
for want of relevant training.
Many professional organizations define their ethical approach in terms of the following principles:
• Honesty • Integrity
• Transparency • Accountability
• Confidentiality • Objectivity
• Respectfulness • Obedience to the law
The International Federation of Accountants, in International Good Practice Guidance, Defining and Developing
an Effective Code of Conduct for Organisations, defines a professional code as: “Principles, values, standards,
or rules of ‘behaviour that guide the decisions, procedures and systems of an organization in a way that (a)
contributes to the welfare of its key stakeholders, and (b) respects the rights of all constituents affected by its
operations.”
Implementation
Professional associations devise codes of practice which their members must follow. The purpose of the codes is
to prevent exploitation of clients and to safeguard the integrity of the profession. The codes protect both the
clients and the practitioners of the profession.
Disciplinary codes allow the profession to prescribe standards of conduct and ensure that individual practitioners
meet these standards. If individual practitioners fail to observe the standards, they face disciplinary action.
Professionals who act conscientiously will feel reassured that they will not be undercut by less scrupulous
colleagues. And the public will retain its faith in the profession and will to continue to engage the professional
practitioners.
Example of a Professional Code
The US Code of Accountants covers the profession of accountants in US. It requires members to comply with the
following fundamental principles:
• Integrity : A member shall be straightforward and honest in all professional and business relationships.
• Objectivity : A member shall not allow bias, conflict of interest or undue influence of others to override
professional or business judgments.
• Professional Competence and Due Care : A member shall maintain professional knowledge and skill at the
level required to ensure that a client or employer receives competent professional service based on current
developments in practice, legislation and techniques. A member shall act diligently and in accordance with
applicable technical and professional standards when providing professional services.
• Confidentiality : A member shall respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional
and business relationships and shall not disclose any such information to third parties without proper and
specific authority unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential information
acquired as a result of professional and business relationships shall not be used for the personal advantage
of the member or third parties.
• Professional Behaviour : A member shall comply with relevant laws and regulations and shall avoid any
action that discredits the profession.
The Code recognizes that circumstances may arise in which members face difficulties in complying with the
fundamental principles. It is impossible to define every situation that creates difficulties for compliance with
the fundamental principles and specify the necessary corrective measures. Further, as work assignments ‘and the
nature of difficulties vary, different safeguards may be needed. Therefore, the Code establishes a conceptual
framework that requires a member to identify, evaluate, and address threats to compliance with the fundamental
principles. The conceptual framework approach assists members in complying with the ethical requirements of
the Code and in meeting their responsibility to act in the public interest. It accommodates many variations in
circumstances that create threats to compliance with the fundamental principles and can deter a member from
concluding that a situation is permitted if it is not specifically prohibited.

CODES OF CONDUCT FOR CIVIL SERVANTS :

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND APPROACH
In recent times, with changing theoretical approaches to public administration and higher expectations from
public servants, codes of conduct in public sphere assumed greater importance. Codes of conduct have existed in
Indian administrative system since long. They serve the following purposes.
• Codes of Conduct increase the possibility that government servants will act in public interest and will
avoid improper forms of behaviour.
• By continuously comparing their conduct against prescribed norms, civil servants get into the habit of
doing the right things.
• Codes of conduct express the commitment of civil servants to certain moral standards.
• The codes set standards for public servants and express their special responsibility as members of civil
administrative system.
• Codes of conduct can prove effective by appealing to one’s pride and moral sense or creating a sense of
remorse for wrong doing.
International organizations have recognized the usefulness of codes of conduct in international anti-corruption
agreements. The U.N. Convention against Corruption (2003) recognized a public service code as necessary for
prevention of corruption:
• States must endeavour to ensure that their public services are subject to safeguards that promote efficiency,
transparency, and recruitment based on merit.
• Once recruited, public servants should be subject to codes of conduct, requirements for financial and other
disclosures, and appropriate disciplinary measures.
• Transparency and accountability in matters of public finance must also be promoted, and specific
requirements are established for the prevention of corruption, in the particularly critical areas of the public
sector, such as the judiciary and public procurement.
• Those, who use public services, must expect a high standard of conduct from their public servants.
The motto that “public service is a public trust” recognizes that compared to ordinary citizens public servants
enjoy many powers and privileges. Hence, codes of conduct for civil servants impose special obligations and
restrictions on exercise of public power and authority.
Codes of conduct are normally written documents. Besides the explicit codes, there are implicit unwritten norms
too. Service or regimental traditions in the army fall in this category. They are found in expressions like ‘not
done’ or ‘not cricket’.
The commonly stated principles of public service include:
• avoiding use of public office for private gain (integrity),
• displaying impartiality in performing duties (objectivity),
• concept of public service being a public trust (effectiveness).
• Together these define a common mission for public servants.
One famous example of an Ethics Code is the Seven Principles of Public Life which the Committee on Standards
in Public Life in Great Britain formulated.
• Selflessness : Holders of public office should act solely in terms of the public interest: They should not do so
in order to gain financial or other benefits for themselves, their family or their friends.
• Integrity : Holders of public office should not [Link] under any financial or other obligation to
outside individuals or organisations that might seek to influence them in the performance of their official
duties.
• Objectivity : In carrying out public business, including making public appointments, awarding contracts, or
recommending individuals for rewards and benefits, holders of public office should make choices on
merit.
• Accountability : Holders of public office are accountable for their decisions and actions to the public and
must submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate to their office.
• Openness : Holders of public office should be as open as possible about all the decisions and actions that
they take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider public
interest clearly demands.
• Honesty : Holders of public office have a duty to declare any private interests relating to their public duties
and to take steps to resolve any conflicts arising in a way that protects the public interest.
• Leadership : Holders of public office should promote and support these principles by leadership and example.

NEED OF CIVIL SERVICES CODE FROM 2nd ARC

Ethics is a set of principles of right conduct. It has been defined as a set of values and principles which helps guide
behaviour, choice and actions. It helps to decide whether ones’ actions are right or wrong. Organizations as well
as individuals have ethical standards. These standards help ensure that individuals belonging to an organization
have a consistent approach in carrying out their responsibilities and making decisions. They also ensure that
members of an organization maintain a consistent and appropriate behaviour towards one another and towards
clients and persons outside the organization.
Civil servants have special obligations because they are responsible for managing resources entrusted to them by
the community, because they provide and deliver services to the community and because they take important
decisions that affect all aspects of a community’s life. The community has a right to expect that the civil service
functions fairly, impartially and efficiently. It is essential that the community must be able to trust and have
confidence in the integrity of the civil service decision-making process. Within the civil service itself, it needs
to be ensured that the decisions and actions of civil servants refl ect the policies of the government of the day and
the standards that the community expects from them as government servants. The expectation that the civil
service will maintain the same standards of professionalism, responsiveness and impartiality in serving successive
political governments is a key element of the way our democratic polity functions.
In a democracy, an efficient civil service must have a set of values that distinguishes it from other professions.
Integrity, dedication to public service, impartiality, political neutrality, anonymity etc are said to be the hallmarks
of an efficient civil service. In some countries, these values have been embodied in laws – e.g. in Australia - and in
some countries these are enshrined in the respective Constitutions. Article 153 of the Polish Constitution states:
(1) A corps of civil servants shall operate in the organs of government administration in order to ensure a
professional, diligent, impartial and politically neutral discharge of the State’s obligations.
(2) The Prime Minister shall be the superior of such corps of civil servants.”
 Civil Service Values in the United Kingdom
1. The Civil Service is an integral and key part of the Government of the United Kingdom. It supports the
Government of the day in developing and implementing its policies, and in delivering public services. Civil
servants are accountable to Ministers, who in turn are accountable to Parliament.
2. As a civil servant, you are appointed on merit on the basis of fair and open competition and are expected
to carry out your role with dedication and a commitment to the Civil Service and its core values: integrity,
honesty, objectivity and impartiality. In this Code:
• integrity’ is putting the obligations of public service above your own personal interests;
• honesty’ is being truthful and open;
• ‘objectivity’ is basing your advice and decisions on rigorous analysis of the evidence; and
• ‘impartiality’ is acting solely according to the merits of the case and serving equally well Governments
of different political persuasions.
