Unit – I

1. Ecology
 Introduction to ecology, definition, ecosystem, trophic levels, food chain and food web.
 Aquatic environment (pond and marine).
 Biomes – definition, terrestrial (tundra, alpine, forest, tropical savanna, grassland, desert, wetland).
 Ecological factors (biotic and abiotic).

Introduction to Ecology

Meaning and Origin of Ecology

The term ecology was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866). It is derived from two Greek
words:
Oikos = home or dwelling place
Logos = study
Thus, ecology literally means the study of organisms in their natural home.

Definition of Ecology
Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of interactions between organisms and their
environment, including both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.

Standard Definitions
Ernst Haeckel (1866):
Ecology is the study of the relationships of organisms with their surrounding environment.
Odum (1971):
Ecology is the study of the structure and function of nature.
Andrewartha (1961):
Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms.
These definitions together emphasize that ecology is concerned with interactions, distribution, abundance,
structure, and function of biological systems.

Scope of Ecology
Ecology operates at various levels of biological organization:
1. Organismal Ecology – Study of individual organisms and their adaptations
2. Population Ecology – Study of population size, density, growth, and regulation
3. Community Ecology – Study of interactions among different species
4. Ecosystem Ecology – Study of energy flow and nutrient cycling
5. Landscape Ecology – Study of spatial patterns and ecological processes
6. Global Ecology (Biosphere Ecology) – Study of global ecological processes and climate
interactions

Importance of Ecology
1. Helps in understanding environmental problems such as pollution, climate change, and biodiversity
loss
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 2. Essential for conservation biology and sustainable resource management
3. Provides the scientific basis for ecosystem services
4. Helps in predicting the impact of human activities on natural systems

Ecology as an Interdisciplinary Science

Ecology integrates concepts from:
1. Botany and Zoology
2. Geography and Geology
3. Chemistry and Physics
4. Mathematics and Statistics
5. Environmental Science
This makes ecology a holistic and systems-based science.

Components of Ecology

1. Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the physical and chemical factors of the environment that influence living
organisms. Which includes the following;
1. Light – source of energy for photosynthesis
2. Temperature – affects metabolic activities
3. Water – essential for life processes
4. Air (gases) – oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
5. Soil – provides nutrients and habitat
6. Minerals and nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
7. pH and salinity
These factors control the distribution and survival of organisms in an ecosystem.

2. Biotic Components
Biotic components include all living organisms in an ecosystem. They are grouped based on their role in
energy flow.

a) Producers (Autotrophs)
Organisms that produce their own food using sunlight (Photoautotrophs) or chemicals Chemoautotrophs).

Photoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using light energy. In Ecology, they are
considered primary producers because they form the first trophic level of an Ecosystem.

They use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds through the process of
Photosynthesis.
Examples; Green plants, Algae, Phytoplankton

Characteristics of Photoautotrophs
1. Use sunlight as the energy source
2. Use carbon dioxide as the carbon source
3. Contain photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll
4. Produce organic food molecules (glucose)
5. Release oxygen as a by-product

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Examples of Photoautotrophs; Green plants, Algae, Phytoplankton, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

Chemoautotrophs
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using energy obtained from chemical
reactions instead of sunlight. In Ecology, they are considered primary producers in certain environments.
They obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances and use that energy to convert carbon dioxide into
organic compounds.

Characteristics of Chemoautotrophs
1. Use chemical energy instead of sunlight
2. Obtain energy by oxidation of inorganic compounds
3. Use carbon dioxide as a carbon source
4. Mostly bacteria or archaea
5. Found in environments without sunlight

Common Energy (chemical energy) Sources Used

Chemoautotrophs obtain energy from substances such as: Ammonia (NH₃), Nitrite (NO₂⁻), Hydrogen
sulfide (H₂S), Iron (Fe²⁺), Hydrogen gas (H₂)

Examples of Chemoautotrophs; Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, Sulfur bacteria, Iron bacteria

These organisms are important in biogeochemical cycles, especially the Nitrogen Cycle.

b. Consumers
In Ecology, consumers are living organisms that cannot produce their own food. They obtain energy by
feeding on other organisms, so they are called heterotrophs.
Consumers play an important role in energy transfer and regulation of populations within an ecosystem.

Types of Consumers
1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores)
These animals feed directly on producers such as plants and algae.
Examples; Deer, Rabbit, Cow, Zooplankton
They form the second trophic level in a Food Chain.
2. Secondary Consumers (Primary Carnivores)
These animals feed on herbivores.
Examples; Frog, Lizard, Small fish, Spider
They occupy the third trophic level.
3. Tertiary Consumers (Secondary Carnivores)
These animals feed on secondary consumers.
Examples; Snake, Large fish, Fox
4. Quaternary Consumers (Top Carnivores)
These are top predators in the food chain and usually have no natural enemies.
Examples; Lion, Tiger, Eagle, Shark
5. Omnivores
Some consumers eat both plants and animals.
Examples; Humans, Bears, Crows
6. Detritivores and Decomposers (Reducers)
Detritivores are organisms that ingest and break down dead organic material (detritus).
Examples; Earthworms, Termites, Millipedes, Crabs
Decomposers - Organisms that break down dead plants, animals, and wastes into simpler substances.
Examples; Bacteria, Fungi
Role: Recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Ecosystem: Structure and Function
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The term ecosystem was proposed by A.G. Tansley (1935).
There are many other parallel terms such as biocoenosis (K. Möbius, 1877), holocoen (F.E. Clements,
1916), biosystem (Forbes, 1887), biome (Frederichs, 1930), biocenosis (Sukachev, 1944) and ecosphere
(Vernadsky, 1944).

Definitions of ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional, geographic unit where living organisms (biotic factors like plants, animals,
microbes) interact with each other and their non-living physical surroundings (abiotic factors like sunlight,
water, soil, air). These systems are defined by energy flows and nutrient cycles.
OR
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals, and microorganisms) interacting with
each other and with their non-living environment (air, water, soil, sunlight) in a particular area.

Standard Definitions
Tansley (1935):
An ecosystem is a system formed by the interaction of organisms with their physical environment.
Odum (1971):
An ecosystem is a basic functional unit of ecology.

Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem consists of an interconnected network of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-
living) components that interact to facilitate energy flow and nutrient cycling. It is defined by the
composition of species, biomass, and the physical environment, forming functional units like producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

1. Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the physical and chemical factors of the environment that influence living
organisms. Which includes the following;
1. Light – source of energy for photosynthesis
2. Temperature – affects metabolic activities
3. Water – essential for life processes
4. Air (gases) – oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
5. Soil – provides nutrients and habitat
6. Minerals and nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium
7. pH and salinity
These factors control the distribution and survival of organisms in an ecosystem.

2. Biotic Components
Biotic components include all living organisms in an ecosystem. They are grouped based on their role in
energy flow.

a) Producers (Autotrophs)
Organisms that produce their own food using sunlight (Photoautotrophs) or chemicals Chemoautotrophs).

Photoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using light energy. In Ecology, they are
considered primary producers because they form the first trophic level of an Ecosystem.

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They use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds through the process of
Photosynthesis.
Examples; Green plants, Algae, Phytoplankton

Characteristics of Photoautotrophs
6. Use sunlight as the energy source
7. Use carbon dioxide as the carbon source
8. Contain photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll
9. Produce organic food molecules (glucose)
10. Release oxygen as a by-product
Examples of Photoautotrophs; Green plants, Algae, Phytoplankton, Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

Chemoautotrophs
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that produce their own food using energy obtained from chemical
reactions instead of sunlight. In Ecology, they are considered primary producers in certain environments.
They obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic substances and use that energy to convert carbon dioxide into
organic compounds.

Characteristics of Chemoautotrophs
6. Use chemical energy instead of sunlight
7. Obtain energy by oxidation of inorganic compounds
8. Use carbon dioxide as a carbon source
9. Mostly bacteria or archaea
10. Found in environments without sunlight

Common Energy (chemical energy) Sources Used

Chemoautotrophs obtain energy from substances such as: Ammonia (NH₃), Nitrite (NO₂⁻), Hydrogen
sulfide (H₂S), Iron (Fe²⁺), Hydrogen gas (H₂)

Examples of Chemoautotrophs; Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, Sulfur bacteria, Iron bacteria

These organisms are important in biogeochemical cycles, especially the Nitrogen Cycle.

b. Consumers
In Ecology, consumers are living organisms that cannot produce their own food. They obtain energy by
feeding on other organisms, so they are called heterotrophs.
Consumers play an important role in energy transfer and regulation of populations within an ecosystem.

Types of Consumers
1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores)
These animals feed directly on producers such as plants and algae.
Examples; Deer, Rabbit, Cow, Zooplankton
They form the second trophic level in a Food Chain.
2. Secondary Consumers (Primary Carnivores)
These animals feed on herbivores.
Examples; Frog, Lizard, Small fish, Spider
They occupy the third trophic level.
3. Tertiary Consumers (Secondary Carnivores)
These animals feed on secondary consumers.
Examples; Snake, Large fish, Fox
4. Quaternary Consumers (Top Carnivores)
These are top predators in the food chain and usually have no natural enemies.
Examples; Lion, Tiger, Eagle, Shark
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5. Omnivores
Some consumers eat both plants and animals.
Examples; Humans, Bears, Crows
6. Detritivores and Decomposers (Reducers)
Detritivores are organisms that ingest and break down dead organic material (detritus).
Examples; Earthworms, Termites, Millipedes, Crabs
Decomposers - Organisms that break down dead plants, animals, and wastes into simpler substances.
Examples; Bacteria, Fungi
Role: Recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem.

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Trophic levels
Who eats whom? The feeding relations of the species in the community will determine the flow of energy
and materials from plants to herbivorous animals to carnivorous animals.

Trophic levels represent the hierarchical position of organisms within an ecosystem's food chain or web,
defined by their source of nutrition and energy transfer steps.

There are generally four to five levels, starting with producers, followed by primary, secondary, tertiary
consumers, and decomposers with energy diminishing (approx.10% transfer rate) at each step.
Key Components of Trophic Levels
Level 1: Producers (Autotrophs) or T1
Producers form the first trophic level.
They produce their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
They convert solar energy into chemical energy.
Examples; Green plants, Algae, Phytoplankton
Producers are the foundation of the Food Chain because they supply energy to all other organisms.
Importance in Ecosystems
Act as producers in dark environments such as deep oceans
Important in nutrient cycling
Help convert inorganic compounds into usable nutrients

Level 2: Primary Consumers (Herbivores) or T2

In Ecology, primary consumers occupy the second trophic level of a Food Chain. They are also called
herbivores because they feed directly on producers such as plants and algae.
Primary consumers obtain energy by eating autotrophs and then transfer this energy to higher trophic levels
in an Ecosystem.
Examples of Primary Consumers; Deer, Rabbit, Cow, Grasshopper, Zooplankton
Importance in the Ecosystem
Transfer energy from producers to higher trophic levels
Help control plant populations
Form an important link between plants and carnivores

Level 3: Secondary Consumers (Carnivores/Omnivores) or T3

In Ecology, secondary consumers occupy the third trophic level in a Food Chain. They obtain energy by
feeding on primary consumers (herbivores).
These organisms are mainly carnivores, but some omnivores can also act as secondary consumers when
they eat animals.
Role in the Ecosystem
Control herbivore populations
Maintain balance in the ecosystem
Serve as food for tertiary consumers

Level 4: Tertiary Consumers or T4

Tertiary consumers feed on secondary consumers. They are mostly large carnivores occupying the fourth
trophic level.
Examples; Snake, Large fish, Fox, Owl, Lion, Tiger, Eagle, Shark

Level 5: Quaternary Consumers (Top Predators) or T5

Quaternary consumers are the top predators of the [Link] occupy the fifth trophic level and feed
on tertiary consumers. They are usually apex predators with no natural predators.
Examples; Lion, Tiger, Eagle, Shark
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Role of Tertiary/Quaternary Consumers in the Ecosystem
Maintain population balance among organisms
Prevent overpopulation of lower trophic levels
Help maintain stability of the Ecosystem

Level 6: Detritivores / Decomposers or T6

Detritivores and decomposers are organisms that feed on dead plants, animals, and organic wastes. In
Ecology they are not restricted to a single trophic level; instead, they act across all trophic levels in an
Ecosystem.
They play a crucial role in breaking down organic matter and recycling nutrients back to the environment.
1. Detritivores
Detritivores are organisms that ingest and break down dead organic material (detritus).
Examples; Earthworms, Termites, Millipedes, Crabs
Role in the Ecosystem
Physically break down dead material into smaller particles, making it easier for decomposers to act.
2. Decomposers
Decomposers are mainly microorganisms that chemically break down complex organic substances into
simpler inorganic nutrients.
Examples; Bacteria, Fungi
These nutrients are then reused by producers in the Food Chain.
Role in the Ecosystem
Recycle nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon
Maintain soil fertility
Prevent accumulation of dead organic matter
Support energy flow within the ecosystem

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Food Chain in an Ecosystem
A food chain is a linear sequence that shows how energy and nutrients pass from one organism to another
in an ecosystem. It represents the pattern of “who eats whom”, and it always begins with producers.
Food chain can be three, four or five linked food chain.

