Dr.

Tapas Das
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Generalized Mathematical model of an instrument

 An ordinary differential equation of nth order with constant coefficients can be considered to be a generalized model
for an instrument
 Solution of this equation for known input will give us the dynamic response

A general model equation:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑚 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ---------- + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ---------- + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡

Output: nth order differential equation

Input: mth order differential equation
Both, output and input are function of time
qo = output quantity
qin = input quantity
a,b = constant coefficients, combination of system parameters
 Initial conditions

Input, qin(t) Output, qo(t)

Instrument

Some known input will be provided to the system

If we consider known simple functional form for input qin, we can drop the differential term in input:

𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1 + ---------- + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In general application we use,

𝑑 𝑛 𝑞𝑜 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ---------- + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡
 Zero order instrument First order instrument

𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎1 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑞𝑜 = = 𝑘𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎0  + 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑘𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑏0
k= = static sensitivity 𝑎1
𝑎0 = = time constant
𝑎0

𝑏
k = 𝑎0 = static sensitivity
0
 Ratio of the change in the output
(response) of instrument to a change of
input or measured variable  Time constant describes the speed with which
the measured Process Variable (PV) responds
∆ 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 to changes in the Controller Output (CO)
 Sensitivity =
∆ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Second order instrument

𝑑2𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑎2 2 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑎2 𝑑2𝑞𝑜 𝑎1 𝑑𝑞𝑜 𝑏0
+ + 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞
𝑎0 𝑑𝑡2 𝑎0 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 𝑖𝑛

𝑑2𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
2
𝑑𝑡2
+ 2 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑞𝑜 = k𝑞𝑖𝑛

𝑏0
k=
𝑎0

𝑎1
= = Damping factor
2 𝑎0. 𝑎2
Note: It is difficult to deal with ordinary differential equations directly. So, we will take the help of Laplace
transformation to find out solutions for these complex equations

Laplace transform → Used to find out solution of ODE

converts
Laplace transform ODE Algebraic equation

Differential equation in ‘t’ domain Solution in ‘t’ domain

Laplace transform Inverse Laplace transform

Algebraic equation in ‘s’ domain Solution in ‘s’ domain

Laplace Transform of instruments: Transfer function

The nth order system model:

𝑎𝑛 𝐷 𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝐷𝑛−1 𝑦 + ………… + 𝑎2 𝐷2 𝑦 + 𝑎1 𝐷𝑦 + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑡
𝑆 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑌(𝑆) + 𝑆 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑌(𝑆) + ………… +𝑆 2 𝑎2 𝑌(𝑆) +𝑆𝑎1 𝑌(𝑆) + 𝑎0 𝑌(𝑆) = 𝑏0 𝑋 𝑆
[𝑆 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑆 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 + ………… +𝑆 2 𝑎2 +𝑆𝑎1 + 𝑎0 ] 𝑌(𝑆) = 𝑏0 𝑋 𝑆

𝑌(𝑆) 𝑏0
=
𝑋 𝑆 ( 𝑆 𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑆 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛−1 + ………… +𝑆 2 𝑎2 +𝑆𝑎1 + 𝑎0 )
𝑌(𝑆) 𝑏0
Zero order: =
𝑋 𝑆 𝑎0

𝑌(𝑆) 𝑏0
First order: =
𝑋 𝑆 𝑆𝑎1 + 𝑎0
𝑌(𝑆) 𝑏0
Second order: =
𝑋 𝑆 𝑆 2 𝑎2 +𝑆𝑎1 + 𝑎0
Y (S) = Laplace transform function of the instrument output
X (S) = Laplace transform function of the instrument input
Thank you
 Dr. Tapas Das
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Thank you
 Dr. Tapas Das
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
 Zero order instrument
𝑎0 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑏0 𝑞𝑖𝑛 Let, for total length, ‘L’ the resistance = Rp
𝑅𝑝
Ex: Displacement measuring potentiometer Resistance per unit length =
𝐿
𝐸𝑏
eo = Resistance at output ×
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Resistance wire 𝑅 𝐸 𝑥𝑖𝐸𝑏
= ( 𝐿𝑝 × 𝑥𝑖) 𝑅𝑏 = 𝐿
Sliding contact 𝑝