3. These core values support good government and ensure the achievement of the highest possible
standards in all that the Civil Service does. This in turn helps the Civil Service to gain and retain the
respect of Ministers, Parliament, the public and its customers.

CIVIL SERVICES CODE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Most countries that have reformed their civil services such as New Zealand, Australia and the UK have established
a set of principles to guide civil service behaviour in the form of values and a legally enforceable code of conduct,
basis setting out standards of behaviour expected of those working in the civil services.
In the UK, following the recommendations of the
Nolan Committee on standards in public service,
the Civil Service Code was incorporated into a law
that came into force on 1st January 1996.
• The Code is a clear and concise statement of
standards of behaviour that the civil
persuasions. servants must follow, and is a part
of the civil servant’s terms and conditions of
employment.
• In addition to describing the integrity and loyalty
required of civil customers, servants, the Code
prohibits deceiving Parliament or the public,
misuse of official positions, and unauthorized
disclosure of confidential information.
• The Code provides a right of appeal to
independent Civil Service Commissioners on
matters of propriety and conscience, if the
problem cannot be resolved within the
department in question.
• In New Zealand, the reforms have led to the enactment of the State Services Act with focus on ethics and
public service ethos. This was primarily because civil service reforms in New Zealand created a system in which
loyalty of the civil servant was to his/ her department or agency rather than to the public service as a whole.
o So, it was necessary to raise the awareness about ethics, and public service values and ethos. The State
Services Commission took the lead in raising such awareness and issued the Code of Conduct for civil
servants. A Standards and Ethics Board was also set up.
• In Australia, reforms in this respect have been the most comprehensive. Section 10 of the Public Service Act,
1999 contains a declaration of fifteen values, which affirm that the Australian Public Service:
 o is apolitical, performing its functions in an impartial and professional manner
o is openly accountable for its actions, within the framework of Ministerial responsibility to the
Government, the Parliament, and the Australian public
o is responsive to the Government in providing frank, honest, comprehensive, accurate and timely advice
and in implementing the Government’s policies and programs
o delivers services fairly, effectively, impartially and courteously to the Australian public and is sensitive to
the diversity of the Australian public
o provides a reasonable opportunity to all eligible members of the community to apply for APS employment
o is a public service in which employment decisions are based on merit
o provides a workplace that is free from discrimination and recognizes and utilizes the diversity of
the Australian community it serves
o establishes workplace relations that value communication, consultation, co-operation and input from
employees on matters that affect their workplace
o provides a fair, flexible, safe and rewarding workplace
o focuses on achieving results and managing performance
o promotes equity in employment
o provides a fair system of review of decisions taken in respect of APS employees
o has the highest ethical standards
o has leadership of the highest quality
o is a career-based service to enhance the effectiveness and cohesion of Australia’s democratic system
of government.

CODE OF CONDUCT IN INDIA

In India, the current set of ethical norms are the Conduct Rules, contained in the Central Services (Conduct) Rules,
1964 and analogous rules applicable to members of the All India Services or employees of various State
Governments. The code of behaviour as enunciated in the Conduct Rules, while containing some general norms
like ‘maintaining integrity and absolute devotion to duty’ and not indulging in ‘conduct unbecoming of a
government servant’ is generally directed towards cataloguing specific activities deemed undesirable for
government servants. These conduct rules do not constitute a code of ethics.
DRAFT PUBLIC SERVICES BILL, 2007
The Draft Public Services Bill, 2007 proposes the necessary first step towards evolving a code of ethics. It states in
Chapter III,
Values of Public Service : The Public Service and the Public Servants shall be guided by the following values in
the discharge of their functions:
(1) patriotism and upholding national pride
(2) allegiance to the Constitution and the law of the nation
(3) objectivity, impartiality, honesty, diligence, courtesy and transparency
(4) maintain absolute integrity
Without prejudice to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government may, on the recommendations of or in
consultation with the Central Authority, notify from time to time other values in this Section.
Review of Public Service Values : The Central Authority may from time to time review the adoption, adherence
to and implementation of the Public Service Values in the departments or organizations under the Central
Government and send reports to the Central Government.
Public Services Code:
(1) The Government shall promote the Public Service Values and a standard of ethics in the Public Service
operations, requiring and facilitating every Public Service employee:
 i. to discharge offi cial duties with competence and accountability; care and diligence; responsibility,
honesty, objectivity and impartiality; without discrimination and in accordance with law
ii. to ensure effective management, professional growth and leadership development
iii. to avoid misuse of offi cial position or information and using the public moneys with utmost care and
autonomy
iv. function with the objective that Public Services and Public Servants are to serve as instruments of good
governance and to provide services for the betterment of the public at large; foster socio- economic
development, with due regard to the diversity of the nation but without discrimination on the ground
of caste, community, religion, gender or class and duly protecting the interest of poor, underprivileged
and weaker sections.
(2) The Government shall, in consultation with the Central Authority, prepare a Public Services Code of Ethics
for guiding the Public Service employees within one year from the commencement of this Act.
In India, civil service values have evolved over years of tradition. Th ese values also fi nd place in various rules,
including the Code of Conduct. The current set of ‘enforceable norms’ are ‘Conduct Rules’, typifi ed by the Central
Civil Services (Conduct) Rules - 1964 and analogous rules applicable to members of the All India Services or
employees of various State Governments. As mentioned earlier, the code of behaviour as enunciated in the
Conduct Rules, while containing some general norms like ‘maintaining integrity and absolute devotion to duty’
and not indulging in ‘conduct unbecoming of a government servant’, are generally directed towards cataloguing
specific activities deemed undesirable for government servants. There is no Code of Ethics prescribed for civil
servants in India although such Codes exist in other countries. A comprehensive Civil Service Code can be
conceptualized at three levels. At the apex level, there should be a clear and concise statement of the values and
ethical standards that a civil servant should imbibe. Th ese values should reflect public expectations from a civil
servant with reference to political impartiality, maintenance of highest ethical standards and accountability for
actions. At the second level, the broad principles which should govern the behaviour of a civil servant may be
outlined. This would constitute the Code of Ethics. At the third level, there should be a specific Code of Conduct
stipulating in a precise and unambiguous manner, a list of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour and actions.
The Commission feels that the values and the Code of Ethics should be given a statutory backing by including them
in the proposed Civil Services Bill.
The Commission is of the view that in addition to commitment to the Constitution these values should include:
a. Adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity and conduct
b. Impartiality and non-partisanship
c. Objectivity
d. Commitment to the citizens’ concerns and public good
e. Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society.
The Commission is also of the view that these values, per se, may not be enforceable. But a mechanism may be
put in place so that efforts are made, particularly, by those in leadership positions, for inculcating these values in
all persons in their organisations. The Commission would like to draw lessons from the Australian Public Service
Act which has defined a set of values. That law prescribes that an Agency Head must uphold and promote the
Australian Public Service (APS) Values. It is also prescribed that the Commissioner’s functions include – (a)
evaluating the extent to which Agencies incorporate and uphold the APS Values (b) evaluating the adequacy of
systems and procedures in Agencies for ensuring compliance with the Code of Conduct. The Commission feels
that an independent agency should audit organizations/departments and evaluate the measures the organization
has undertaken to uphold the civil service values. The Central Civil Services Authority may be entrusted with this
task.
The Commission has studied the issue of ethics in public life in other countries and in its Report on “Ethics in
Governance”, it has highlighted the seven principles of public life enunciated by the Nolan Committee in UK.
Drawing from these, the Commission would suggest the inclusion of the following principles in the Code of Ethics
for civil servants in India:
• Integrity : Civil servants, should be guided solely by public interest in their offi cial decision making and not
by any fi nancial or other consideration either in respect of themselves, their families or their friends.
• Impartiality : Civil servants in carrying out their offi cial work, including functions like procurement,
recruitment, delivery of services etc, should take decisions based on merit alone.
• Commitment to public service : Civil servants should deliver services in a fair, effective, impartial and
courteous manner.
• Open accountability : Civil servants are accountable for their decisions and actions and should be willing to
subject themselves to appropriate scrutiny for this purpose.
• Devotion to duty : Civil servants maintain absolute and unstinting devotion towards their duties and
responsibilities at all times.