Trophic Levels
A trophic level is the position an organism occupies in a food chain.
1. Producers (1st trophic level)
Green plants and algae.
They trap solar energy and convert it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
2. Primary consumers (2nd trophic level)
Herbivores that eat plants.
3. Secondary consumers (3rd trophic level)
Carnivores that eat herbivores.
4. Tertiary consumers (4th trophic level)
Carnivores that eat other carnivores.
5. Decomposers (5th trophic level)
Bacteria and fungi that break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients back to the ecosystem.

Energy Flow in a Food Chain

Energy flows in one direction—from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
1. According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, energy is neither created nor destroyed, only
transformed.
2. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, some energy is always lost as heat during
transfer.
At each trophic level:
Only about 10% of energy is passed to the next level.
About 90% is lost as heat and used for maintenance.
Because of this energy loss, food chains usually have only 4–5 trophic levels.

Examples of Food Chains

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Types of Food Chains
1. Grazing and Predator Food Chain
The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that begins with living green plants (producers) and passes
through herbivores to carnivores.
Key Features
It starts from autotrophs (green plants or phytoplankton).
Energy source is solar radiation.
Energy captured by plants through photosynthesis is transferred to herbivores and then to carnivores.
It is the most common type of food chain in nature.
Very important from an energy flow point of view.
Flow of Energy
Sun → Producers → Herbivores → Carnivores
Examples

When the sequence follows Producer → Herbivore → Carnivore, it is also called a predator chain.

2. Parasitic food Chains

In a parasitic chain, smaller organisms feed on larger ones without killing them immediately (unlike
predators).

3. Detritus Food Chain

The detritus food chain begins with dead organic matter, known as detritus. Detritus includes organic
wastes, excreta, fallen leaves, and dead plants and animals derived from the grazing food chain.

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Key Features of Detritus Food Chain
Starts from non-living organic matter.
Energy storage is mainly outside living organisms, in the detritus itself.
Energy flow is more continuous, rather than stepwise as in the grazing food chain.
In some ecosystems, more energy flows through the detritus chain than the grazing chain.

Organisms Involved
The detritus food chain includes a wide variety of organisms:
Microorganisms: bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, slime molds, protozoa
Small invertebrates: insects, mites, crustaceans, rotifers, nematodes, annelid worms
Other animals: centipedes, molluscs, some vertebrates
Some species are highly specific in their food requirements, while others can consume a wide variety of
decaying materials. For example:
Many protozoa require specific nutrients such as organic acids and vitamins.
Small soil insects like Collembola feed on decaying plant material, fungal fragments, spores, and other
organic debris.

Importance of Detritus Food Chain

1. Plays a crucial role in energy flow within ecosystems.
2. Helps in nutrient recycling.
3. Maintains soil fertility and ecosystem stability.
4. Essential for decomposition and breakdown of organic matter.

Significance of Food Chains

1. Helps understand feeding relationships.
2. Explains energy flow in ecosystems.
3. Shows matter circulation.
4. Helps study biological magnification (e.g., accumulation of DDT).
5. Useful in ecological research (gut analysis, radioactive isotopes, etc.).
Thus a food chain is essential for maintaining ecosystem balance. It ensures energy transfer from producers
to consumers and supports life processes. However, due to energy loss at each trophic level, the length of a
food chain remains limited.

Food Web in Nature

In natural ecosystems, simple food chains are rare. Most organisms feed on more than one type of food and
may also be eaten by multiple predators. Because of this, different food chains become interconnected,
forming a complex network known as a food web.
A food web shows how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem by linking multiple food chains
together.

A food web is a complex, interconnected system of food chains that reflects real feeding relationships in
nature. It provides stability to ecosystems because organisms have multiple feeding options, reducing
dependence on a single food source.

Food Webs Are Complex because,

1. The same organism may operate at more than one trophic level.
2. An organism may feed on several different organisms from lower trophic levels.
3. It may also be eaten by several organisms from higher trophic levels.
4. Food habits often change with age and availability of food.
Thus, food chains intersect and form a network rather than remaining linear.

Trophic Levels in a Food Web

In a complex food web, we can identify different trophic levels:
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1st Trophic Level (Primary Producers): Organisms that produce their own food, typically through
photosynthesis (e.g., plants, algae, bacteria).
2nd Trophic Level (Primary Consumers): Herbivores that feed exclusively on producers (e.g., insects, deer,
mice).
3rd Trophic Level (Secondary Consumers): Carnivores and omnivores that prey on primary consumers
(e.g., snakes, frogs, small fish).
4th Trophic Level (Tertiary Consumers): Larger carnivores that eat secondary consumers (e.g., hawks,
sharks, wolves).
5th Trophic Level (Apex Predators): Top predators with no natural predators in their ecosystem.
Classification by trophic level is based on function, not species.
 A single species may occupy more than one trophic level.

Connectance of a Food Web

The complexity of a food web is measured by connectance:

Higher connectance → More interactions between species

Lower connectance → Fewer interactions relative to possible ones
As the number of species increases, connectance generally decreases.

General Features of Food Webs

1. Food webs are generally not extremely complex.
2. As more species are added, connectance falls.
3. Omnivores are rare (except in insect communities).
4. When omnivores occur, they usually feed on species in adjacent trophic levels.
5. Food webs are rarely divided into completely separate compartments.
6. The number of predator species usually exceeds prey species, averaging about 1.3 predator species
per prey species.

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Kinds of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent, and large or small. Thus, various
constituent ecosystems of the biosphere fall into the following categories:

1. Natural Ecosystems
These types of ecosystems operate by themselves without any major interference by man. Based upon the
particular kind of habitat, they are classified into:

(i) Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems that exist in water environments, where organisms interact with each
other and with their physical surroundings.
These may be further distinguished as follows:

(a) Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems that contain very low salt content (less than 1%) and
support a wide variety of living organisms. These may be:
Lotic (running water): They mainly refer to the rapidly flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way
including the rivers, streams, spring, and brooks.
Lentic (standing water): They include all standing water habitats. Lakes, pond, pool, puddle, ditch, swamp
are the main examples of Lentic Ecosystem.

(b) Marine Ecosystems

Marine ecosystems are aquatic ecosystems found in saltwater (oceans and seas) with high salinity (~35%).
These include saltwater bodies which may be deep bodies as oceans or shallow ones such as seas or
estuaries or coral reefs.

Aquatic Ecosystems
│
├── Freshwater Ecosystems
│ │
│ ├── Lentic (Still Water)
│ │ ├── Lakes
│ │ └── Ponds
│ │
│ └── Lotic (Flowing Water)
│ ├── Rivers
│ └── Streams
│
├── Marine Ecosystems (Saltwater)
│ │
│ ├── Oceans
│ ├── Coral Reefs
│ └── Deep Sea
│
└── Brackish Water Ecosystems (Mix of Fresh & Saltwater)
│
├── Estuaries
├── Mangroves
└── Coastal Lagoons

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(ii) Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems that occur on land, where organisms interact with each other and
with the physical environment.

Major Terrestrial Biomes

│
├── Tundra
│ ├── Arctic tundra
│ └── Alpine tundra
│
├── Forest
│ ├── Boreal (Taiga / Coniferous)
│ ├── Temperate
│ │ ├── Deciduous
│ │ ├── Evergreen Woodland (Chaparral)
│ │ └── Rainforest
│ └── Tropical
│ ├── Rainforest
│ ├── Seasonal Forest
│ └── Subtropical Rainforest
│
├── Grassland
│ ├── Temperate
│ │ ├── Prairie
│ │ ├── Steppe
│ │ ├── Pampas
│ │ └── Veld
│ │
│ │ └── Temperate Grasslands in India
│ │ ├── Himalayan Region
│ │ └── Cold Desert Regions
│ │
│ └── Tropical (Savanna)
│ ├── Tropical Wet Savanna
│ ├── Dry Savanna
│ ├── Woodland Savanna
│ ├── Flooded Savanna
│ └── Montane Savanna
│
│ └── Savannas in India
│ ├── High Savanna
│ ├── Moist Sal Savanna
│ ├── Low Alluvial Savanna Woodland
│ ├── Dry Savanna
│ └── Saline Alkaline Scrub Savanna
│
├── Desert
│ ├── Hot and Dry Desert
│ ├── Cold Desert
│ ├── Coastal Desert
│ ├── Semi-arid Desert
│ ├── Subtropical Desert
│ └── Rain Shadow Desert
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│
└── Mountain (Alpine)
├── A. Based on Altitude Zones
│ ├── Sub-alpine Zone (below tree line; shrubs & small trees)
│ ├── Alpine Zone (above tree line; grasses & small plants)
│ └── Nival Zone (snow-covered; very little vegetation)
│
├── B. Based on Climate
│ ├── Cold Alpine Regions
│ └── Temperate Alpine Regions
│
├── C. Based on Location
│ ├── Tropical Alpine
│ ├── Temperate Alpine
│ └── Polar Alpine
│
├── D. Mountain Zones (Vertical Distribution)
│ ├── Montane Forest (lower slopes)
│ ├── Subalpine Zone
│ ├── Alpine Tundra (above tree line)
│ ├── Nival Zone (snow peaks)
│ └── Glacial Region
│
└── E. Based on Tectonic Forces (Formation)
├── Fold Mountains
├── Block Mountains
├── Volcanic Mountains
└── Residual (Erosional) Mountains
2. Artificial Ecosystems
These are also called man-made or man-engineered ecosystems. These are maintained artificially by man,
where natural balance is disturbed regularly, e.g., by addition of energy and planned manipulations.
Examples: sugarcane field, maize field, rice field, orchards, gardens, villages, cities, dams, aquarium, and
manned spaceship.

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Pond ecosystem
├── 1. Abiotic Components (Non-living)
│ │
│ ├── Climatic / Physical Factors
│ │ ├── Light
│ │ ├── Temperature (Heat)
│ │ └── pH of water
│ │
│ ├── Inorganic Substances
│ │ ├── Water
│ │ ├── CO₂, O₂, Nitrogen
│ │ └── Phosphates, Nitrates, Sulphates, Calcium, Potassium
│ │
│ └── Organic Substances
│ ├── Amino acids
│ ├── Humic acid
│ └── Humus (decomposed matter)
│
├── 2. Biotic Components (Living)
│ │
│ ├── A. Producers (Autotrophs)
│ │ │
│ │ ├── Macrophytes (Large plants)
│ │ │ ├── Submerged → Hydrilla, Vallisneria
│ │ │ ├── Floating → Nymphaea, Lemna, Eichhornia
│ │ │ └── Emergent → Typha, Sagittaria
│ │ │
│ │ └── Phytoplankton (Microscopic algae)
│ │ ├── Filamentous → Spirogyra, Ulothrix
│ │ └── Unicellular/Colonial → Chlorella, Volvox, Diatoms
│ │
│ ├── B. Consumers (Heterotrophs)
│ │ │
│ │ ├── Primary Consumers (Herbivores)
│ │ │ ├── Benthos → Molluscs, insect larvae, fish
│ │ │ └── Zooplankton → Rotifers, protozoa, crustaceans
│ │ │
│ │ ├── Secondary Consumers
│ │ │ ├── Small fish
│ │ │ ├── Water beetles
│ │ │ └── Frogs
│ │ │
│ │ └── Tertiary Consumers
│ │ └── Large fish (top carnivores)
│ │
│ └── C. Decomposers (Microconsumers)
│ ├── Bacteria
│ ├── Actinomycetes
│ └── Fungi → Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penicillium
│
└── Function
├── Nutrient Recycling
├── Decomposition of dead matter
└── Maintain ecological balance

A pond ecosystem is a small, shallow, and typically stagnant (lentic) freshwater body where biotic
communities (plants, animals, and microorganisms) interact with abiotic factors like (water, sunlight, and
nutrients).
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1. Abiotic Component
The chief non-living or abiotic substances in pond are:
Climatic/physical factors - heat, light, pH value of water.
Inorganic salts - calcium, nitrates, sulphates, potassium and calcium
Inorganic compounds - water, carbon dioxide gas, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphates
Organic compounds - amino acids, humic acid, etc..
Some nutrients occur in the form of humus (partially decomposed organic matter)

2. Biotic Component
It includes various organisms which are classified into the following types:
a. Producers
These are photoautotrophic green plants and photosynthetic bacteria.
Producers absorb radiant energy from the Sun and convert it into chemical energy through the process of
photosynthesis. Using: Sunlight (radiant energy), Water (from soil), Minerals (from soil/mud), Carbon
dioxide (from air).
They manufacture complex organic substances such as:Carbohydrates (like glucose), Proteins and
Lipids (fats).
Producers of pond are of following types:
Macrophytes
Macrophytes are large, visible hydrophytes found in pond ecosystems. They are usually rooted in the mud
and are classified into three main types of hydrophytes:
 Submerged Plants
These plants grow entirely or mostly beneath (partly or completely underwater) the water surface.
Examples: Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Chara, Utricularia
 Floating Plants
These plants float on the water surface, either rooted in the mud or free-floating.
Examples: Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Trapa, Azolla, Salvinia, Wolffia, Eichhornia, Spirodella,
Lemna
 Emergent Plants
These plants are rooted in water but extend above the surface.
Examples: Typha, Eleocharis, Sagittaria, Marsilea
Thus, macrophytes form an important component of the pond ecosystem and act as primary producers.