+ eo is directly proportional to xi

Eb L Sensitivity =
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
𝐸𝑏
eo 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐿
xi

Displacement is getting converted to electrical signal

 Applications of DMP

 DMPs are used in robotic systems and automated machinery to measure the position of moving parts.
 In aerospace engineering, DMPs are employed in aircraft and spacecraft systems to monitor the
position of various components, such as control surfaces, landing gear, or throttle levers
 DMPs are utilized in structural health monitoring systems to measure displacements in bridges,
buildings, and other structures. This data helps engineers assess the structural integrity and safety of
the infrastructure.
 DMPs can be integrated into medical devices for applications like measuring the displacement of joints
in orthopaedic equipment or monitoring the movement of certain medical instruments.
 DMPs are commonly used in laboratories and testing environments to measure the displacement or
deformation of materials under various conditions. This is essential in materials testing, fatigue testing,
and other research and development activities.
Displacement potentiometers are integrated into the solar tracker mechanism to measure the position of the
solar panels. The potentiometer is connected to the moving parts of the solar tracker, and its resistance
changes as the panels move to track the sun. The output signal from the displacement potentiometer is sent to
a control system, which uses this feedback to adjust the orientation of the solar panels. This ensures that the
panels are always facing the sun for optimal energy capture.
The sliding contact, also known as the wiper, of a potentiometer is typically made of a conductive material.
This conductive material establishes electrical contact with the resistive element of the potentiometer. As the
wiper slides along the resistive element, it can tap into different points along the resistance, allowing the
potentiometer to function as a variable resistor.
Common materials for the sliding contact include metals like copper or a conductive carbon composition.
The conductive nature of the sliding contact is essential for the potentiometer to measure and adjust electrical
voltage or current in a circuit.
  Thermometer bulb receives thermal energy
First order instrument  The mercury inside it undergoes restricted thermal expansion
Mercury-in-glass Thermometer  Mercury level goes up through the capillary
 From the scale on the thermometer, the temperature can be observed

Assumptions:
 There is no heat loss
 Physical properties of the thermometer fluid or Mercury does not change with time. So, density
of the Mercury and specific heat, etc. don’t change with time
 All the capacity to store thermal energy resides in the bulb
 All the resistance to flow this thermal energy also resides in the bulb

Temperature of the Thermometer bulb (Ttf) Ti(t)=Temperature of the fluid in the beaker
Ttf(t)= Temperature of the thermometer bulb
Temperature of fluid in the beaker (Ti)
xo= Displacement from reference mark, m
Kex=differential expansion coefficient of thermometer
fluid, m3/m3℃
Vb=Volume of bulb, m3
Ac=Cross-sectional area of the capillary tube, m2
xoAc=KexVb(Ttf-0)
𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏 𝑇𝑡𝑓
xo= 𝐴𝑐
Heat in-Heat out=Accumulation ρ𝐴𝑐 𝐶 𝑑𝑥𝑜 U𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑐
+ 𝑥 = 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇𝑖
Heat in=UAb(Ti-Ttf)dt 𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏 𝑜
Change in energy of thermometer=ρCVb(dTtf)
ρ𝐴𝑐 𝐶 𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏 𝑑𝑥𝑜 𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏
U=Overall HTC, W/m2℃ + 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇
𝐾𝑒𝑥 U𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑡 U𝐴𝑏 𝐴𝑐 𝑖
Ab=Area of bulb wall, m2
ρ𝐶𝑉𝑏 𝑑𝑥𝑜 𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏
C=Specific heat capacity of thermometer fluid, J(kg℃) + 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖
U𝐴𝑏 𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑐
ρ=Density of thermometer fluid, kg/m3
ρ𝐶𝑉 𝐾 𝑉𝑏
τ= U𝐴 𝑏 , k= 𝑒𝑥
𝑏 𝐴𝑐
UAb(Ti-Ttf)dt=ρCVb(dTtf)
𝑑𝑇𝑡𝑓
τ + 𝑇𝑡𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖
𝑑𝑇𝑡𝑓 𝑑𝑡
ρ𝑉𝑏 𝐶 = 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑖
τS𝑇𝑡𝑓 (S) + 𝑇𝑡𝑓 (S) =
𝑑𝑇𝑡𝑓 𝑆
ρ𝑉𝑏 𝐶 + 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇𝑡𝑓 = 𝑈𝐴𝑏 𝑇𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑖
(τS+1) 𝑇𝑡𝑓 (S) =
𝐾𝑒𝑥 𝑉𝑏 𝑇𝑡𝑓 𝑆
xo= 𝐴𝑐 𝑇𝑖
𝑇𝑡𝑓 (S) =
𝐴 𝑥 𝑆 (τS+1)
𝑇𝑡𝑓 =𝐾 𝑐 𝑉𝑜
𝑒𝑥 𝑏 𝑇𝑡𝑓 (t) = 𝑇𝑖 {1-e(-t/τ)}
The coefficient of volume expansion of the material of bulk solid is defined as the
increase in its volume per unit of original volume per degree rise in temperature