• Exemplary behaviour : Civil servants shall treat all members of the public with respect and courtesy and, at
all times, should behave in a manner that upholds the rich traditions of the civil services.
At the third level are a set of specific guidelines regulating the conduct of civil servants. As mentioned, the present
Conduct Rules regulate the behaviour of civil servants. Although these constitute a very comprehensive and wide
ranging set of guidelines, they suff er from many shortcomings and anomalies. To illustrate:
(1) No Class I officer shall, except with the previous sanction of the Government, permit his son, daughter or
other dependant, to accept employment in any [company or firm] with which he has official dealings or in
any other [company or firm] having offi cial dealings with the Government.
Since there may be no company or firm in India that does not have any dealing with the Government, all firms and
companies are automatically covered by such a sweeping rule which is likely therefore to be observed more
in breach than in reality and which in any case, may not necessarily involve any type of confl ict of interest.
Moreover, even if permission is taken in advance, if the acceptance of employment really involves any element of
nepotism or conflict of interest, such permission cannot absolve the civil servant from any disciplinary or criminal
liability.
(2) Where a Government servant enters into a transaction in respect of movable property either in his own name
or in the name of the member of his family, he shall, within one month from the date of such transaction,
report the same to the prescribed authority, if the value of such property exceeds twenty thousand rupees
in the case of a Government servant holding any Class I or Class II post or fifteen thousand rupees in the case
of Government servant holding any Class III or Class IV post, provided that the previous sanction of the
prescribed authority shall be obtained by the Government servant if any such transaction is with a person
having offi cial dealings with him.
Considering the rate of inflation in the country, rising living standards and rising income levels, the financial ceilings
prescribed above mean that even for buying day-to-day consumer appliances, intimation of the transaction to
Government becomes necessary. This restriction again is therefore observed more in breach than in reality.
Even if such intimation is given, it is unlikely that the Government can maintain or process the records of such
transactions. It also amounts in any case to duplication of eff orts since an annual statement of movable and
immovable properties is to be submitted by Government servants.
(3) No Government servant shall, except with the previous knowledge of the prescribed authority, acquire or
dispose of any immovable property by lease, mortgage, purchase, sale, gift or otherwise either in his own
name or in the name of any member of his family.
This Rule is again so sweeping in its coverage that even inheritance of ancestral family property would require
prior intimation. It also amounts to duplication since an annual property return is supposed to reflect all the
transactions.
(4) A Government servant shall so manage his private affairs as to avoid habitual indebtedness or insolvency. A
Government servant against whom any legal proceeding is instituted for the recovery of any debt due from
him or for adjudging him as an insolvent, shall forthwith report the full facts of the legal proceedings to the
 Government.
Therefore, in the light of the above, the Conduct Rules need to be completely redrawn based on the values and
code of ethics as suggested in the preceding paragraphs. The proposed Central Civil Services Authority may be
consulted while drawing up the Conduct Rules and for interpreting any ‘grey areas’ that may emerge in enforcing
these Conduct Rules. The recommendations regarding the ‘Civil Services Values’ and the ‘Code of Ethics’ would
have to be incorporated in the proposed Civil Services Bill.
Recommendations
a. ‘Civil Services Values’ and the ‘Code of Ethics’ should be incorporated in the proposed Civil Services Bill.
b. Conduct Rules for civil servants need to be redrawn based on the values and code of ethics as outlined
above.

********
 CHAPTER 22: WORK CULTURE: THE
INDIAN SCENARIO
Thomas Carlyle, renowned author of The French Revolution and an eminent essay, “Dignity of Labour” had once
remarked: “Blessed is who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness. Little wonder, a popular proverb
generally articulated by the wise is “Work is Worship.” The Bhagvat Gitas “Karma Yoga” philosophy declares that
one of the paths of attaining salvation is that of the right karma. At the individual level, it is one’s dedication to
work, love for one’s pursuits, diligence and perseverance that collectively make a person successful. Likewise, at
the organizational level, virtues imbibed by the leaders as well as the staff of an organization determine the
qualitative performance of an organization. Inthe contemporary times characterized by healthy competition
among societies and nations, organizational work culture is recognized as a key factor influencing their
performance in regulatory as well as development administration.

MEANING AND IMPLICATIONS

Work culture refers to the attitudes, values and behavior of individuals and collectivities pertaining to diligence,
perseverance, devolution to duty, caring for productivity, efficiency, effectiveness, time management and concern
for the service rendered to the clientele group or citizens.
A positive work culture is likely toJ!ravethe following characteristics:
1. A stress on development.
2. Clarity about goals and a well laid out plan to achieve them.
3. Setting deadlines for the acbievement of multi-faceted goals.
4. Rational distribution of responsibilities among various members of an organization.
5. Discernible stress on performance in key result areas (KRIa) through a system of measuring the achievement
of anticipated results.
6. A system of continuing periodical evaluation of performance in the crucial areas of organizational
functioning.
7. Arational system of reward and punishment that encourages good work and punishes laziness, carelessness
and low performance.
8. A climate of self- motivation prevailing among the members of an organization
9. Continuing skill development through training
10. A pervasive respect for time and for the principles and practices of sound time management.
11. A premium on the norms of work ethics and ‘ethics for work’, with equal respect for manual and mental
labour.
12. Value for creativity and innovation in work
13. Futuristic orientation while envisioning work-challenges in response to environmental changes.
14. Deep loyalty to the organization for which one is working.
15. A positive leadership style to get the best out of subordinates through effective supervision and monitoring.
16. Empathy for the citizens’ / clients’ problems and being positively helpful in meeting their needs and
fulfilling their aspirations.
17. Concern for providing qualitative service and goods to citizens/ clients
18. Emphasis on maintaining high ethical standards in one’s transactions with external as well as internal
members of the organization.
19. Positive work culture leads to:
• Creation of a healthy organization.
• A happy and stress less organization.
• Higher productivity.
• Better standards of performance.
• Enhanced creativity.
• Improved job satisfaction.
• High level of client/ citizen satisfaction.
• Efficiency and effectiveness of a higher order.
On the other hand, negative work culture in organization is characterized by:
• Dullness and boredom in the organization.
• Work is considered as ‘load’ or ‘occupation’ and not as a mission.
• A culture of complaints, cribbing and dissatisfaction.
• Low level of punctuality and promptness; rampant procrastination.
• Little respect for time; huge time-wasters.
• Only marginal care for citizens’ satisfaction.
• Complacency and indolence (laziness).
• A holiday culture.
The impact of negative work culture is easy to imagine. It is most likely to lead to the following scenario in an
organization
• Low productivity and efficiency; poor goal-achievement; low per-capita outcome.
• Sub-standard goods and services.
• Fatigue, stress and ill health of personnel.
• Negative impact on family.
• A feeling of alienation among employees.
• Little respect for leadership.
• Low motivation and morale.
• Poor time management; lack of prioritization, time-wasters.
• Unpunctuality and low discipline.
• Delays and procrastination.
The above is not an exhaustive catalogue of the implication of positive as well as negative cultures, but it
should be sufficient to highlight the significance of sound work culture in any organization, and more particularly
in a government organizations where it is needed the most.
There have been only a few serious intellectual efforts to examine the causes of unsatisfactory work culture in the
Indian government system. Since the overall socio-cultural environment surrounding government organizations
is also influential, such ecological factors should also form the theme of exploratory studies.
Colonialism under the foreign rulers had mitigated self-confidence, initiative, ambition and motivation of the
Indian people. Wehave still not fully come out of that state oflow-self esteem. Geographically, inclement climate
also adversely affects the energy and enthusiasm of the people.
Centralization of decision-making in families and other social organizations renders most of their members
passive. In other words, their initiative and participatory zeal are low. Centralization of authority further leads to
routinized hierarchies a sense of “followership” is more prevalent in such system than is “leadership”. And even
this leadership is not inspiring enough to transform low-performers into high-achievers.
At the national level, there is a scarcity of leaders who can be looked upon as icons of positive work culture. Itis
improbable to find now the likes ofSardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri, AD Gorwala
or LP Singh, on the contemporary scene of governance. In the non-political and non administrative realms also,
inspiring leadership is scarce.