Phytoplanktons
Phytoplanktons are microscopic, floating or suspended lower plants (mostly algae) found in water bodies.
They are distributed throughout the water but are mainly concentrated in the photic zone (the upper layer
where sunlight penetrates), as they require light for photosynthesis.
Most phytoplanktons are filamentous algae, such as: Spirogyra, Cladophora, Ulothrix, Zygnema,
Oedogonium
Other common phytoplanktons include members of Chlorococcales and various unicellular or colonial
algae such as: Chlorella, Volvox, Diatoms, Closterium, Chlamydomonas, Spirulina, Anabaena,
Cosmarium, Eudorina, Pandorina, Pediastrum, Scenedesmus, Gloeotrichia, Microcystis, Oscillatoria
Some flagellates are also included among phytoplanktons.

b. Consumers
Consumers in a pond ecosystem are heterotrophic organisms (animals and bacteria) that depend on other
organisms for food.
Macroconsumers
Macroconsumers are phagotrophic heterotrophs that obtain their nutrition by ingesting organic food prepared by
producers (green plants). They cannot synthesize their own food. They directly or indirectly depend on producers for
energy.
18
Macroconsumers are of three main types:
Herbivores (Primary Consumers)
These organisms feed directly on producers (plants and phytoplankton) or plant remains. They are of two
main types:
 Benthos (Bottom Dwellers)
These live at the bottom of the pond. Examples include: Fish, Insect larvae, Beetles, Mites, Molluscs
such as Pila, Planorbis, Unio, Lamellidens, Crustaceans
 Zooplankton
These feed mainly on phytoplankton and float or swim in water.
Examples include:
Rotifers such as Brachionus, Asplanchna, Lecane
Protozoans such as Euglena, Coleps, Dileptus
Crustaceans such as Cyclops, Stenocypris
 In addition:
Mammals like cows and buffaloes may visit ponds to feed on rooted aquatic plants.
Some birds regularly feed on aquatic plants (hydrophytes).

Carnivores – Order 1 (Secondary Consumers)

These animals feed on herbivores.
Examples: Water beetles (feed on zooplankton), Nymphs of dragonflies (feed on aquatic insects), Small
fish, Amphibians such as frogs

Carnivores – Order 2 (Tertiary Consumers)

These are large carnivores that feed on smaller fish.
Examples: Large fish (game fish)
They occupy the top consumer level in the pond ecosystem.

c. Decomposers (Microconsumers)
Decomposers break down dead organic matter from both plants (producers) and animals (consumers) into
simpler substances.
Main Decomposers in a Pond:
1. Bacteria
2. Actinomycetes
3. Fungi such as: Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Cladosporium, Pythium, Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Thielavia, Alternaria, Trichoderma, Circinella, Fusarium, Curvularis, Paecilomyces, Saprolegnia
Importance:
Recycle nutrients back into the pond
Help maintain biogeochemical cycles
Maintain ecological balance

19
20
Marine Ecosystems

├── 1. General Features

│ ├── Covers ~70.8% of Earth surface
│ ├── Contains ~97% of Earth's water
│ └── Controls climate & rainfall
│
├── 2. Major Oceans
│ ├── Pacific Ocean – largest & deepest
│ ├── Atlantic Ocean – most saline
│ ├── Indian Ocean – 77 million km²
│ ├── Arctic Ocean – smallest
│ └── Southern Ocean – temperature variations
│
├── 3. Zonation of Marine Environment
│ │
│ ├── A. Pelagic Zone (Open water)
│ │ ├── Neritic Zone (near shore)
│ │ └── Oceanic Zone (deep sea)
│ │
│ │ Vertical Layers:
│ │ ├── Photic (0–200 m) → Sunlight, photosynthesis
│ │ ├── Mesopelagic (200–1000 m) → Low light
│ │ └── Bathypelagic (>1000 m) → Dark, high pressure
│ │
│ └── B. Benthic Zone (Ocean bottom)
│ ├── Littoral → Between tides
│ ├── Sublittoral → Continental shelf
│ ├── Bathyal → Slope
│ ├── Abyssal → Deep plains
│ └── Hadal → Trenches (>5000 m)
│
├── 4. Abiotic Factors
│ ├── Light → Photosynthesis, migration
│ ├── Temperature → Stable in deep sea
│ ├── Pressure → Increases with depth
│ ├── Salinity → ~3.5% salts
│ └── Currents & Tides → Nutrient movement
│
├── 5. Biotic Communities
│ │
│ ├── A. Oceanic (Pelagic Region)
│ │ ├── Producers → Phytoplankton (diatoms, algae)
│ │ ├── Zooplankton
│ │ │ ├── Holoplankton → Copepods, jellyfish
│ │ │ └── Meroplankton → Larval forms
│ │ └── Nekton → Fish, sharks, whales
│ │
│ ├── B. Abyssal Benthic Zone
│ │ ├── No sunlight, no plants
│ │ └── Detritus feeders → Sea cucumbers, starfish
│ │
│ ├── C. Continental Shelf
│ │ ├── Rich biodiversity
21
│ │ ├── Producers → Algae, seaweeds
│ │ ├── Zooplankton → Copepods
│ │ └── Nekton → Fish, whales, seals
│ │
│ └── D. Intertidal Zone (Sea Shore)
│ ├── Supratidal → Above high tide
│ ├── Intertidal → Between tides
│ └── Subtidal → Below low tide
│
└── 6. Challenges for Organisms
├── Wave action
├── Drying (desiccation)
├── Temperature changes
└── Exposure to air

A marine ecosystem includes all the saltwater areas of seas and oceans, estuaries or coral reefs.

Oceans and seas

Oceans and seas cover about 70.8% of Earth’s surface and contain about 97% of all water on Earth.
The average depth of oceans is about 3730 meters.

Importance of Oceans and seas

Oceans and sea control Earth’s climate by storing heat from the sun.
They also provide water for rainfall through the water cycle.

Major Oceans
1. Pacific Ocean – largest, deepest, coldest, and least salty.
2. Atlantic Ocean – warmer, more salty, and has the longest coastline with many natural harbours.
3. Arctic Ocean – the smallest and shallowest ocean.
4. Southern (Antarctic) Ocean – has large temperature changes.
5. Indian Ocean – covers about 77 million km² with an average depth of 3872 m.

Zonation of Marine Environment

The ocean is divided into two main regions:
1. Pelagic Zone
2. Benthic Zone

1. Pelagic Zone
The open water region.

Subdivisions:
a. Neritic zone – near the shore over the continental shelf.
b. Oceanic zone – deeper open ocean.

Vertical Layers of Pelagic Zone

a. Photic zone (0–200 m)
a. Sunlight present
b. Photosynthesis occurs.
b. Mesopelagic zone (200–1000 m)
a. Very little light
b. Low oxygen layer.
c. Bathypelagic zone (below 1000 m)
o Complete darkness

22
 o High pressure and low temperature.

2. Benthic Zone
The bottom of the ocean.
Subdivisions:
a. Littoral zone – between high and low tides.
b. Sublittoral zone – from low tide to continental shelf edge.
c. Bathyal zone – continental slope.
d. Abyssal zone – deep ocean plains.
e. Hadal zone – deep sea trenches (below 5000 m).

Abiotic Aspects / Physico-Chemical Aspects of Marine Environment

The marine environment is affected by several physical and chemical factors that influence marine life.
The main factors are light, temperature, pressure, salinity, tides, and currents.

1. Light
Light is very important for marine life and food production.
Plants and algae use light for photosynthesis to make food.
The amount of light depends on:
1. Light intensity
2. Water clarity (turbidity).
Clear ocean water allows light to reach deeper layers.
Light also affects:
3. Daily movement (migration) of marine organisms.
4. Colour of animals.
Deep-sea animals live in darkness, so they are often:
5. Colourless
6. Have poor or no eyes.

2. Temperature
Temperature changes in the sea are smaller than on land.
Tropical waters are warm (~27°C) and Arctic waters are very cold.
Coastal waters show more daily and seasonal temperature changes.
 Surface water: Coolest at morning and Warmest at evening.
Deep ocean water remains cold and stable.

3. Pressure
Pressure increases with depth in the ocean.
At the surface: 1 atmosphere (atm).
1. At great depths: up to 1000 atm.
2. Some organisms live only in surface waters, while others are adapted to deep sea pressure.
3. Animals like sperm whales and seals can dive deep and return safely.

4. Salinity
Sea water contains about 3.5% salt.
Main salts include: Sodium chloride, Magnesium, Calcium, Potassium salts.
Salinity varies in different places.
Marine animals have special adaptations to survive in salty water.
Most insects cannot live in seawater.

23
5. Currents and Tides
Currents
Ocean water is always moving due to winds, temperature, and density differences.
Currents move heat and nutrients and affect marine productivity and climate.
Tides
Tides are regular rise and fall of sea water.
Caused mainly by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun.
Tides affect shore organisms because:
 Low tide exposes the shore.
 High tide covers it with water.

Biotic Communities of Marine Ecosystems

Marine ecosystems are divided into different regions based on depth and distance from the shore. Each
region has its own biotic communities (living organisms).

Main marine communities:

1. Oceanic (Pelagic) Region
2. Abyssal Benthic Zone (Deep Sea Bottom)
3. Continental Shelf Region
4. Sea Shore / Intertidal Zone

1. Biotic Communities of Oceanic Region (Pelagic Zone)

The oceanic region is the open sea away from the coast.
Characteristics
Fewer species compared to coastal areas.
Water is very clear and transparent.
Many animals are transparent, bluish, or silvery to avoid predators.
Organisms live away from solid surfaces.
Organisms are divided into three groups:

Producers
(a) Phytoplankton
These are microscopic photosynthetic organisms that produce most of the organic carbon and oxygen in
the ocean.
Examples: Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Golden-brown algae, Green algae
Some seaweeds like Sargassum may float in the ocean.

Consumers
(b) Zooplankton (Animal Plankton)
Small animals that float in water.

Two types:
1. Holoplankton
Permanent plankton throughout life.
Examples:Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Arrow worms (Sagitta), Jellyfish, Crustaceans (like Copepods,
Shrimps, Cladocerans)
2. Meroplankton
Temporary plankton (larval stages of animals).
Examples:
Larvae of: Coelenterates, Molluscs, Annelids, Echinoderms, Crustaceans
Protochordates such as Salpa and Amphioxus

24
(c) Nekton
These are actively swimming animals.
Examples: Squids, Nautilus, Fishes, Sharks, Sea turtles, Whales, Sea birds
Surface fishes include: Tuna, Sardine, Mackerel, Anchovy, Herring
Deep sea fishes:
 Small in size
 Often have bioluminescent organs
 Large mouths to catch rare food.

2. Biotic Communities of Abyssal Benthic Zone (Deep Sea Bottom)

This region is the deep ocean floor.
Characteristics
Completely dark
No photosynthesis
No plants
Organisms depend on detritus (dead organic matter from upper layers).

Types of organisms
Most are: Detritus feeders and Carnivores (predators)
Examples: Sea cucumbers, Brittle stars, Sea urchins, Crinoids (sea lilies), Benthic fishes, Crustaceans,
Sea anemones, Clams
The sea floor contains soft sediments made of shells and organic remains of organisms like Foraminifera
and Radiolaria.

3. Biotic Communities of Continental Shelf

The continental shelf is the shallow sea area near the coast.

Characteristics
Very rich and diverse ecosystem
Plenty of sunlight and nutrients
Supports high biological productivity.

Producers
Main producers include: Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, Green algae, Brown algae, Red algae
Many seaweeds are harvested for food and commercial use.