The specific heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat (J) absorbed per unit
mass (kg) of the material when its temperature increases 1 K (or 1 °C)
Rise time: Time required to achieve a response which is 90% of the final (steady) response
Response time/settling time: Time taken by the error |y(t)-y(s)| between y(t) and y(s) to fall to within ±2% of the y(s).
Thank you
 Dr. Tapas Das
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
 Zero order instrument

A Resistance wire
Sliding contact
C +
Eb L
xi eo

-
B
Q.1: A displacement potentiometer with a shaft stroke of 5 inch is applied to the circuit. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 8 KΩ. The applied voltage is 10 Volt. When the wiper is 1.5 inch from ‘B’, what is the value of
output voltage?

Q.2: A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3

inch is applied to the circuit. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 5 KΩ. The applied voltage is 5 Volt. When
the wiper is 0.9 inch from ‘B’, what is the value of output
voltage?

Q.3: A displacement potentiometer has a shaft stroke of 10

cm and a total resistance of 1000 Ω. The wiper is initially
at 2 cm position. If the wiper is moved to 8 cm position,
what is the change in voltage output given that the initial
voltage provided was 10 Volt?
In a distance potentiometer, the term "shaft stroke" refers to the maximum linear displacement or travel distance that the
potentiometer's wiper (sliding contact) can move along the resistive element. The wiper is typically attached to a shaft, and
as the shaft moves, the wiper makes contact with different points along the resistive track, allowing the potentiometer to
measure linear position or displacement.
Shaft: The shaft is a rod or spindle to which the wiper is attached. The shaft is responsible for translating the linear motion
or displacement into a rotational motion.
Wiper (Sliding Contact): The wiper is the part of the potentiometer that makes physical contact with the resistive
element. As the wiper moves along the resistive track, it taps into different segments of the resistance, creating a variable
voltage output.
Resistive Element: The resistive element is a track or strip of resistive material. The resistance along this track is tapped
into by the wiper, and the electrical output is proportional to the position of the wiper along the track.
The shaft stroke is important because it defines the range of linear displacement that the potentiometer can measure. It
represents the maximum distance the wiper can travel along the resistive track.
A thermometer with first order dynamics has a time constant
of 1 min. It is placed in a water bath at 100 deg F. After the
thermometer reaches steady state, it is suddenly placed in
another water bath at 110 deg F at t=0 and left there for 1 min.
Then it is immediately returned to the water bath at 100 deg F.
Calculate the thermometer reading at t=0.5 min and t=2 min
Q.4
Thank you
 Dr. Tapas Das
Assistant Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Q.4
Q. A Mercury thermometer has initial temperature of 20℃ and final temperature is 80℃ (consider the system
with first order step input). The time constant is 5 min. What is the value of temperature at t = 2 min? How much
time will the thermometer take to reach at 60 ℃?
Second order instrument

U-tube Manometer Pressure Gauge Galvanometer

U-tube Manometer
Q.5
Q.6