In the Indian culture, manual labour is despised and mental work is preferred as a status symbol. Hard work is not
the distinctive attribute of most Indians. In rural India, particularly, one is amazed to find hordes of women
working on or off the fields, while men are passing their time leisurely and unproductively.
An attitude of casualness further vitiates work environment in India. And, above all, there is no perceptible and
strong feeling of nationalism or of organizational loyalty. We have yet to evolve as a responsible nation with a
strong affinity and allegiance to the motherland. Although things are changing for the better, yet the
transformation process is painfully slow.
The most popular perception about work culture in government, whether at the central, state or local levels, is
that it provides substantial scope for improvement. Even public enterprises, that are expected to imbibe corporate
culture, fall short of the desirable standards of work performance and work culture. No doubt, liberalization has
made a difference in this realm and but the image of government systems has been improving, though only
slowly.
There are two kinds of competitions that are facilitating this improvement in work culture in government. The first
type of competition exists between the private and the government sectors. On account of clarity of goals, a
stress on the profit motive, centralization of policy and goal systems, continuing supervision and monitoring,
perceptible performance orientation, systematic reward and punishment systems and stability in managerial
values and attitudes, the private corporate sector exhibits a more commendable standard of work culture when
compared to its governmental counterpart. Nevertheless, on account of rising expectations from the government
systems, including public enterprises, the performance level of government programmers, particularly the
well-known flagship programmers, appears to have improved through a more systematic monitoring of the
progress made periodically.
The other factor that characterizes a federal polity like India’s is the on-going competition among the states
themselves. It is gratifying to note an emergent politics of good governance in India. One notices a growing belief,
backed by an electoral reality, that good governance triggers electoral support. Little wonder, several states are
showcasing their ‘unique’ models of socioeconomic development. This healthy competition among states, under
the leadership of the proactive Chief Ministers, has resulted into a more productive work culture in the Indian
governance system.
Another innovation that has improved work culture in most ministries and departments of the Government
ofIndia and a few states is the practice of preparing Result Framework Documents (RFD) and the incentives
attached to the performance of work-teams and individual civil servants.

FACTORS IMPACTING WORK CULTURE

IN THE INDIAN GOVERNMENT SYSTEMS
Stress on the Basis
Family is the first school for a child. We must learn from Samuel Smiles, author of Self Help, who averred that to
the greatest possible extent, we should do our own work by ourselves and not depend on others for doing it.
Mahatma Gandhi was a great enthusiast for self-help. Hence, children should be taught to be active, dynamic,
self-reliant, helpful and hard working. Aretinue of servants is an obstacle to self-help.
Further, undertaking physical labour, initiative, perseverance, team work and performance orientation should be
inculcated among students. Education should aimed not be only for making a living but more importantly for
making a life. As Swami Vivekanand observed, we need a man-making, character-making education. Hoping that
sincere efforts are made to reconstruct India’s education system, work culture is bound to be increasingly positive
in all the segments of Indian social order, including the governance system.
Goal Clarity
There exists a glaring ambiguity about the goals of governmental organization at the middle range as well as micro
levels. Only rarely, efforts are made by government organizations to bring about specificity in their respective
goals framework. The nature of such organizational goals pertain to profit, productivity, efficiency, service,
distribution of subsidies, social justice, economic equality, human rights and internal security. It is
obvious that most of these goals are difficult to be quantified. Consequently, most objectives remain abstract
making a rigorous evaluation of their achievement a bit problematic. Hence, the impact of huge government
programmers designed for poverty alleviation is generally looked at from the point of view of the investment
made in them rather than from the angle of their outcomes.
In this context, performance budgeting, more particularly “outcome” budgeting as against mere “output”
budgeting should be rigorously introduced in most government agencies. Finances invested in public agencies
should lead to comparable outcomes in terms of productivity and people’s satisfaction.
Incongruence of Authority and Responsibility
While assigning responsibilities for decision-making and decision implementation in government organizations,
there is an occasional dissonance between authority and responsibility. In other words, the time-honoured
principle of authority and responsibility should commensurate ought to be respected in the functioning of
government organizations. This principle forms the basis of the doctrine of accountability.
It is axiomatic that authority without responsibility may lead to arbitrariness, while responsibility without
authority is bound to generate frustration, low morale and inadequate performance. Hence, all public organization
should periodically evaluate the nature of ‘fit’ between existing authority and responsibility at the sub-
organizational, the group and the individual levels.
In order to encourage government functionaries to focus on their essential responsibilities and duties, there
should be designed specific job descriptions for each important position. These job descriptions can help evaluate
the performance of any functionary in terms of the gap, if any, between what is prescribed and what is achieved.
These documents can also facilitate a smooth transition of personnel in an organization. An employee will be able
to know at the time of his entry into an organization his distinct job obligations. However, it will still be more
useful if such job descriptions also carry essential details concerning a functionary’s, administrative and financial
powers.
The rules and procedures framed and followed in various government departments and agencies in most cases
are cumbersome, leading to undue delays in the disposal of official matters. Service rules, conduct rules, financial
rules, travelling allowance rules, purchase rules etc. occasionally come in the way of expeditions disposal of
government business. The language of most such rules is legalistic and complex and no wonder, occasionally,
mistakes are committed by government personnel while interpreting and applying them. Hence, there is a
constant need to review various government rules and regulations periodically and revise and simplify them. Their
language and translations into vernacular should be simple enough to be understood by a person possessing
commonsense. The amendments to rules should be appended to rule books and revised monographs containing
updated rules should be published by the concerned organizations from to time to time.
Supervision and Monitoring
Government organizations in India are headed by very competent administrators. They are members of all
India or Central services or are senior members of state services - all appointed on the basis of merit or seniority
or both. At the individual level, their performance is mostly good and sometimes excellent. Paradoxically, despite
finest minds at the helm, the overall effectiveness of most government organization is less than creditable. It could
be argued that there will always remain a gap between the perspicacity and performance of the middle and the
lower level functionaries on the one hand and of the top level administrative leadership on the other. Yet, the
chasm between the two should not be so glaring as to be termed ‘unreasonable’.
To bridge, this gap, there are two expectations from the members of higher level administrative leadership. First,
they should supervise broadly, regularly and constructively the work of their subordinates and guide them
properly to improve their performance. Second, their administrative leaders should motivate subordinates to
perform continuously better. A healthy socio-psychological relationship between the seniors and the juniors
improves the overall work culture and motivational climate of an organization. A good administrator is one who
himself is effective but is also a competent and inspiring leader and team builder.
This brings us to the significant issues of motivation.
Level of Motivation
At the time of their entry into the government service, the motivation and enthusiasm of new recruits are
generally high. However, after a few years down the line, these attributes recede in their intensity-Novelty,
initiative, creativity, devotion to work - all subside; everything gets routinized and work becomes mundane and
prosaic. This is certainly not true of all government personnel, but even if it applies to a majority of them, it is
a cause of concern. The reasons behind this ebbing of motivation are many, but the most important are two:
Erratic and unorganized performance appraisal and an absence of appropriately well-tuned system of rewards
and punishment. Unless good work and honesty get rewarded and bad work and dishonesty get punished, there
will be hardly any urge among the personnel to be diligent, creative and upright.
The Performance Monitoring and Evaluation System, (PMES) introduced by the Cabinet Secretariat of the
Government of India, should encompass all the Central government organizations, public enterprises, government
boards and state governments and eventually, flow down to the local government bodies at the urban as well as
rural levels. A performance oriented motivation system can do wonders for the government. What further needs
to be pondered over is that non-financial incentives in the form of designations, honours and higher
responsibilities are no less in their possible positive impact than are the financial incentives. A battery of such
incentives can be devised for government organization. Hopefully, innovations in this sphere will gradually
help in crystallizing a sound motivational mechanism in the public systems.
Perhaps there exists a scope for introducing healthy competition among public personnel for higher achievement
and creativity and for improving the quality of public services rendered to citizens. Rational and scientific
standards of performance are likely to help create more acceptable and healthy intra and inter-organizational
competition among the government personnel, thus refining the tone and standards of work culture.