Zooplankton
Similar to pelagic zone but more abundant.
Includes: Copepods (small crustaceans) and Larval forms of marine animals

Nekton
Examples: Squids, Whales, Seals, Sea otters, Sea snakes, Many fishes such as: Sharks, Sardines,
Anchovies, Cod, Salmon, Trout, Tuna, Mackerel, Flat fishes (sole, halibut)

4. Biotic Communities of Sea Shore (Intertidal Zone)

The intertidal zone is the area between high tide and low tide.
Zones
1. Supratidal zone – above high tide level
2. Intertidal zone – between high and low tide
3. Subtidal zone – below low tide

25
Characteristics
This zone is very unstable because organisms face:
Periodic exposure to air
Desiccation (drying)
Strong wave action
Temperature changes

26
Coral Reef as a Specialized Oceanic Ecosystem

├── Definition
│ → Specialized marine ecosystem in warm tropical oceans
│
├── Characteristics
│ │
│ ├── Warm, clear, shallow waters with sunlight
│ ├── Strong wave action (rough environment)
│ ├── Some areas exposed during low tide
│ └── High biodiversity despite harsh conditions
│
├── Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide
│ │
│ ├── High oxygen due to photosynthesis by algae
│ ├── Oxygen up to 250% saturation (daytime)
│ └── CO₂ quickly removed by water movement
│
├── Types of Coral Reefs
│ │
│ ├── Barrier Reefs
│ │ → Parallel to coast with lagoon
│ │ → Example: Great Barrier Reef
│ │
│ ├── Atolls
│ │ → Ring-shaped reefs around lagoon
│ │ → Formed on submerged volcanoes
│ │
│ └── Fringing Reefs
│ → Attached directly to coastline
│ → Example: Mandapam, Appa Island, Hare Island
│
├── Abiotic (Physico-Chemical) Factors
│ │
│ ├── Hard substrate for attachment
│ ├── Adequate sunlight
│ ├── Temperature ≥ 20.5°C
│ ├── Stable salinity
│ ├── Moderate water movement
│ └── Low sediments & no cold currents
│
├── Biotic Communities
│ │
│ ├── Reef-Building Organisms
│ │ → Stony corals (Porites, Acropora, Astraea, Millepora)
│ │ → Calcareous algae (cement reef structure)
│ │
│ ├── Producers (Seaweeds)
│ │ → Sargassum, Caulerpa, Ulva, Gracilaria
│ │
│ ├── Invertebrates
│ │ │
│ │ ├── Sponges → Spirastrella, Callyspongia
│ │ ├── Hydroids → Syncoryne, Sertularia
│ │ ├── Annelids → Nereis, Eunice
│ │ ├── Molluscs → Haliotis, Cypraea
│ │ └── Echinoderms → Holothuria, Proteaster
│ │
27
 │ ├── Vertebrates
│ │ │
│ │ ├── Fishes → Holocentrus, Chaetodon, Thalassoma
│ │ ├── Eels → Gymnothorax
│ │ └── Birds → Crested tern, Golden plover
│ │
│ └── Note
│ → Algal biomass ≈ 3× coral biomass
│
└── Importance
│
├── High biodiversity ecosystem
├── Supports marine food chains
├── Protects coast from waves
└── Provides habitat for many species

Coral reefs are special marine ecosystems found mainly in warm tropical oceans.

Characteristics of Coral Reefs

1. Coral reefs exist in clear, warm, shallow waters where sunlight is available.
2. The reef environment is rough and exposed to strong waves.
3. Some parts of the reef may even be exposed during low tide.
4. Despite this harsh environment, many organisms thrive there.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

1. Coral reefs contain a very high amount of oxygen because algae produce oxygen during
photosynthesis.
2. During the day, oxygen may reach 250% of normal saturation.
3. Carbon dioxide produced by organisms is quickly carried away by water movement.

Types of Coral Reefs

1. Barrier reefs – located parallel to the coast with a lagoon between the reef and land (example: Great
Barrier Reef of Australia).
2. Atolls – ring-shaped reefs surrounding a lagoon, usually formed on submerged volcanoes.
3. Fringing reefs – reefs directly attached to the coastline (example: Mandapam, Appa Island, Hare
Island).

Abiotic Aspects / Physico-Chemical Aspects of Coral Reefs

Coral reefs develop where:
 There is suitable hard substrate for attachment.
 Sunlight is available.
 Water temperature is about 20.5°C or higher.
 Salinity is stable.
 There is moderate water movement.
 Areas are free from heavy sediments and cold water currents.

Biotic Communities of Coral Reefs

Coral reefs support rich biodiversity.
Reef-Building Organisms
The main reef structure is formed by stony corals (madreporarian corals) such as: Porites, Acropora,
Astraea, Millepora
Other organisms also help build reefs: Calcareous algae (cement the reef structure, making it stronger
against waves)

28
  Interestingly, algae biomass is about three times greater than coral biomass.
Examples of other organisms found in reefs
Seaweeds (Sargassum, Caulerpa, Turbinaria, Ulva, Gracilaria)
Sponges (Spirastrella, Callyspongia)
Hydroids (Syncoryne, Sertularia, Tubularia)
Annelids (worms) (Nereis, Polynoe, Eunice)
Molluscs (Haliotis, Turbo, Nerita, Cypraea)
Echinoderms (Sea cucumbers (Holothuria), Starfish (Proteaster))
Fishes (Holocentrus, Chaetodon, Thalassoma, Zanclus)
Eels (Gymnothorax)
Birds (predators during low tide) (Crested tern, Golden plover)

29
Estuaries

├── Definition
│ → Transitional zone where freshwater mixes with seawater
│ → Derived from Latin “aestus” (tide)
│
├── Ecological Importance
││
│ ├── Brackish water (fresh + salt)
│ ├── High productivity
│ ├── Nursery for marine organisms
│ └── Unique biological community
│
├── Examples
││
│ ├── River mouths
│ ├── Coastal bays
│ ├── Tidal marshes
│ └── Barrier beach water bodies
│
├── Formation Processes of Deltas and Tidal Flats
││
│ ├── Sediment Deposition
│ │ → Delta formation, estuary shortening
││
│ ├── Tidal Flats
│ │ → Mud/silt exposed at low tide
││
│ └── Coastal Deposition
│ → Barrier beaches, islands, lagoons
│
├── Abiotic (Physico-Chemical) Factors
││
│ ├── Currents
│ │ → River flow + tides + wind
│ │ → Intertidal zones formed
││
│ ├── Salinity
│ │ → 0.5–35‰, varies daily & seasonally
│ │ → Surface less saline, bottom more saline
││
│ ├── Temperature
│ │ → Diurnal & seasonal variation
││
│ ├── Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
│ │ → Generally high due to turbulence
││
│ └── Nutrients
│ → Nutrient trapping, very high productivity
│
├── Zonation (Salinity-Based)
││
│ ├── Head → Freshwater
│ ├── Upper → Low salinity
│ ├── Middle → Moderate salinity
│ ├── Lower → High salinity
│ └── Mouth → Marine conditions
│

30
├── Biotic Communities
││
│ ├── Components
│ │ → Marine + Freshwater + Brackish species
││
│ ├── Plant Communities
│││
│ │ ├── Phytoplankton → Diatoms, green algae
│ │ ├── Marsh vegetation → Spartina, Salicornia
│ │ ├── Mud-flat algae → Cladophora, Chara
│ │ └── Epiphytes → Grow on plants
││
│ ├── Animal Communities
│││
│ │ ├── Zooplankton → Euglena, Cyclops
│ │ ├── Benthic → Oysters, crabs, clams
│ │ ├── Invertebrates → Anemones, molluscs
│ │ ├── Vertebrates → Fish, snakes
│ │ ├── Marine migrants → Hilsa, Mugil
│ │ └── Freshwater migrants → Prawns
││
│ └── Detritus Food Chain
│ → Organic matter → Bacteria → Nutrients → Producers → Consumers
│
├── Types of Estuaries
│
├── Based on Geomorphology
││
│ ├── Drowned River Valley → Chesapeake Bay
│ ├── Fjord → Glacial valleys
│ ├── Bar-built → Sandbar formed
│ ├── Tectonic → Faulting (San Francisco Bay)
│ └── Delta → Ganga-Brahmaputra
│
├── Based on Water Mixing
││
│ ├── Salt-wedge → Highly stratified
│ ├── Partially mixed
│ ├── Completely mixed
│ └── Hypersaline
│
└── Based on Energetics (Odum, 1969)
│
├── Physically stressed systems
├── Arctic ecosystems
├── Temperate ecosystems
├── Tropical ecosystems
└── Human-influenced systems

All streams and rivers eventually drain into the sea.

The place where freshwater mixes with seawater is called an estuary.
The word estuary is derived from Latin word aestus meaning tide.
Estuaries are transitional zones (ecotones) between rivers and the sea and have unique ecological
characteristics with specialized plant and animal life.

Ecological Importance of Estuaries:

Have a characteristic biological community
31
Contain brackish water (mixture of fresh and salt water)
Support high productivity
Act as nurseries for many marine organisms

Estuaries differ in: Size, Shape, and Volume of water flow

These differences depend on the geology of the region where they are formed.

Examples of Estuaries
1. River mouths
2. Coastal bays
3. Tidal marshes
4. Water bodies behind barrier beaches

Formation of Deltas and Tidal Flats (Extra)

As a river approaches the sea:
1. Sediment Deposition
When a river reaches the sea, it slows down.
Because of this, it drops the mud, sand, and silt it was carrying.
These materials pile up and form a delta (a landform at the river mouth).
Over time, this reduces the size of the estuary.

2. Tidal Flats Formation

As more mud and silt collect, some areas become visible during low tide.
These flat muddy areas are called tidal flats.
They can split the river into many small channels.
3. Coastal Erosion and Deposition
Sea waves and tides break (erode) the coast.
At the same time, they deposit sand and mud in other places.
If more material is deposited than removed, new landforms are created:
 Barrier beaches (long sand ridges)
 Barrier islands (islands parallel to the coast)
 Brackish lagoons (water bodies with mixed salt and fresh water)

Physico-Chemical / Abiotic Aspects of Estuaries

Estuaries are dynamic transition zones between rivers and the sea. Their physical and chemical
characteristics strongly influence the types of organisms that can survive there.

32
1. Currents in Estuaries
Estuarine currents are the movement of water where a river meets the sea.
They are complex because three things act together:
River Flow
River water flows in one direction → towards the sea
It changes depending on rainfall and seasons
Ocean Tides
Sea water moves back and forth (rises and falls)
This movement is called tides
Wind
Wind can push water in different directions
This affects how water moves and mixes

2. Salinity Variations
Salinity in estuaries:
Fluctuates widely (about 0.5–35‰ or 0.05–3.5%)
May change dramatically within a single day
Seasonal Variation
Highest in summer and drought periods (low freshwater input)
Lowest in winter and spring (high river discharge)
Tidal Variation
Low tide → more freshwater → low salinity
High tide → more seawater → high salinity
Salinity may also be stratified:
Surface water less saline
Bottom water more saline
Mixing may be partial or complete
Because of this variability:
Stenohaline organisms (organisms that tolerate only narrow salinity ranges) cannot survive.
Examples include members of Echinodermata and many species of Cephalopoda.
Only euryhaline organisms (salt-tolerant species) can thrive in estuaries.

3. Temperature Fluctuations
Temperature in estuaries varies:
Diurnally (day–night changes)
Seasonally
Due to solar radiation
Due to tidal and river inflow
Due to heating/cooling of mudflats
Stratification may occur:
Surface water warmer in summer, cooler in winter
Can cause spring and autumn overturn (similar to lakes)

4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Generally high, because estuaries are shallow and turbulent.
Turbulence enhances oxygen mixing.
However, bottom waters may have low oxygen if mixing is poor.

5. Nutrient Dynamics: Estuaries as Nutrient Traps

Estuaries (where rivers meet the sea) are very rich in nutrients and life.

33
Role of Tides
 When the tide goes out (falling tide) → nutrients are carried towards the sea
 When the tide comes in (rising tide) → nutrients are brought back upstream
 This back-and-forth movement repeats many times
Because of this nutrients keep getting recycled instead of being lost. So, estuaries have more nutrients than
both the river and the sea.
Energy-rich organic materials also accumulate.

Biotic Communities of Estuaries

Estuaries are transitional ecosystems (ecotones) between freshwater rivers and marine seas. Because of
this, their biological communities are unique mixtures of freshwater, marine, and true brackish-water
organisms.

Zonation of Estuaries (Carikker, 1967)

Estuaries are divided into five regions based on salinity:
1. Head – Freshwater entry point
2. Upper reaches – Low salinity
3. Middle reaches – Moderate salinity
4. Lower reaches – High salinity
5. Mouth – Salinity nearly equal to sea water

Salinity-Based Animal Classification

Category Salinity Range Region
Oligohaline 0.5–5‰ Upper reaches
Mesohaline 5–18‰ Upper–Middle
Polyhaline 18–25‰ Lower reaches
High polyhaline 25–30‰ Middle–Lower
Euhaline 30–50‰ Mouth
Species distribution varies with salinity.

Nature of Estuarine Communities

Estuarine communities consist of three components:
1. Marine species
2. Freshwater species
3. True brackish-water (estuarine) species
Although freshwater and marine components may show high diversity individually, the overall diversity in
estuaries is lower than in stable marine or freshwater ecosystems. Species interactions are fewer, and
populations often fluctuate widely due to environmental instability.

Estuarine Plant Communities

Estuarine vegetation includes four main types:
A. Phytoplankton
Normally limited due to turbid waters, but abundant in some systems like the Hooghly–Matla Estuary.
Reported phytoplankton include:
Diatoms: Synedra, Navicula, Chaetoceros, Cyclotella
Green algae: Spirogyra, Volvox, Chlorella
Blue-green algae: Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Trichodesmus
B. Marsh and Marginal Vegetation
aquatic plants growing in shallow water (up to -20 cm) or damp soil along the edges of the water bodies
Important marsh grasses:

34
 Spartina, Salicornia, Scirpus
C. Mud-flat Algae
Cladophora, Chara
D. Epiphytic Plants
Epiphytic plants are sometimes called "air plants" because they do not root in soil
Grow on marsh vegetation.

Estuarine Animal Communities

A. Zooplankton (Pelagic Forms)
1. Flagellates: Euglena, Ceratium, Peridinium, Noctiluca
2. Protozoans: Difflugia, Arcella, Vorticella
3. Rotifers: Brachionus, Keratella, Asplanchna
4. Copepods (tiny, aquatic, nutrient-dense crustaceans): Diaptomus, Cyclops, Paracalanus
5. Cladocerans: Bosmina, Moina, Ceriodaphnia
6. Isopods
These organisms remain suspended in water and form an important food base.

B. Benthic and Detritus Feeders

Well-known estuarine animals include:
Oysters (e.g., Ostrea species of Chilika Lake), Clams, Lobsters, Crabs
These animals primarily feed on detritus.

C. Invertebrates
Sea anemones (Phytocoetes gangeticus, Stephensonaetis ornata)
Crabs (Uca annulipes, Scylla serrate, Sesarma tetragonu)
Molluscs (Meretrix casta, Potamides cingulatus, Bursatella leachii)

D. Vertebrates
Fishes (Etroplus maculatus, Etroplus suratensis, Acentrogobius neilli, Mudskipper)
Snakes (Natrix piscator, Cerberus rhynchops)

E. Marine migrants: Hilsa, Harpodon, Mugil, Trachyurus

F. Freshwater migrants: Palaemonid prawns

Detritus Food Chain

1. Organic matter accumulates.
2. Bacteria rapidly decompose it.
3. Nutrients are recycled into soluble form.
4. Primary producers (phytoplankton, algae, marsh plants) use nutrients.
5. Detritus-feeding animals thrive at high productivity levels.
Importantly, detritus-based productivity may exceed what could be supported by plant production alone.

Types of Estuaries
Estuaries can be classified based on:
1. Geomorphology (Origin & Physical Formation)
2. Water Circulation & Stratification
3. Ecosystem Energetics (Odum’s Classification, 1969)
1. Classification Based on Geomorphology
This classification depends on how the estuary was formed.
(1) Drowned River Valley Estuaries
Formed when sea level rises and floods existing river valleys.

35
 Common after glacial melting.
Example: Chesapeake Bay (USA).
(2) Fjord-type Estuaries
Formed by glacial activity.
Characterized by deep, narrow valleys with steep sides.
Have a sill (shallow region) near the mouth.
(3) Bar-built Estuaries
Created when sandbars or barrier islands build up across a river mouth.
Typically shallow and common in tropical/subtropical regions.
(4) Tectonic Estuaries
Formed due to land subsidence or faulting.
Example: San Francisco Bay.
(5) River Delta Estuaries
Formed at river mouths where large sediment deposition creates delta systems.
Example: Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta.

2. Classification Based on Water Circulation & Stratification

This classification depends on how freshwater and seawater mix.
(i) Highly Stratified (Salt-wedge) Estuaries
Freshwater flows over dense seawater.
Minimal vertical mixing.
Distinct salt wedge at bottom.
(ii) Partially Mixed (Moderately Stratified) Estuaries
Some vertical mixing occurs.
Salinity increases gradually with depth.
(iii) Completely Mixed (Vertically Homogeneous) Estuaries
Strong tidal action causes complete mixing.
Salinity nearly uniform from top to bottom.
(iv) Hypersaline Estuaries
Evaporation exceeds freshwater input.
Salinity becomes higher than seawater.
Common in arid regions.

3. Classification Based on Ecosystem Energetics

This classification was proposed by Eugene P. Odum et al. (1969).
(1) Physically Stressed Systems
Wide latitudinal range.
Strong physical forces dominate (e.g., tides, waves).
(2) Natural Arctic Ecosystems
Ice stress is the main controlling factor.
Low productivity but specialized organisms.
(3) Natural Temperate Ecosystems
Strong seasonal changes.
Biological processes follow seasonal programming.
(4) Natural Tropical Coastal Ecosystems
High biodiversity.
Warm temperatures year-round.
(5) Emerging New Systems Associated with Man
Human-influenced estuaries.
Affected by pollution, urbanization, dams, etc.

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Terrestrial Ecosystems

General Features of Terrestrial Ecosystems

Only about 25% of Earth’s surface is land, yet terrestrial ecosystems are more complex and diverse than
aquatic ecosystems.

37
Diversity arises due to:
o Varied climates
o Different soil types (lithosphere)
o Atmosphere
o Heterogeneous biotic communities / Diversity of organisms
Unlike aquatic ecosystems (dominated by water), terrestrial ecosystems do not have a single unifying
environmental factor.
These factors combine to produce many different types of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, tundra,
and deserts.

Physico-Chemical Nature of Terrestrial Ecosystems

1. Phase System
Aquatic Ecosystem
 Single-phase system
 Water determines the characteristics of the habitat.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Three-phase system consisting of:
o Atmosphere
o Soil
o Biotic community
2. Atmospheric Role
The atmosphere provides:
 Oxygen (O₂) for animals
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) for plants
Both gases are abundant and well mixed, so they rarely become limiting factors.
3. Support for Organisms
In Water
 Water is buoyant
 Organisms need less structural support
On Land
 Air is not buoyant
 Organisms need rigid skeletons to support body weight and move.
4. Climate Variability
Climate in terrestrial ecosystems is more variable than in aquatic ecosystems.
Important climatic factors include:
 Mean annual temperature
 Temperature fluctuations
 Annual rainfall
 Seasonal rainfall variation
 Potential evapotranspiration
Water Stress
 Rainfall is often irregular
 Droughts can cause severe stress for organisms.
5. Temperature Differences
Temperature fluctuates more on land because:
 Water has high specific heat
 Soil and rocks have lower specific heat
This means:
 Water heats and cools slowly
 Land heats and cools quickly
Therefore terrestrial ecosystems experience:
 Large daily (diurnal) temperature changes

38
  Large seasonal temperature changes
Role of Soil in Terrestrial Ecosystems
Soil has two major functions.
1. Support for Organisms
 Soil supports the entire weight of plants and animals.
 Unlike aquatic systems, there is no buoyant support.
2. Source of Nutrients
Soil supplies essential nutrients except:
 Carbon
 Oxygen
 Hydrogen
Soil is also:
 The site of detritus food chain
 Important for biogeochemical cycling
Different soils have different chemical properties, so productivity depends strongly on soil quality.
Biological Interactions
In terrestrial ecosystems, species interactions include:
 Predation
 Mutualism
 Parasitism
These interactions are generally simpler than aquatic food web relationships.
Organisms Modify the Environment
Organisms leave long-lasting effects in terrestrial ecosystems.
Example:
 Plants help weather rocks
 Plants help form soil
These changes are more visible than in aquatic ecosystems.

Feature Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem

Three-phase system involving atmosphere, Single-phase system where water
Phase system
soil, and biotic community determines habitat conditions
Medium Organisms live in air and on soil Organisms live entirely in water
Atmospheric Atmosphere supplies O₂ for animals and CO₂ Dissolved gases in water may sometimes
39
 Feature Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
gases for plants, usually not limiting limit organisms
Support for Air is less buoyant, so organisms require Water is buoyant, so organisms require less
organisms strong skeletons or support structures structural support
Climate Highly variable climate with fluctuations in Climate is more stable due to water
variability temperature and rainfall buffering
Large daily and seasonal temperature
Temperature Smaller temperature fluctuations because
fluctuations because soil and rocks heat
changes water has high specific heat
quickly
Water may be limited or irregular, causing
Water availability Water is abundant and constant
drought stress
Role of Soil provides support and essential nutrients Sediments mainly anchor plants and store
soil/sediment and is the center of nutrient cycling nutrients, less central than soil on land
Nutrients mainly come from soil chemistry and Nutrients are dissolved in water and
Nutrient source
decomposition circulate through currents
Impact of Organisms strongly modify environment (e.g., Organisms generally leave less permanent
organisms plants weather rocks and form soil) structural changes

Classification of Terrestrial Ecosystems

The continental land masses of Earth are classified by biogeographers and ecologists into two main
categories:
1. Biogeographic Realms (Regions)
2. Biomes

1. Biogeographic Realms (Regions)

Biogeographic realms are large areas of the Earth that have similar plants and animals.
The six biogeographic realms are:
1. Palaearctic Regions
o Europe
o Northern Asia
o Northern Africa
2. Nearctic Regions
o North America
o Greenland
3. Neotropical Regions
o Central America
o South America
4. Ethiopian Regions
o Africa (south of Sahara Desert)
o Madagascar
5. Oriental Regions
o South Asia
o Southeast Asia
6. Australian Regions
o Australia
o New Guinea
o Nearby islands

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2. Biomes
Biomes are large ecological areas on Earth with Similar climate, Similar plants (vegetation), and Similar
animals. They are smaller than biogeographic realms but still very large regions.

Ecotone
There is no sharp boundary between biomes.
Instead, they merge through a transition zone called an ecotone.
Example:
 Tundra – Coniferous forest ecotone in Northern Canada.
An ecotone contains species from both neighbouring biomes.

1. Tundra Biome
The Tundra biome is one of the coldest and most fragile ecosystems (very sensitive and easily damaged
by small environmental changes or human activities) on Earth.
The word tundra means “marshy plain.”
Large tundra regions occur in: Northern America, Northern Europe, and Siberia
41
The total area is about 5 million km².

Climate of Tundra
The tundra has very harsh climatic conditions:
 Very low temperature
 Long, cold winters
 Short summer season
 The warmest month is below 10°C
 Rainfall is very low (about 25 mm)

Soil
Most of the tundra soil is permanently frozen and is called permafrost.
Characteristics:
 Only the upper 10–20 cm of soil melts in summer
 Soil is wet, spongy, and uneven (hummocky)
 Roots cannot grow deeper because of frozen soil

Producers
These organisms produce food through photosynthesis.
Trees are absent because roots cannot grow deep in frozen soil.
Vegetation is low and dwarf because of:
 cold climate
 short growing season
 frozen soil

Common plants include: Grasses and Sedges, Mosses, Lichens, Dwarf birch (Betula), Willow (Salix),
Reindeer moss (Cladonia) – a type of lichen.
Heath plants like Erica (family Ericaceae).
 Overall net primary productivity is extremely low.

Consumers
Consumers are organisms that cannot produce their own food and depend on other organisms for energy.
They are classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers based on what they eat.

1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

They eat plants, mosses, lichens, and grasses (producers).
Examples: Reindeer, Arctic hare, Lemmings, Musk ox, Arctic ground squirrel, Ptarmigan (bird), Some
insects like grasshoppers
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These animals transfer energy from plants to higher trophic levels.

2. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores / Omnivores)

They eat primary consumers.
Examples: Arctic fox, Snowy owl, Ermine (stoat)
Some fish and birds
They control herbivore populations in the tundra food web.

3. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators)

They eat secondary consumers and are often the apex predators.
Examples: Arctic wolf, Polar bear, Grizzly bear
These predators are at the top of the tundra food chain.

Types of Tundra
There are two main tundra biomes:
1. Arctic Tundra - Found in Palaearctic region and Nearctic region
2. Alpine Tundra - Found on high mountains.

Arctic → Cold + Frozen soil (permafrost)

Alpine → High mountains + No permafrost

1. Arctic Tundra
It lies between the Arctic Ocean and polar ice caps in the north and the coniferous forests (taiga) in
the south.

Distribution
Arctic tundra occurs in:
 Northern North America
 Greenland
 Northern Europe
 Siberia (Russia)
It covers about 5 million km² of land area.

Climate
The climate of Arctic tundra is extremely cold.
Characteristics:
 Long, very cold winters
 Short summers
 Warmest month temperature below 10°C
 Very low precipitation (about 25 mm)
Even though precipitation is low, water is not limiting because evaporation is also very low.

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Soil and Permafrost
The soil of Arctic tundra contains permafrost, which is a permanently frozen soil layer.
Features:
 Only the top 10–20 cm of soil thaws during summer
 Roots cannot grow deep
 Soil becomes wet and marshy during summer
Producers
These organisms produce food through photosynthesis.
Vegetation is short and sparse because of cold climate and frozen soil.
Common plants include: Grasses, Sedges, Mosses, Lichens, Dwarf shrubs
Typical plants: Reindeer moss (Cladonia), Dwarf birch (Betula), Willow (Salix)
Heath plants like Erica.
The primary productivity is very low.

Consumers
In the Arctic Tundra, consumers are organisms that obtain energy by feeding on plants or other animals.
They form different trophic levels in the tundra food chain. Animals in Arctic tundra are adapted to
extreme cold.