Genuine creative work that can leave a positive impact on the future of a government organization and sincere
endeavours made to introduce and sustain excellence in public policy and decisional system deserve appropriate
recognition. Creativity should also explore the possibilities of making government jobs more interesting and
variegated, facilitatingjob rotation within a public system.
Only recently, former Indian President and national icon, Professor A P Abdul Kalam commented that there was
hardly any area of national life in India which could be considered ‘excellent’ from a competitive international
perspective. It is an honest statement and an exhortation to all concerned to raise their level of performance. The
need is to make excellence the Indian credo and do away with complacency and mediocrity.
Excellence is an urge and concern for constant improvement in any dimension of life. It emphasizes creativity,
innovation, constant improvement, quality and developing a competitive edge in a globalizing environment.
Leadership in all organizations should aim and endeavour for excellence.
Quality of Service
There are a number of public enterprises and government departments that have emerged as centres of
excellence. For instance, CEC, CAG, the UPSC and DRDO among others institutions, have enviable track record of
performance. Besides, there are a host of government organizations at various levels where the quality of products
or services rendered have earned commendration. LIC, SBI, Mother Diary (Delhi) and even certain Railway and
state road transport serviceshave shown appreciable improvement. All this has been an upshot of positive work
culture in these organizations.
With proper systemic reforms, the quality of services in government system can certainly improve. One of the
prime responsibilities of administrative leadership in government organization ought to be to pre-audit the quality
of services rendered by them. In fact, the level and range of quality is eventually assessed and attested by the
consumer or the citizen. Based on the quantified ranking of the services provided by government functionaries, a
reward and recognition system should be instituted. Such a rational system can act as a motivator for government
personnel.
Performance Appraisal, Security of Service and Promotion
The conventional ‘confidential reports’ system has given way to Annual Performance Appraisal in most
government organizations. This indeed is a tangible procedural reform in human resource management. The
next step should be a 360 degree performance appraisal that will be based on rational and objective opinions of
seniors, peers, juniors and even citizens who are the beneficiaries of services of specific government organizations.
The Second Administrative Reforms Commission, headed by Veerappa Moily, in its report on “Refurbishing
Personnel Administration” has recommended the dilution of Article 311 of the Indian Constitution that provides
substantial security of service to civil servants. It is opined that it provides ‘over-security’ and not just ‘security’
and therefore over a long period of time, it generates a sense of complacency or over-confidence among the
government employees. The Government of India has not accepted this recommendation, for it could otherwise
change the basic structure of the civil service in India. True, Article 311 is occasionally misused by certain civil
servants, but its dilution or abolition can be misused by unreasonable employers and executives. Therefore, a
balance needs to be struck between the demands of security and the needs for accountability.
Promotions within the civil service are generally based on seniority-cum- merit, and accordingly, very few civil
servants are superseded in the process of promotion. In 2013, a new pattern of promotion from state service to
all-India services was being conceived wherein the eligible state service officers will have to appear in written tests
and interviews. One can learn from the system of empanelment of lAS officers from various states to the
Government of India. In this process, rigorous methods and procedures are followed and civil servants with
best records are empanelled to the position of Joint Secretary, Additional Secretary and Secretary to the
Government ofIndia. At the state level as well, there is a strong need to introduce meritbased criteria for pushing
people upward in the civil service, for the Peter’s Principle is not the best principle for promoting positive work
culture.
Lateral entry system of finest minds from the private sector, NGOs and educational institutions should be
encouraged in the government. Such personnel should be paid emoluments that they really deserve on the basis
of their talent, experience and performance.
From within an organization as well, there should be a system offast-track career growth of brilliant personnel
who have given exceptional performance. When the criteria for such unusual incentives are clear, there would be
heightened impact on work culture. Gifted children in schools or gifted employees in the government system
deserve special recognition and motivation.
Contractual appointments of projects will help enhance productivity in the government system. Further,
whenever, feasible, work could [Link] to NGOs or carried through the PPP mode, While we move from
the traditional pattern of’ government’ to a paradigm of’ governance’, the active involvement of non-
governmental or semi-governmental agencies can help enhance productivity and improvement work culture.
Experiment can also be made in introducing ‘split pay’ system, under which an employee is paid a regular fixed
salary at optimal, if not minimal, level and over and above it, additional honorarium based on his performance
during a particular period (monthly or quarterly) can be paid. In case found successful, such a system can be
replicated in a larger number of government Iorganizations.
Human Resource Development Through Training
The most significant factor leading to a high level of proficiency in the armed forces is continuous and rigorous
training -both technical and managerial. In several countries of the world, civil service training in is accorded a
high priority in the system of human resource management, but in India, except at the induction level, civil service
training is not accorded its due place. Former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi deserves credit for evolving and
enforcing a systematic pattern of in-service training for the all- India services. Similar initiative ought to be taken
for state well as local services. For this purpose, the National Training Policy of2012 ought to be rationally
implemented. Several states (like Rajasthan) have also brought out their own training policy. These documents,
well drafted as they are, should be implemented methodically and sincerity. One can hope and believe that a
sound pattern of compulsory in-service civil service training at various levels will improve the degree of positivity
in work culture.
Quality Circles
Borrowed from Japan, the system of quality circles, wherever applied, has generated most satisfying outcomes in
terms of creative ideas for improving organizational performance. Comprised of a few responsible
functionaries (say six to eight persons) in a particular segment of organization, these’ circles’, or thought groups’
meet regularly in order to think collectively and constrictively for improving the quality of structures, processes
and services of the organization. These micro-level organizations have a macro-level positive impact on work-
culture, work systems and on re-inventing the capabilities of organization.
Government organizations can arrange segment-wise agendaless meetings of functionaries to generate ideas for
reform, effect inter-level coordination, resolve differences, redress grievances and think futuristically.
Brainstorming sessions, whatever form they may take, are always helpful in improving organizational performance
and culture. It is time that systems of performance-accounting, performance-budgeting (or outcome budgeting)
and performance-audit were instituted with rigour.
It is gratifying that the issues pertaining to work culture, citizen satisfaction and individual as well as collective
[Link] in government organization are being accorded recognition and value. Eventually, the aim should be
to transform the overall culture of government organizations. That will be a great day in the contemporary history
of the governance system when the providers as well as receivers of government services experience real joy and
act enthusiastically to create a continent of happy organizations.
While most developed as well as developing countries of the extensively use computerbased technology in
the government policy and decision making processes, in India, such a transformation has been uneven and slow.A
large number of employees at the middle and the lower levels have yet to attune themselves to the use of
computer technology in government operations. Accessing files through computers is difficult and complex for a
good number of employees Hence, the need is to train the government employees in the use ofICT in governance
and monitor their growth as sound professionals.
Culture of Centralization and Multi-Level Decision Making
The hierarchical system in Indian administration presents a paradox: while a decision unites several channels
through which a file has to pass, the final decision lies with the top executive who may agree or disagree with any
or all of the noting made at the lower and the middle levels. A long journey of slow-moving file is characterized by
avoidable delays. And besides, the decisions made by the top man may sometimes be lacking in quality. The need,
therefore, is to strengthen a system of decentralization and delegation. Proper brainstorming, consultations and
the adoption of the technique of Management by Objectives of Peter Drucker (where goals and targets are
discussed between the higher and the lower executives) can certainly enhance the quality of decision making.
The hierarchical system should be properly blended with the positive role of specialists, expertsand technocrats.
The respective roles of such specialized functionaries need to be provided icognizance in policy and decisional
systems.
What does positive work culture signify. Briefly, it is characterized by:
• People’s love for work. They enjoy their work. It is not a burden or ‘load’ to them.
• There is a missionary zeal among the personnel.
Placement Policy
It is axiomatic to suggest that each official position in government should be manned by an appropriately
competent person who should be given a minimum tenure of two to three years on the same position.
Uhfortunately, a sound placement policy in government organization is conspicuous by its absence. Officers
and other employees are shuttled and shifted from one post to the other without much regard to their
background, interest, experience and specialization. And the transfer policy in most states is eclectic or erratic,
thus starving crucial government positions of competence, continuity and profundity.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has been stressing the need to give a sufficiently longer tenure (two to three
years) to public officials holding responsible positions. A similar view was underscored by the Second
Administrative Reforms Commission. Though this maxim of long tenure has been implemented in the case a few
highest level positions in the Government of India, it has not penetrated into the corridors of state governance
systems. As a result, there is abysmal wastage of talent and time, leading to low functional efficacy. Therefore,
adopting a rational and systematic approach to placement would help improve work culture in government
system.