1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

These animals feed directly on tundra plants such as mosses, lichens, grasses, and sedges.
Examples: Reindeer, Arctic hare, Lemming, Musk ox, Arctic ground squirrel, Ptarmigan

2. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores / Omnivores)

These feed on herbivores such as lemmings, hares, and insects.
Examples: Arctic fox, Snowy owl, Ermine, Arctic wolf
3. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators)
These are apex predators in the tundra ecosystem.
Examples: Polar bear, Arctic wolf

2. Alpine Tundra
Alpine tundra is a tundra ecosystem found at high altitudes on mountains above the tree line.
Unlike Arctic tundra, it occurs in mountains at any latitude rather than near the poles.

Location
Alpine tundra occurs on high mountain ranges, such as: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rocky Mountains.
These regions are above the tree line, where trees cannot grow due to cold and strong winds.

Climate
The climate of alpine tundra is:
 Long cold winters

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  Short cool summers
 Low precipitation (mostly snow)

Soil
 Soil is thin and poorly developed
 Permafrost is usually absent (unlike Arctic tundra)
 Soil drains well because it is on slopes

Producers of the Alpine Tundra

Producers are autotrophic organisms that prepare their own food by photosynthesis. In the Alpine
Tundra, producers are mainly low-growing plants and adapted to low temperature, strong winds, and a
short growing season.
Main Producers: Lichens (Very common in tundra; grow on rocks and soil), Mosses (Grow in moist
areas and form dense mats), Grasses and Sedges (Adapted to cold and wind), Dwarf Shrubs (Very small
woody plants close to the ground), Alpine Flowering Plants (Bloom during the short summer season)

Consumers of the Alpine Tundra

In the Alpine Tundra ecosystem, consumers are organisms that depend on plants or other animals for
food. Because the environment is cold, windy, and has a short growing season, the number of consumers is
limited.

1. Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

These animals feed directly on tundra plants such as mosses, lichens, grasses, and small shrubs.
Examples: Pika, Marmot, Mountain Goat, Bighorn Sheep, Grasshopper, Beetles

2. Secondary Consumers (Carnivores / Omnivores)

These animals feed on herbivores.
Examples: Red Fox, Weasel, Snowy Owl, Golden Eagle

3. Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators)

These are the top predators that feed on other carnivores or large herbivores.
Examples: Gray Wolf, Lynx, Wolverine

Arctic Tundra vs Alpine Tundra

Feature Arctic Tundra Alpine Tundra

Between Arctic Ocean & polar ice caps; south of it High mountains above tree line at any
Location
lies taiga latitude
Northern North America, Greenland, Northern Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rocky
Distribution
Europe, Siberia Mountains
Area Covers about 5 million km² No fixed global area
Extremely cold; long winters, short summers; Long cold winters; short cool
Climate warmest month < 10°C; very low precipitation summers; low precipitation (mostly
(~25 mm) snow)
Water Low precipitation but evaporation is also low, so
Water drains quickly due to slopes
Availability water not limiting
Soil Permafrost present; only top 10–20 cm thaws; Thin, poorly developed soil; no
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 Feature Arctic Tundra Alpine Tundra
marshy in summer permafrost; well-drained
Mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges, dwarf shrubs Lichens, mosses, grasses, sedges,
Producers
(reindeer moss, dwarf birch, willow) dwarf shrubs, alpine flowering plants
Low-growing plants adapted to wind
Vegetation Short and sparse; very low productivity
and cold
Primary Reindeer, Arctic hare, lemming, musk ox, ground Pika, marmot, mountain goat, bighorn
Consumers squirrel, ptarmigan sheep, insects
Secondary Red fox, weasel, snowy owl, golden
Arctic fox, snowy owl, ermine, Arctic wolf
Consumers eagle
Tertiary
Polar bear, Arctic wolf Gray wolf, lynx, wolverine
Consumers

Forest Biomes
A forest originally comes from the Latin word “Foris”, meaning outside the village boundary. Earlier it
meant uncultivated land. Today, a forest is any land managed for forestry that may contain trees, shrubs,
climbers, or other vegetation.

Forest biomes are large ecosystems mainly dominated by trees. They develop where there is:
1. Suitable temperature
2. Enough soil moisture
3. At least 50 mm rainfall
4. Proper soil, wind, and air conditions
Forests are often classified based on:
1. Leaf type (broad leaves or needle-like leaves)
2. Leaf habit (evergreen or deciduous)
Major forest biomes are arranged from north to south or from high altitude to low altitude.

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Types of Forest Biomes
The main forest biomes are:
1. Boreal forest (Taiga / Coniferous Forest)
2. Temperate
a) Temperate deciduous forest
b) Temperate evergreen woodland (Chaparral)
c) Temperate rainforest
3. Tropical
a) Tropical rainforest
b) Tropical seasonal forest
c) Subtropical rainforest

1. Boreal Coniferous Forest (Taiga)

Found in cold regions with long winters and short summers.
Located just south of the tundra in Canada, Sweden, Finland, Siberia, and northern mountains.
Dominated by evergreen conifer trees like: Spruce, Fir, Pine
Trees may grow up to 40 m tall.
Animals
Bears, Wolves, Foxes, Squirrels, Moose, Caribou
Features
Low species diversity.
Forest floor has mosses, lichens, orchids, and blueberry shrubs.
Soil is thin, acidic, and nutrient-poor.
Productivity of this biome is low.

2. Temperate
A temperate biome is a region of the Earth with a moderate climate, meaning it is neither too hot nor too
cold, and it experiences four distinct seasons—spring, summer, autumn, and winter. These regions receive
moderate rainfall and support vegetation like deciduous trees (which shed their leaves in autumn), grasses,
and shrubs. Common animals include deer, foxes, bears, and birds, many of which adapt to seasonal
changes by migrating or hibernating. Temperate biomes are found in parts of Europe, North America, and
Asia and are important for supporting diverse plant and animal life.

There are 3 types of temperate forest.

a. Temperate Deciduous Forest
Found in North America, Europe, Japan, China, Chile, and Australia.
Climate: Cold winters, Moderate rainfall (75–150 cm), Temperature 10–20°C
 These trees shed leaves in autumn and grow new ones in spring.
Examples: Maple, Oak, Beech, Elm, Chestnut, Willow
Forest Structure
Tall trees (40–50 m), Well-developed shrubs and herbs
Two types of herbs grow:
1. Spring plants – bloom before tree leaves grow
2. Shade plants – grow under tree canopy later
Animals: Deer, Bears, Foxes, Squirrels, Woodpeckers, Frogs, Snakes
 Many animals hibernate in winter.

b. Temperate Evergreen Woodland (Chaparral)

Found in regions with Mediterranean climate: Hot, dry summers, Cool, wet winters
Examples of locations: Pacific coast of North America, Mediterranean region, Southern Australia
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Vegetation
Mostly shrubs (3–4 m tall) rather than tall trees.
Leaves are small and hard to reduce water loss.
Important Feature
Fire plays an important role in this ecosystem.
Plants are adapted to regrow quickly after fires.
Animals: Mule deer, Rabbits, Wood rats, Chipmunks, Lizards, Small birds

c. Temperate Rainforests
Found in cool coastal areas with high rainfall and fog.
Characteristics: Cooler than tropical rainforests, Moderate species diversity.
Major Trees: Coast redwood, Alpine ash
Some trees grow over 100 m tall.
Plants: Mosses, Epiphytes, Vines (less abundant than tropical forests)
Animals: Similar to those in temperate deciduous forests i.e, Deer, Bears, Foxes, Squirrels, Woodpeckers,
Frogs, Snakes.

3. Tropical
A tropical biome is a region of the Earth with a hot climate throughout the year and usually receives high
rainfall, especially in tropical rainforests. It does not have four seasons like temperate regions, but instead
has wet and dry seasons. These areas support dense forests with tall trees, vines, and a wide variety of
plants. The tropical biome is rich in wildlife, including monkeys, elephants, tigers, birds, and insects,
showing very high biodiversity. It is mainly found near the equator, in regions like parts of South America,
Africa, and Asia, and plays a major role in maintaining global climate and ecosystems.
There are 3 types of tropical forest.
a. Tropical Rainforests
Found near the equator.
Major regions: Central and South America, Congo Basin in Africa, Southeast Asia, Parts of India, New
Guinea and Australia
Climate: Very hot and humid, Rainfall over 200 cm per year, Rainfall evenly distributed
Vegetation: Extremely diverse, One square mile may contain 300 tree species.
Forest has layers:
1. Tall trees
2. Canopy layer (25–35 m)
3. Understory (shrubs, palms, ferns)
Plants: Evergreen trees, Vines, Epiphytes, Orchids, Bromeliads
Soil: Red latosol soil, Nutrient-poor due to heavy leaching
Animals
Very diverse: Insects (ants, termites, bees), Snakes, Chameleons, Birds, Monkeys, Leopards, Sloths, Flying
squirrels, Deer, Gaur

b. Tropical Seasonal Forests (Monsoon Forests)

Found in regions with distinct wet and dry seasons.
Locations: India, Southeast Asia, Afric, Northern Australia, Central and South America
Characteristics
Trees 20–40 m tall
Deciduous canopy (trees shed leaves during dry season)
Evergreen understory
Common plants: Teak, Bamboo

c. Subtropical Rainforests
Found in regions with high rainfall but mild temperature differences.
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Example: Florida (USA)
Vegetation: Mahogany, Palms, Oaks, Magnolias, Tamarinds, Strangler figs, Orchids and ferns
Plants are mostly evergreen, but may shed leaves during dry seasons.
Animals: Similar to those in tropical rainforests.
Rainforests in India
India has rainforest patches mainly in: Kerala, Assam, Gandhamardan Hills (Odisha)
They are of three types:
1. Moist Tropical Forests
Wet evergreen forests of Assam and West Bengal
Semi-evergreen forests of Assam, Odisha, and Andaman Islands
2. Montane Subtropical Forests
Found in hill regions of Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, and Kerala
Includes subtropical pine forests
3. Montane Wet Temperate Forests
Found in: Kodaikanal, Odagamandalam (Ooty), Himalayan regions
Vegitation: Dense evergreen forests with teak, bamboo, orchids, lianas and palms
Animals: Tigers, elephants, gaur, deer, monkeys, birds

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 Forest Type Climate Temperature Rainfall Vegetation Soil Type Animal Life Major Regions Important Features
Evergreen coniferous Largest terrestrial
Very cold climate with Moderate Moose, wolves, Northern North
Boreal forest −10°C to trees like pine, Thin acidic biome; low species
long winters and short precipitation, bears, foxes, America, Siberia,
(Taiga) 15°C spruce and fir; podzolic soil diversity; trees adapted
summers mostly snow squirrels Scandinavia
mosses and lichens to cold climate
Broad-leaved trees
Moderate climate with Deer, foxes, Trees shed leaves in
Temperate 75–150 cm like oak, maple, Deep fertile Europe, eastern
warm summers and 10°C – 20°C raccoons, bears, autumn; strong
deciduous forest annually beech and elm; forest soils United States, Japan
cold winters birds seasonal changes
shrubs and herbs
Temperate
Mediterranean climate Dense evergreen Rabbits, deer, Mediterranean region, Vegetation adapted to
evergreen Low to moderate
with hot dry summers 10°C – 30°C shrubs and drought- Thin dry soil chipmunks, California, parts of drought and frequent
woodland rainfall
and cool wet winters resistant plants lizards, birds Australia forest fires
(Chaparral)
Pacific coast of
Tall evergreen trees Very tall trees; heavy
Temperate Cool and moist Very high Moist fertile Deer, bears, Canada and the
5°C – 20°C (redwood, fir), fog contributes to
rainforest climate rainfall with fog soils amphibians, birds United States, New
mosses and ferns moisture
Zealand
Dense evergreen Highest biodiversity;
Very high Red latosol Monkeys, Amazon Rainforest,
Tropical Hot and humid forests with vines, complex forest
25°C – 30°C rainfall (over soils with insects, snakes, Congo Basin,
rainforest throughout the year lianas, epiphytes and structure with many
200 cm) heavy leaching birds, amphibians Southeast Asia
layered canopy layers
Trees shed leaves
Deciduous trees like
Tropical seasonal Warm climate with High but Moderately Tigers, elephants, India, Southeast Asia, during dry season;
20°C – 30°C teak and sal; bamboo
forest wet and dry seasons seasonal rainfall fertile soils deer, monkeys Africa monsoon rainfall
common
important
Evergreen trees, Evergreen vegetation;
Subtropical Warm and humid with Fertile forest Birds, reptiles, Florida, southern
15°C – 25°C High rainfall palms, vines and high humidity and
rainforest mild seasonal change soils insects, mammals China, Australia
epiphytes moderate biodiversity
Dense evergreen Includes moist tropical,
Very high Tigers, elephants, Kerala, Assam,
Rainforests of Tropical humid forests with teak, Lateritic and montane subtropical
20°C – 30°C rainfall (200 cm gaur, deer, Odisha, Andaman &
India climate bamboo, orchids, forest soils and montane wet
or more) monkeys, birds Nicobar Islands
lianas and palms temperate forests

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Grassland Biomes
Grasslands are large terrestrial ecosystems dominated by grasses, with very few trees or shrubs.
They occur in regions where rainfall is moderate (not enough for forests, more than deserts) and are
maintained by fire and grazing.

Grasslands develop under the following conditions:

1. Moderate rainfall (250–1300 mm)
2. Seasonal drought
3. Frequent fires preventing tree growth
4. Grazing by herbivores
5. Suitable temperature range

Classification of Grasslands
Grasslands are broadly divided into:
1. Tropical Grasslands (Savanna)
2. Temperate Grasslands

Tropical Savanna Biome

The tropical savanna biome is a type of grassland ecosystem found in tropical and subtropical regions. It
is characterized by tall grasses with scattered drought-resistant trees that usually do not exceed 10 m in
height and do not form a continuous canopy. Thus, savannas form a transition between forests and
grasslands.
Savannas cover large areas of Africa, South America, Australia, and parts of Asia, and they support
some of the richest wildlife populations in the world.

Climate
The savanna climate is tropical with distinct wet and dry seasons.
Wet season: Heavy rainfall supports plant growth.
Dry season: Long dry periods with little rainfall and frequent fires.
Strong sunlight and high temperatures occur throughout the year.
Fire plays an important ecological role by preventing dense forests from developing and maintaining
grass dominance.

Temperature
Average annual temperature: 20°C – 30°C.
Temperatures remain warm throughout the year with little seasonal variation.
Day temperatures can sometimes reach 32–38°C in dry seasons.

Rainfall
Average annual rainfall: 500 – 1300 mm (50–130 cm).
Most rainfall occurs during the rainy season (4–6 months).
Dry seasons may last several months, leading to drought conditions.

Soil
Savanna soils are generally nutrient-poor.
Characteristics:
 Latosol soils due to heavy leaching
 Laterite soils common in many regions
 Thin layer of humus
 Poor fertility and limited agricultural productivity

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Vegetation
Savanna vegetation mainly consists of grasses with scattered trees and shrubs.
Common plant features
1. Drought-resistant leaves
2. Deep root systems
3. Thick bark to resist fire

Major plants  Tall grasses (1.5 – 2 m tall), Acacia trees, Baobab trees, Eucalyptus, Shrubs and small
bushes
Grasses dominate the landscape because they can regrow quickly after fire and grazing.

Animals
Savannas support a wide variety of wildlife, especially large grazing mammals.
Herbivores  Antelopes, Zebras, Elephants, Giraffes, Buffalo
Carnivores  Lions, Hyenas, Cheetahs, Leopards
Other animals  Termites, Grasshoppers, Rodents, Numerous birds and insects
 Large animals are common because extensive grasslands provide abundant grazing.

Types of Savanna Biomes

1. Tropical Wet Savanna
Tropical wet savannas have a warm climate with a long rainy season and a short dry season. The
temperature usually ranges from 24–30°C, and the annual rainfall is about 1000–1500 mm. Vegetation
mainly consists of tall grasses (1–3 m) and scattered trees such as acacia and palms. The soils are
generally lateritic and heavily leached, which means they have low nutrients. These savannas support
animals such as elephants, giraffes, zebras, antelopes, and lions. They occur mainly in regions like the
Serengeti in East Africa and parts of northern Australia. A major feature of this savanna is high wildlife
diversity and rapid grass growth during the rainy season.

2. Dry Savanna
Dry savannas experience a hot climate with a long dry season and a short rainy season. The temperature
generally ranges from 20–30°C, and the rainfall is about 500–1000 mm per year. Vegetation includes
short grasses and drought-resistant trees. The soil is usually sandy and nutrient-poor. Animals found in
this biome include antelopes, buffalo, hyenas, and rodents. Dry savannas occur in areas such as the
Sahel region of Africa and parts of India. A key feature is that trees are widely spaced because of low
rainfall and frequent droughts.

3. Woodland Savanna
Woodland savannas have moderate rainfall and seasonal dry periods. Temperatures usually range
between 23–30°C, and rainfall is about 800–1200 mm annually. Vegetation includes dense grasses with
a higher number of trees forming open woodland. The soil is relatively fertile but still affected by
leaching. Animals include deer, elephants, birds, and many insects. Woodland savannas are found in
places like the Cerrado region of Brazil and parts of Africa. This biome acts as a transition zone
between forests and grasslands.

4. Flooded Savanna
Flooded savannas experience seasonal flooding during the rainy season. The temperature ranges from
22–28°C, and rainfall is usually 1000–1500 mm per year. Vegetation consists of water-tolerant grasses
and shrubs. The soils are mainly fertile alluvial soils deposited by rivers. Animals in these regions
include capybara, fish, reptiles, and many bird species. Flooded savannas are common in regions such
as the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia. The important feature of this biome is that large grassland
areas are flooded during the rainy season.

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5. Montane Savanna
Montane savannas occur in high-altitude regions, so the climate is cooler than other savannas. The
temperature usually ranges between 15–25°C, and annual rainfall is about 800–1200 mm. Vegetation
includes short grasses, shrubs, and scattered trees adapted to mountain conditions. The soil is generally
rocky and shallow. Animals mainly include grazing mammals and various bird species. These savannas
are found in the highlands of Africa and South America. Their main feature is that they develop at
higher elevations where cooler conditions influence vegetation.

Types of Savannas in India

1. High Savanna
High savanna occurs mainly in the Brahmaputra Valley. It consists of open stands of low-branching
trees that are usually 2–3 meters tall. Common trees include Syzygium cerasoideum and Emblica
officinalis. The dominant grasses in this region are Imperata, Saccharum spontaneum, Ophiurus, and
Vetiveria.

2. Moist Sal Savanna

Moist sal savanna occurs in the Gangetic Plain. It consists of open forests dominated by Shorea robusta
with tall grasses. The common grasses include Imperata cylindrica, Themeda arundinacea, Cymbopogon
nardus, Erianthus, and Apluda.

3. Low Alluvial Savanna Woodland

This type occurs in the Gangetic plains and riverine flats. The soil here is sandy and alluvial, with
patches of clay in depressions. Common trees include Dalbergia sissoo, Butea monosperma, Albizia,
Adina cordifolia, and Zizyphus procerum. Common grasses are Arundinella, Themeda gigantea, and
Erianthus species.

4. Dry Savanna
Dry savanna occurs in regions such as Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu. Trees are
widely spaced and grow singly or in small groups. Typical trees include Acacia lenticularis, Emblica
officinalis, Gardenia turgida, Crotalaria hirta, and Pterocarpus marsupium. The common grasses are
Themeda triandra, Themeda quadrivalves, Apluda mutica, and Arundinella setosa.

5. Saline Alkaline Scrub Savanna

This savanna occurs throughout the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The vegetation is adapted to saline and
alkaline soils. Common plants include Phoenix sylvestris, Acacia species, Tamarix, Calotropis procera,
Calotropis gigantea, and Kochia indica.

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 Type of
Climate Temperature Rainfall Vegetation Soil Animals Major Regions Important Features
Savanna
Warm with long Tall grasses (1–3 m), Elephants, East Africa, parts Rich wildlife diversity,
Tropical Wet 1000–1500 Lateritic and
rainy season and 24–30°C scattered trees like giraffes, zebras, of Serengeti, grasses grow rapidly
Savanna mm per year leached soils
short dry season acacia and palm antelopes, lions northern Australia during rainy season
Hot with long dry Short grasses with Sandy or Antelopes, Sahel region of Trees are widely
500–1000
Dry Savanna season and short 20–30°C drought-resistant nutrient-poor buffalo, hyenas, Africa, parts of spaced; frequent
mm
rainy season trees soils rodents India drought
Moderate rainfall Dense grasses with
Woodland 800–1200 Fertile but Deer, elephants, Cerrado in Brazil, Transition between
with seasonal 23–30°C more trees forming
Savanna mm leached soils birds, insects parts of Africa forest and grassland
dryness open woodland
Seasonal flooding Llanos of
Flooded 1000–1500 Water-tolerant Capybara, fish, Grasslands flood
during rainy 22–28°C Alluvial soils Venezuela and
Savanna mm grasses and shrubs birds, reptiles during rainy season
season Colombia
Highlands of
Montane Cooler climate due 800–1200 Short grasses and Rocky and Grazing Occurs at higher
15–25°C Africa and South
Savanna to altitude mm shrubs shallow soils mammals, birds elevations
America
Types of Savanna Biomes

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Savannas of India

Indian savannas are dominated by grasses and sal trees, supporting animals such as cattle, rodents, insects, jackals and hyenas.

Types of Savannas in India

Type of Region / Soil
Vegetation Type Common Trees Common Grasses Important Features
Savanna Distribution Characteristics
Open stands of low- Imperata, Saccharum Trees are short and
Brahmaputra Syzygium cerasoideum,
High Savanna branching trees (2–3 spontaneum, Ophiurus, Mostly alluvial soils scattered; tall grasses
Valley Emblica officinalis
m tall) with grasses Vetiveria dominate
Open forests Imperata cylindrica,
Characterized by sal
Moist Sal dominated by sal Themeda arundinacea,
Gangetic Plain Shorea robusta Moist fertile soils trees and dense
Savanna trees with tall Cymbopogon nardus,
grasses
grasses Erianthus, Apluda
Low Alluvial Dalbergia sissoo, Butea
Gangetic plains Woodland with Arundinella, Themeda Sandy alluvial soil Found in river plains
Savanna monosperma, Albizia, Adina
and riverine flats grasses gigantea, Erianthus spp. with clay patches and flood-prone areas
Woodland cordifolia, Zizyphus procerum
Acacia lenticularis, Emblica Themeda triandra,
Punjab, Haryana, Trees grow singly or
Widely spaced trees officinalis, Gardenia turgida, Themeda quadrivalves, Dry, nutrient-poor
Dry Savanna Bihar, Odisha, in small groups due to
with grass cover Crotalaria hirta, Pterocarpus Apluda mutica, soils
Tamil Nadu dry climate
marsupium Arundinella setosa
Phoenix sylvestris, Acacia
Scrub vegetation Plants adapted to high
Saline Alkaline Indo-Gangetic spp., Tamarix spp., Calotropis Saline and alkaline
adapted to saline Sparse grasses salt and alkaline
Scrub Savanna Plain procera, Calotropis gigantea, soils
soils conditions
Kochia indica

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Temperate Grassland Biome
The temperate grassland biome is a type of grassland ecosystem found in mid-latitude regions. It is
characterized by grasses as the dominant vegetation, with very few or no trees due to low to moderate
rainfall and periodic drought.
These grasslands are known by different names in different regions:
1. Prairies (North America)
2. Pampas (South America)
3. Steppes (Europe and Asia)
4. Veld (South Africa)
Temperate grasslands are among the most fertile ecosystems and are widely used for agriculture.
Key Features
1. Very fertile soil
2. Dominated by grasses
3. Short grasses
4. Seasonal growth
5. Used for grazing animals
6. Large seasonal temperature variation
7. Important agricultural regions (wheat, corn)
8. Fewer trees compared to savanna

Climate
The climate of temperate grasslands is continental with clear seasonal variations:
 Hot summers
 Cold winters
 Moderate rainfall
 Periodic droughts and strong winds
Fires and grazing play an important role in maintaining grass dominance.
Temperature
 Summer: 25°C – 35°C
 Winter: Can fall below 0°C (even −20°C in some regions)
 Large seasonal variation in temperature

Rainfall
 Average annual rainfall: 250 – 750 mm (25–75 cm)
 Rainfall is:
Moderate
Often uneven and unpredictable
 Not sufficient to support large forests

Soil
Temperate grassland soils are among the most fertile in the world.
Characteristics:
 Deep and rich in humus
 Dark-colored soil
 High organic matter
 Excellent for agriculture

Vegetation
Temperate grasslands are dominated by grasses with very few trees.
Common Plant Features
1. Deep root systems
2. Narrow leaves to reduce water loss
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 3. Ability to survive fire and drought
4. Rapid regrowth after grazing
Major Plants  Buffalo grass, Wheatgrass, Needlegrass, Blue grama grass, Few shrubs and almost no
trees
Animals
Temperate grasslands support a variety of animals adapted to open environments.
Herbivores  Bison, Antelope, Deer, Wild horses
Carnivores Wolves, Foxes, Coyotes
Other Animals  Rodents (prairie dogs, rabbits), Birds, Insects
Many animals are Live in burrows and are adapted to open grassland conditions
Types of Temperate Grasslands
1. Prairie Grassland
 Location: North America
 Climate: Moderate rainfall, hot summers, cold winters
 Soil: Very fertile
 Vegetation: Tall grasses
 Animals: Bison, prairie dogs
 Feature: Major agricultural zone
2. Steppe Grassland
 Location: Europe and Asia
 Climate: Drier than prairies
 Soil: Less fertile than prairies
 Vegetation: Short grasses
 Animals: Antelopes, rodents
 Feature: Sparse vegetation due to low rainfall
3. Pampas Grassland
 Location: South America (Argentina)
 Climate: Mild and humid
 Soil: Very fertile
 Vegetation: Tall grasses
 Animals: Deer, rodents
 Feature: Important for cattle grazing
4. Veld Grassland
 Location: South Africa
 Climate: Moderate rainfall
 Vegetation: Grasslands with shrubs
 Animals: Antelopes, zebras
 Feature: Used for grazing