Concern for Punctuality
Although the Indian society isnot known for punctuality, the condition in government systems causes greater
concern. In case a government office (more particularly at the state level) starts working officially at 9:30 am, most
of its officers at middle and the lower levels will tum up after 10:00 am. A few tough bosses do make the difference,
but the fact remains that punctuality has a low priority in the attitudes and actions of government personnel. No
doubt, there are a few exceptions, but exceptions only prove the rule. What is more vexatious is low productivity
of employees during the working hours. Tea and lunch breaks, avoidable meetings and light gossip sessions reduce
the time available for serious work.
The situation is not that bad in all cases. There is divergence of cultures in various states and in different offices
within a state, but the general impression is that out of eight working hours, only less than fifty percent of time is
used for serious work. Kautilya in Arthashastra underscores the significance of rigorous supervision over the work
performance of subordinates. Leadership can make a difference in changing the attitudes of subordinates.
The emergent system of biometric attendance in a few states and offices has proved to be effective, but it ought
to become ubiquitous in order to be truly impressive as an instrument of improving administrative performance.
Time Management
Peter Drucker, a most eminent Management expert of contemporary times, had once observed that the first
problem of modern managers was time management. In a large number of central government organizations,
a few state governments, certain public enterprises and select autonomous organizations, one finds a growing
respect for the principles of time management, including enhanced concern for time savers, reducing time
wasters, prioritizing work, preparing to-do lists, honouring deadlines etc., yet most state departments, urban local
government bodies, panchayati raj institutions, hospitals and social service bodies are lax in this domain. No
doubt, there are islands of excellence in the realm of time management, but these select institutions are not
adequate to erase the stigma attached to most government agencies for a palpable apathy towards managing time
in a rational manner.
What is good about the situation is that in terms of punctuality and time management, there is considerable
resilience among government employees. When situations or bosses demand, they can be extra cautions
about punctuality and efficiency but conversely, when there is laxity, they enjoy their freedom of being flexible
about office time and its use.
In his monumental work, Asian Drama , the renowned economist, Gunnar Myrdal, had termed India as a “soft
state.” In a soft state, hard decisions are rarely made, there is a casual approach to work performance, the
violators of laws and rules are not appropriately penalized and compassion is miscued to benefit the wrong- doers.
Yes, in terms of time management, India continues to be a soft state. That is why it is essential that the norms of
punctuality and work performance should be institutionalized in Indian government offices, public enterprises and
even in the local government agencies.
The Holiday Culture
Perhaps the largest number of government holidays in a year is found in India. Being a multicultural society, India
has an abundant number of gazetted holidays, casual leave, privilege leave, sick leave et al. State government
employees are privileged to obtain the advantages of Central Pay Commission’s generous declarations about
salary and allowances but seem unwilling to reduce their holidays to the level of Central government employees.
And when casual leave needs to be consumed by the December of every calendar year, a good number of
government personnel exhaust their casual leave, without any legitimate reasons to justify it. Personal privileges
take precedence over professional obligations.
There is an obvious need to reduce the number of holidays in all government organizations. Let the number of
‘restricted’ holidays be increased and general gazette holidays be reduced. Most religious holidays can be
converted into restricted holidays the number of which should be uniform for all employees to whichever religion
or sect they may belong.
Recently, there was a demand that the summer as well as winter vacations of judges should be reduced
considerably in view of the massive pendency of judicial cases in courts. Moreover, it is argued that almost all
courts are equipped with air-conditioning facility. Public servants in the country of Asoka, Kautilya, Gandhi, Nehru
and Ambedkar (all great examples of hard and desiccated work) should voluntarily come out of their comfort zone
(Didn’t Nehru say “Aaram Haraam Hai”?)
Professional Loyalty
Loyalty to one’s profession and organization is requisite to positive work culture. Unfortunately, the Indian
state and society have failed to inculcate a sense of belonging and loyalty among its employees toward the
government that nurtures and nourishes them and their families. There is hardly any perceptible attachment of
government employees to their organizations and the mother institution, the government. No wonder, by
most government employees, work is treated as a ‘load’ and not as ‘worship.’
It is ironic that in a deeply religious society, work ethics is woefully deficient. The Hindus do claim their faith in
Karma Yoga of Lord Krishna; Prophet Mohammad, whose life inspires all Muslims, never took rest for a single day
in his entire life; the Sikhs have a God-like hero in the saint-soldier, Guru Gobind Singh; Zoroaster, the spiritual
mentor of the Parsees, was the first great leader to highlight the value of time management; and the Christians
throughout the world are known for, their work-ethics. With such a positive and inspiring spiritual- culture milieu,
why is there an unsatisfactory work ethics in India? Why is manual labour despised? Why is a retinue of servants
and subordinates considered as mark of power and glory? Why luxury has overpowered the minds of the middle,
the upper middle and the rich classes, with other segments of society waiting in the wings to follow their more
fortunate brethren? Why Gandhi’s work ethics is being ignored so brazenly?
These are distressing questions and their responses will be no less painful. The roots of any socio-moral system lie
in the family, education and religion. There is need for families to accept the values of hard work and loyalty to
one’s occupation. Besides, the education system should inculcate values of diligence, devotion and honesty.
Further, it should be the obligation of all religious leaders to preach the value of performing one’s duties with
selfless sincerity.
Sri Aurobindo had remarked that whatever we do, we should do it as an offering to God, and hence, it should be
entail our best efforts. Interestingly, on the main gate ofKarnataka’s Vidhan Sabha is highlighted a message
“Government’s work is God’s Work.” The new India, as Prof. APJ Abdul Kalam exhorts, requires a new generation
of people with a mind that has faith in diligence and nationalism. These ideas collectively make the sinews of
a positive work culture.
Optimum Work
An untested yet obvious premise is that most (not all) government employees are underworked that is, their share
of work is less than what they can easily perform. Overstaffing in government offices has been caused by treating
the provision of employment in the government system as a social responsibility of the government towards its
people. Whenever work studies are conducted in government departments and public enterprises, more
particularly at the state level, it is revealed that the number of available man-hours for work far exceeds the
requirement, and this surplus available time has a chaotic impact on the work climate.
After the liberalization phase commenced in India in 1991, it was hoped that several government agencies will be
wound up, quite a few positions will be abolished and that there will be a pervasive downsizing of the
governmental superstructures. However, nothing of the sort occurred, primarily because of the pressures from
the supporters of the welfare state to continue to the policy of generous public employment.
There is need for undertaking an objective review of the current situation followed by a strong will on the part of
rulers to ‘right-size’ (including ‘downsize’) the government. Once such a bold (though politically unwelcome) step
is taken, there will be a possibility of a more balanced workculture in government. The process of assessing work
and staff requirement should continue as an essential exercise of good governance.
Procrastination and Revolving Deadlines
In a system of positive work culture, work should be prompt; promises must be kept; and deadlines must be met.
However, in government systems, one finds less respect for assurances made to citizens regarding the time-frame
for the delivery of services. Deadlines are met rarely and ‘red-tapism’ characterizes the government functioning.
All government agencies should have two sets of deadlines: the outer deadlines that are prescribed by higher
authorities or which are declared in citizen’s charters on the one hand and the inner deadline that ought to
precede the outer deadlines. As per the Parkinson’s Law, work expands so as to till the time available. Therefore,
the time frame for honouring assurances and meeting deadlines should be reduced to the minimum. Thus, an
effort should be made to enhance the goodwill of the concerned government agency. Needless to stress, sincere
attempts should be made to honour the time frame mentioned in the citizens’ charters and the public service
guarantee legislations. A few district collectors across states have earned name for organizing excellent and
effective citizens service centres. These successful experiments should be replicated other districts and
extrapolated to the state level organizations.
CONCLUSION
Albert Low defines work as “the application of discretion within limits in order to produce a results. “Thus, work
is result-oriented and discretionary (up to a point), while ‘activity’ is neither. Only goal-oriented activity can be
termed ‘work’ or ‘action. The need is to make the government system goal-oriented and result oriented. This
would be possible when ‘work-ethic’ becomes the dominant creed of government functionaries. Work ethic forms
the moral dimension of work culture. It implies a devotion to duty and dedication to the performance of one’s
expected and prescribed obligation. There is another angle to this debate on work [Link], And this pertains to
‘ethics in work’ , which implies that whatever we do in the government system, we do it ethically.
The preceding page on work culture in India are intricately related to the issues of ethics and integrity in public
services and hence deserve serious attention of all those who are part or desire to be a part of the government
system.

*********
 CHAPTER 23: 2ND ARC REPORT ON
ETHICS IN GOVERNANCE SUMMARY.
The Commission believes that this Report on Ethics in Governance is among the most important that this
Commission has been called upon to write, because increased honesty in governance would have a major impact
on the everyday lives of the people of India. When the recommendations in this report are implemented, greater
efficiency in government work and accountability would be achieved, because more public servants would work
not with a private agenda but for the larger public good. Equally importantly, a more corruption free regime would
lead to a much higher rate of growth of our GDP, bring an overall improvement in the economy and lead to greater
transparency in government actions in serving its people.
All this, in turn, will lead to greater empowerment of the people - the core need of a vibrant democracy.
Reform of Political Funding
A system for partial state funding should be introduced in order to reduce the scope of illegitimate and
unnecessary funding of expenditure for elections.
Tightening of Anti-Defection Law
The issue of disqualification of members on grounds of defection should be decided by the President/Governor
on the advice of the Election Commission.
Disqualification
Section 8 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 needs to be amended to disqualify all persons facing
charges related to grave and heinous offences and corruption, with the modification suggested by the Election
Commission.
Coalition and Ethics
The Constitution should be amended to ensure that if one or more parties in a coalition with a common
programme mandated by the electorate either explicitly before the elections or implicitly while forming the
government, realign midstream with one or more parties outside the coalition, then Members of that party or
parties shall have to seek a fresh mandate from the electorate.
Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner/Commissioners
A collegium headed by the Prime Minister with the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the Leader of Opposition in the Lok
Sabha, the Law Minister and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha as members; should make recommendations
for the consideration of the President for appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election
Commissioners.
Expediting Disposal of Election Petitions
Special Election Tribunals should be constituted at the regional level under Article 323B of the Constitution to
ensure speedy disposal of election petitions and disputes within a stipulated period of six months. Each Tribunal
should comprise a High Court Judge and a senior civil servant with at least 5 years of experience in the conduct of
elections (not below the rank of an Additional Secretary to Government of India/Principal secretary of a State
Government). Its mandate should be to ensure that all election petitions are decided within a period of six months
as provided by law. The Tribunals should normally be set up for a term of one year only, extendable for a period
of 6 months in exceptional circumstances. .
Grounds of Disqualification for Membership
Appropriate legislation may be enacted under Article 102( e) of the Constitution spelling out the conditions for
disqualification of Membership of Parliament in an exhaustive manner. Similarly, the States may also legislate
under Article 198(e).
Ethical Framework for Ministers
a. In addition to the existing Code of Conduct for Ministers, there should be a Code of Ethics to provide guidance
on how Ministers should uphold the highest standards of constitutional and ethical conduct in the
performance of their duties.
b. Dedicated units should be set up in the offices of the Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers to monitor the
observance of the Code of Ethics and the Code of Conduct. The unit should also be empowered to receive
public complaints regarding violation of the Code of Conduct.
c. The Prime Minister or the Chief Minister should be duty bound to ensure the observance of the Code of
Ethics and the Code of Conduct by Ministers. This would be applicable even in the case of coalition
governments where the Ministers may belong to different parties.
d. An annual report with regard to the observance of these Codes should be submitted to the appropriate
legislature. This report should include specific cases of violations, if any, and the action taken thereon.
e. The Code of Ethics should inter, alia include broad principles of the Minister-civil servant relationship and the
Code of Conduct should stipulate the details.
f. The Code of Ethics, the Code of Conduct and the annual report should be put in the public domain.
Enforcement of ethical norms in Legislatures
An Office of ‘Ethics Commissioner’ may be constituted by each House of Parliament. This Office, functioning under
the Speaker/Chairman, would assist the Committee on Ethics in the discharge of its functions, and advise
Members, when required, and maintain necessary records.
Office of Profit
The Law should be amended to define office of profit based on the following principles:
(i) All offices in purely advisory bodies where the experience, insights and expertise of a legislator would be
inputs in governmental policy, shall not be treated as offices of profit, irrespective of the remuneration and
perks associated with such an office.
(ii) All offices involving executive decision making and control of public funds, including positions on the
governing boards of public undertakings and statutory and non-statutory authorities directly deciding policy
or managing institutions or authorizing or approving expenditure shall be treated as offices of profit,
and no legislator shall hold such offices.
(iii) If a serving Minister, by virtue of office, is a member or head of certain organizations like the Planning
Commission, where close coordination and integration between the Council of Ministers and the
organization or authority or committee is vital for the day-today functioning of government, it shall not be
treated as office of profit.
b. Schemes such as MPLADS and MLALADS should be abolished.
c. Members of Parliament and Members of State Legislatures should be declared as ‘Public Authorities’ under
the Right to Information Act, except when they are discharging legislative functions.
Code of Ethics for Civil Servants
a. ‘Public Service Values’ towards which all public servants should aspire; should be defined and made
applicable to all tiers of Government and parastatal organizations. Any transgression of these values should
be treated as misconduct, inviting punishment.
b. Conflict of interests should be comprehensively covered in the code of ethics and in the code of conduct for
officers. Also, .serving officials should not be nominated on the Boards of Public undertakings. This will,
however, not apply to non-profit public institutions and advisory bodies.
Code of Ethics for Regulators
A comprehensive and enforceable code of conduct should be prescribed for all professions with statutory backing.
Defining Corruption
a. The following should be classified as offences under the Prevention of Corruption Act:
• Gross perversion of the Constitution and democratic institutions amounting to wilful violation of
oath of office.
• Abuse of authority unduly favouring or harming someone.
• Obstruction of justice.
• Squandering public money.
Sanction for Prosecution
a. Prior sanction should not be necessary for prosecuting a public servant who has been trapped red-handed
or in cases of possessing assets disproportionate to the known sources of income.
b. The Prevention of Corruption Act should be amended to ensure that sanctioning authorities are not
summoned and instead the documents can be obtained and produced before the courts by the appropriate
authority.
c. The Presiding Officer of a House of Legislature should be designated as the sanctioning authority for MPs and
MLAs respectively.
d. The requirement of prior sanction for prosecution now applicable to serving public servants should also apply
to retired public servants for acts performed while in service.
Speeding up Trials under the Prevention of Corruption Act
a. A legal provision needs to be introduced fixing a time limit for various stages of trial. This could be done by
amendments to the CrPC.
b. Steps have to be taken to ensure that judges declared aS Special Judges under the provisions of the
Prevention of Corruption Act give primary attention to disposal of cases under the Act. Only if there is
inadequate work under the Act, should the Special Judges be entrusted with other responsibilities.
Protection to Whistleblowers
a. Legislation should be enacted immediately to provide protection to whistleblowers on the following lines
proposed by the Law Commission:
• Whistleblowers exposing false .claims, fraud or corruption should be’ protected by’. ensuring
confidentiality and anonymity, protection from victimization in career, and other administrative
measures to prevent bodily harm and harassment.
• The legislation should cover corporate whistle-blowers unearthing fraud or serious damage to public
interest by willful acts of omission or commission.
• Acts of harassment or victimization of or retaliation against, a whistleblower should be criminal offences
with substantial penalty and sentence.
Immunity Enjoyed by Legislators
a. The Commission, while endorsing the suggestion of the National Commission to Review the Working of
the Constitution, recommends that suitable amendments be effected to Article 105(2) of the Constitution to
provide that the immunity enjoyed by Members of Parliament does not cover corrupt acts committed by
them in connection with their duties in the House or otherwise.
b. The Commission also recommends that similar amendments may be made in Article 194(2) of the
Constitution in respect of members of the state legislatures.