Temperate Grasslands in India

Temperate grasslands in India are limited and found in:
1. Himalayan region
2. Cold desert regions

1. Himalayan Grasslands
• Location: Himalayas
• Climate: Cold; cool summers and very cold winters
• Soil: Thin and less fertile
• Vegetation: Grasses, herbs, small shrubs
• Animals: Yak, sheep, mountain goats
• Feature: Found at high altitudes; used for seasonal grazing

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2. Cold Desert Grasslands
• Location: Ladakh and Spiti Valley
• Climate: Very cold and dry; very low rainfall
• Soil: Sandy and less fertile
• Vegetation: Sparse grasses and shrubs
• Animals: Wild ass, ibex, yak
• Feature: Harsh environment with very limited vegetation

Ecological Importance of grass lands

 Fire prevents growth of trees
 Grazing animals maintain grass dominance
 Soil fertility supports agriculture

Types of Temperate Grasslands

Type Location Climate Soil Vegetation Animals Feature

Moderate rainfall;
Prairie North Bison, Major
hot summers, Very fertile Tall grasses
Grassland America prairie dogs agricultural zone
cold winters
Sparse vegetation
Steppe Europe and Drier than Antelopes,
Less fertile Short grasses due to low
Grassland Asia prairies rodents
rainfall
Argentina
Pampas Deer, Important for
(South Mild and humid Very fertile Tall grasses
Grassland rodents cattle grazing
America)
Veld Moderate Grasses with Antelopes,
South Africa Moderate rainfall Used for grazing
Grassland fertility shrubs zebras

Temperate Grasslands in India

Type Location Climate Soil Vegetation Animals Feature

Cold climate; Thin, Yak, sheep, Found at high
Himalayan Grasses, herbs,
Himalayas cool summers, less mountain altitudes;
Grasslands small shrubs
cold winters fertile goats seasonal grazing
Sandy,
Cold Desert Ladakh and Very cold and Sparse grasses, Wild ass, Harsh conditions;
less
Grasslands Spiti Valley dry; low rainfall shrubs ibex, yak sparse vegetation
fertile

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 Feature Savanna (Tropical Grassland) Temperate Grassland
Location Tropical & subtropical regions (Africa, India, Australia) Mid-latitudes (North America, Europe, Asia)
Climate Hot throughout the year Hot summers and cold winters
Temperature 20°C – 30°C (little variation) −20°C to 35°C (high variation)
Rainfall 500 – 1300 mm 250 – 750 mm
Seasons Distinct wet and dry seasons Four seasons (summer, winter, etc.)
Vegetation Tall grasses with scattered trees Short to medium grasses, very few trees
Trees Present (Acacia, Baobab) Almost absent
Soil Nutrient-poor, laterite/latosol Very fertile, rich in humus
Fire Role Prevents forest growth Maintains grassland, prevents trees
Animal Life Large herbivores (elephants, zebras, giraffes) Bison, deer, antelope
Predators Lions, cheetahs, hyenas Wolves, foxes
Biodiversity High Moderate
Human Use Wildlife reserves, grazing Agriculture (wheat, corn)
Special Feature Transition between forest and grassland Major agricultural regions
Savanna vs Temperate Grassland

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Desert Biome
The desert biome is a terrestrial ecosystem characterized by very low rainfall, extreme temperatures, and
sparse vegetation.
Deserts occur in both hot and cold regions and cover about one-third of the Earth’s land surface.

Distribution

Deserts are found in:

1. Africa (Sahara Desert)
2. Asia (Thar Desert)
3. Australia
4. North and South America

Types of Desert Biomes

1. Hot and Dry Desert

 Climate: Very hot and dry
 Temperature: 30–50°C
 Rainfall: < 250 mm
 Vegetation: Cactus, shrubs
 Animals: Camels, reptiles
 Regions: Sahara, Arabian Desert

2. Semi-Arid Desert
 Climate: Moderately dry
 Temperature: 20–30°C
 Rainfall: 250–500 mm
 Vegetation: Small shrubs, grasses
 Animals: Rodents, insects
 Regions: Parts of North America

3. Coastal Desert
 Climate: Mild temperature
 Influenced by cold ocean currents
 Fog is common
 Vegetation: Limited shrubs
 Animals: Birds, small mammals
 Regions: Atacama Desert

4. Cold Desert
 Climate: Cold winters, low rainfall
 Temperature: Below 0°C in winter
 Vegetation: Mosses, lichens, shrubs
 Animals: Yak, foxes
 Regions: Gobi Desert

Abiotic components
Climate
 Very dry conditions
 Rainfall is rare and irregular
 High evaporation rate
 Clear skies and strong sunlight
Temperature
Hot deserts:
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 Day: 30°C – 50°C
Night: Can drop to 0°C or below
Cold deserts:
Very cold winters
Mild summers
Rainfall
 Very low: less than 250 mm per year
 Rainfall is: Irregular and Sometimes absent for years
Soil
 Sandy or rocky soil
 Low organic matter (humus)
 Poor water-holding capacity
 Often saline or alkaline

Vegetation
Desert vegetation is specially adapted to conserve water.

Common Plant Features

 Thick, waxy leaves to reduce water loss
 Spines instead of leaves (to reduce transpiration)
 Deep or widespread root systems
 Ability to store water

Major Plants  Cactus (e.g., Opuntia), Acacia, Date palm, Euphorbia, Small shrubs and grasses
Animals
Animals are adapted to extreme heat and water scarcity.
Herbivores  Camels, Desert rodents, Rabbits
Carnivores  Foxes (e.g., fennec fox), Snakes, Lizards
Other Animals Scorpions, Insects, Birds
Many animals are: Nocturnal (active at night) and Burrow underground to escape heat

Main types of deserts:

1. Hot and Dry Deserts

o Very high temperature during the day
o Very little rainfall
o Example: Sahara Desert
2. Cold Deserts
o Very cold winters with snowfall
o Less rainfall
o Example: Gobi Desert
3. Coastal Deserts
o Located near sea coasts
o Moderate temperature but very dry
o Example: Atacama Desert
4. Semi-arid Deserts
o Not too hot or too cold
o Slightly more rainfall than true deserts
o Example: Great Basin Desert

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Wetland
A wetland is an area of land that is covered with water either permanently or seasonally, where the soil
is saturated and supports water-loving plants (hydrophytes).

Wetland functions as "biological supermarkets" due to their high productivity.

According to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, wetlands include areas of marsh, swamp, peatland, or
water—natural or artificial, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish, or salty.
Wetlands:
1. Can be natural or artificial
2. May be permanent or temporary
3. Water can be still or flowing
4. Water type may be fresh, brackish (mixed), or saline

Classification of Wetlands
Wetlands are classified based on water source, vegetation, salinity, and location.

A. Based on Origin
1. Natural Wetlands
Lakes, rivers, marshes, mangroves
2. Artificial (Man-made) Wetlands
Reservoirs, ponds, rice fields
B. Based on Water Type
1. Freshwater Wetlands
Rivers, lakes, ponds
2. Brackish Water Wetlands
Estuaries (mix of fresh and salt water)
3. Marine Wetlands
Coastal lagoons, coral reefs
C. Based on Vegetation (Ramsar Classification)
1. Marshes – dominated by grasses and reeds
2. Swamps – dominated by trees and shrubs
3. Bogs – acidic wetlands with peat (low nutrients)
4. Fens – nutrient-rich wetlands with groundwater supply

D. Based on Location
 Inland Wetlands
o Rivers, lakes, floodplains
 Coastal Wetlands
o Mangroves, estuaries, lagoons

E. Based on Nutrient Status

 Oligotrophic – low nutrients
 Mesotrophic – moderate nutrients
 Eutrophic – high nutrients

Biotic components of wetlands

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Biotic components of wetlands consist of all living organisms that interact within the ecosystem, including
aquatic flora, fauna, and microorganisms. These components thrive in waterlogged or saturated conditions
and play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and water purification.

Wetland biota can be categorized into three main groups based on how they acquire energy: producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

1. Producers (Autotrophs)
Wetlands are highly productive, with hydrophytes (water-loving plants) acting as the primary producers
that obtain energy from the sun.
Emergent Plants: These grow rooted in the soil with stems above the water surface (e.g., cattails, sedges,
bulrushes, arrow arum).
Floating-leaved Plants: These float on the surface, often in nutrient-rich water (e.g., water lilies,
duckweed).
Submerged Plants: These grow completely underwater (e.g., seagrasses, eelgrass).
Woody Plants: Found in swamps and forested wetlands (e.g., mangroves, cypress trees).
Algae: Free-floating phytoplankton or filamentous mats, which serve as a critical food source.

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs)
These depend directly or indirectly on plant productivity for food.
Invertebrates: Comprise over half of the animal species, including snails, annelids, dragonflies, water
striders, beetles, crayfish, and shrimp.
Vertebrates (Fish): Many fish species use wetlands as nurseries, such as salmon, trout, bluegill, largemouth
bass, and striped bass.
Amphibians & Reptiles: These are characteristic of wetlands, including frogs, salamanders, turtles, snakes,
alligators, and crocodiles.
Birds: Wetlands are crucial for migratory birds, waterfowl, and waders, including ducks, geese, herons,
egrets, and wood ducks.
Mammals: Various mammals find food and shelter here, including beavers, muskrats, otters, voles,
raccoons, and sometimes larger herbivores like deer.

3. Decomposers (Detritivores)
These break down dead organic material, a critical role given the slow decomposition in waterlogged,
oxygen-depleted (anaerobic) soils.
Bacteria and Fungi: Responsible for breaking down dead plant material and animal waste, returning
nutrients into the soil for reuse.

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Mountain (Alpine Biome)
The alpine biome is a high-altitude ecosystem found on mountains above the tree line, where trees cannot
grow due to cold temperatures, strong winds, and a short growing season.

It is often called a “cold desert of mountains” because of low temperatures and low productivity.

Key Features
1. Found at high altitudes (above tree line)
2. Occurs at all latitudes (Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies)
3. Harsh conditions limit plant and animal life
4. Very fragile ecosystem (easily disturbed)

Climate
The alpine biome has extreme climatic conditions:

Characteristics:
Low temperature
Long, cold winters
Short, cool summers
Strong winds
High UV radiation
Low precipitation (mostly snow)
Soil
Alpine soils are poorly developed due to harsh conditions.

Characteristics:
• Thin and shallow
• Rocky and coarse
• Well-drained
• Low nutrients
• No permafrost (unlike Arctic tundra)

Vegetation (Flora)
Vegetation is sparse and specially adapted.

Characteristics:
Low-growing (to avoid wind damage)
Short life cycles
Deep or spreading roots
Cushion-shaped plants

Types of Plants:
• Grasses and sedges
• Mosses and lichens
• Dwarf shrubs
• Alpine flowering plants

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Classification of Alpine Biome

A. Based on Altitude Zones

1. Sub-alpine Zone
• Just below tree line
• Shrubs and small trees present
2. Alpine Zone
• Above tree line
• Grasses and small plants
3. Nival Zone
• Highest zone
• Snow-covered, very little vegetation

B. Based on Climate
1. Cold Alpine Regions – Extremely cold mountains
2. Temperate Alpine Regions – Moderate cold

C. Based on Location
1. Tropical Alpine – High mountains near equator

2. Temperate Alpine – Mid-latitude mountains

3. Polar Alpine – Near polar regions

D. Based on tectonic forces (plate movements)

1. Fold Mountains
2. Block Mountains
3. Volcanic Mountains
4. Residual (Erosional) Mountains
Biotic Components of Alpine Biome

1. Producers (Autotrophs)
Plants produce food through photosynthesis.

Types:
• Grasses and sedges
• Mosses and lichens
• Alpine herbs and flowers
• Dwarf shrubs

Adaptations:
• Small size
• Thick leaves
• Hairy surfaces to reduce heat loss

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs)

(a) Primary Consumers (Herbivores)

Feed on alpine plants
Examples: Pika, Marmot, Mountain goat, Sheep, Insects

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(b) Secondary Consumers (Carnivores / Omnivores)
Feed on herbivores
Examples: Fox, Weasel, Birds

(c) Tertiary Consumers (Top Predators)

Top-level predators
Examples: Wolf, Lynx, Eagle

3. Decomposers (Detritivores)
Break down dead matter.
Examples: Bacteria and Fungi

Note:
Decomposition is slow due to cold conditions.

Functions of Alpine Biome

Supports unique biodiversity
Acts as water source for rivers
Helps in soil formation
Regulates climate and hydrological cycle

Threats to Alpine Biome

Climate change (glacier melting)
Overgrazing
Tourism pressure
Habitat destruction

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