Constitutional Protection to Civil Servants - Article 311
a. Article 311 of the Constitution should be repealed.
b. Simultaneously Article 310 of the Constitution should also be repealed.
c. Suitable legislation to provide for all necessary terms and conditions of services should be provided under
Article 309, to protect the bona fide action of public servants taken in public interest; this should be made
applicable to the States.
d. Necessary protection to public servants against arbitrary action should be provided through such legislation
under Article 309.
Strengthening Investigation and Prosecution
a. The State Vigilance Commissions/Lokayuktas may be empowered to supervise the prosecution of corruption
related cases.
b. The investigative agencies should acquire multi-disciplinary skills and should be thoroughly conversant with
the working of various offices/departments. They should draw officials from different wings of government.
c. Modem techniques of investigation should also be deployed like electronic surveilance, video and audio
recording of surprise inspections, traps, searches and seizures.
d. A reasonable time limit for investigation of different types of cases should be fixed for the investigative
agencies.
Citizens’ Initiatives
a. Citizens’ Charters should be made effective by stipulating the service levels and also the remedy if these
service levels are not met.
b. Citizens may be involved in the assessment and maintenance of ethics in important government institutions
and offices.
c. Reward schemes should be introduced to incentivise citizen’s initiatives.
d. School awareness programmes should be introduced, highlighting the importance of ethics and how
corruption can be combated.
Role of Media
a. It is necessary to evolve norms and practices requmng proper screening of all allegations/complaints by
the media, and taking action to put them in the public domain.
b. The electronic media should evolve a Code of Conduct and a self regulating mechanism in order to adhere to
a Code of Conduct as a safeguard against malafide action.
c. Government agencies can help the media in the fight against corruption by disclosing details about
corruption cases regularly.
Social Audit
a. Operational guidelines of all developmental schemes and citizen centric programmes should provide for
a social audit mechanism.
Simplifying Transactions
a. There is need to bring simplification of methods to the center-stage of administrative reforms. Leaving aside
specific sectoral requirements, the broad principles of such reforms must be: adoption of ‘single window’
approach, minimizing hierarchical tiers, stipulating time limits for disposal etc.
b. The existing Departmental Manuals and Codes should be thoroughly reviewed and simplified with a
responsibility on the Head of the Department to periodically update such documents and make available
soft-copies on-line and hard copies for sale. These manuals must be written in very precise terms, and
phrases like ‘left to the discretion of, ‘as far as possible’, ‘suitable decision may be taken’ etc should be
avoided. This should be followed for all rules and regulations governing issue of permissions, licenses etc.
c. A system of rewards and incentives for simplification and streamlining of procedures may be introduced in
each government organization.
d. The principle of ‘positive silence’ should generally be used, though this principle cannot be used in all cases.
Wherever permissions/licenses [Link] to be issued, there should be a time limit for processing of the same
after which permission, if not already given, should be deemed to have been granted. However, the rules
should provide that for each such case the official responsible for the delay must be proceeded against.
Using Information Technology
a. Each Ministry/Department/Organization of Government should draw up a plan for use of IT to improve
governance. In any government process, use of-Information Technology should be made only after the
existing procedures have been thoroughly re-engineered.
b. The Ministry of Information and Technology needs to identify certain governmental processes and then take
up a project of their computerization on a nationwide scale.
c. For computerization to be successful, computer knowledge of departmental officers needs to be upgraded.
Similarly, the NIC needs to be trained in department specific activities, so that they could appreciate each
other’s view point and also ensure that technology providers understand the anatomy of each department.
Integrity Pacts
a. The Commission recommends encouragement of the mechanism of ‘integrity pacts’. The Ministry of Finance
may constitute a Task Force with representatives from Ministries of Law and Personnel to identify the type
of transactions requiring such pacts and to provide for a protocol for entering into such a pact. The Task Force
may, in particular, recommend whether any amendment in the existing legal framework like the Indian
Contract Act, and the Prevention of Corruption Act is required to make such agreements enforceable.
Reducing discretion
a. All government offices having public interface should undertake a review of their activities and list out those
which involve use of discretion. In all such activities, attempt should be made to eliminate discretion. Where
it is not possible to do so, well-defined regulations should attempt to ‘bound’ the discretion. Ministries and
Departments should be asked to coordinate this task in their organizations/offices and complete it within
one year.
b. Decision-making on important matters should be assigned to a committee rather than individuals. Care
has to be exercised, however, that this practice is not resorted to when prompt decisions are required.
c. State Governments should take steps on similar lines, especially in local bodies and authorities, which
have maximum ‘public contact’ .
Monitoring Complaints
a. All offices having large public interface should have an online complaint tracking system. If possible, this task
of complaint tracking should be outsourced.
b. There should be an external, periodic mechanism of ‘audit’ of complaints in offices having large public
interface.
c. Apart from enquiring into each complaint and fixing responsibility for the lapses, if any, the complaint
should also be used to analyse the systemic deficiencies so that remedial measures are taken.
Audit
a. It should be prescribed that as soon as any major irregularity is detected or suspected by the audit team, it
should be immediately taken note of by government. A suitable mechanism for this may be put in place.
It shall be the responsibility of the head of the office to enquire into any such irregularity and initiate action.
b. Audit teams should be imparted training in forensic audit.
c. Each office should make an annual public statement regarding pending audit queries.
Proactive Vigilance· on Corruption
Taking proactive vigilance measures should primarily be the responsibility of the head of the office.
Intelligence Gathering
Supervisory officers should assess the integrity of his/her subordinates based on his/her handling of cases,
complaints and feedback from different sources. This could then become an important input for risk profiling of
officers.
Vigilance Network
A national database containing the details of all corruption cases at all levels should be created. This database
should be in the public domain. Identified authorities should be made responsible for updating the database
regularly.
Protecting the Honest Civil Servant
a. Every allegation of corruption received through complaints or from sources cultivated by the investigating
agency against a public servant must be examined in depth at the initial stage itself before initiating any
enquiry. Every such allegation must be analyzed to assess whether the allegation is specific, whether it is
credible and whether it is verifiable. Only when an allegation meets. the requirements of these criteria,
should it be recommended for verification, and the verification must be taken up after obtaining approval of
the competent authority. The levels of competent authorities for authorizing verifications/enquiries must
be fixed in the anticorruption agencies for different levels of suspect officers.
b. In matters relating to allegations of corruption, open enquiries should not be taken up straightaway on the
basis of complaints/source information. When verification/secret enquiries are approved, it should be
ensured that secrecy of such verifications is maintained and the verifications are done in such a manner that
neither the suspect officer nor anybody else comes to know about it. Such secrecy is essential not only to
protect the reputation of innocent and honest officials but also to ensure the effectiveness of an open
criminal investigation. Such secrecy of verification/enquiry will ensure that in case the allegations are found
to be incorrect, the matter can be closed without anyone having come to know of it. The Inquiry / Verification
Officers should be in a position. to appreciate the sensitivities involved in handling allegations of corruption.
c. The evaluation of the results of verification/enquiries should be done in a competent and just manner. Much
injustice can occur due to faulty evaluation of the facts and the evidence collected in support of such facts.
Personnel handling this task should not only be competent and honest but also impartial and imbued with a
sense of justice.
d. Whenever an Inquiry Officer requires to consult an expert to understand technical / complex issues, he
can do so, but the essential requirement of proper application of mind has to take place at every stage to
ensure that no injustice is caused to the honest and the innocent.
e. Capacity building in the anti-corruption agencies should be assured through training and by associating the
required experts during enquiries/ investigations. Capacity building among public servants who are expected
to take commercial/financial decisions should be built through suitable training programmes.
f. The supervisory officers in the. investigating agencies should ensure that only those public servants are
prosecuted against whom the evidence is strong.
g. There should be profiling of officers. The capabilities, professional competence, integrity and reputation
of every government servant must be charted out and brought on record. Before proceeding against any
government servant, reference should be made to the profile of the government servant concerned.
h. A special investigation unit should be attached to the proposed Lokpal (Rashtriya Lokayukta)/State
Lokayuktasl Vigilance Commission, to investigate allegations of corruption against investigative agencies.
This unit should be multi-disciplinary and should also investigate cases of allegations of harassment against
the investigating agency. Similar units should also be set up in States.

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