Unit – I 15Hrs

1. Theories of Evolution
 Origin of Life (Contributions of Oparin, Haldane, Stanley Miller’s experiment).
 Historical review of evolutionary concept: Lamarckism, Darwinism, Modern synthetic
theory.
 Adaptive radiations: Patterns of evolution (Divergence, Convergence, Parallel evolution, Co-
evolution).
2. Population genetics
 Microevolution and Macroevolution allele frequencies, genotype frequencies, Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium
 Forces of evolution: Mutation, Natural Selection (Introduction, Types-Stabilising selection,
Disruptive selection, Directional selection), Genetic drift (Introduction, types-Founder’s
effect, Bottle neck effect).

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Evolution (also called organic evolution or biological evolution)
Diversification after life began.
Evolution is the slow change in living organisms over time, which can lead to new species.

Theory of Evolution
The theory of evolution explains diversification after life began.
It explains the diversity of life through gradual change over time driven by genetic variation and
natural processes.

Origin of Life
The origin of life means how the first living organisms appeared on Earth.
Origin of life means the process by which the first living organisms arose / formed from non-living
matter on the early Earth through chemical evolution.

The Earth
Our Earth lies at a distance of about 148.7 million km from the Sun. Its diameter is about 12,735 km
and mass is 6 × 10²¹ tonnes.
.
Conditions on Early Earth and reducing atmosphere
Early Earth (~4.6 billion years ago) had:
 Very high temperature
 No free oxygen (O₂) in the atmosphere
 Atmosphere rich in: C (carbon), CH₄ (methane), NH₃ (ammonia), H₂ (hydrogen) and N
(Nitrogen)
o (The temperature was so high that all these compounds existed in gaseous state. Later
all of these gases formed water and water vapour. Such an atmosphere is called a
reducing atmosphere)
 Strong energy sources:
 UV radiation
 lightning
 volcanic heat
 radioactive decay
These conditions favoured chemical reactions leading to formation of organic molecules.

Theories of Origin of Life

To explain how first life / living organism appeared on Earth many theories have been proposed. The
major theories are:

1) Special Creation Theory

According to the theory of special creation, all the living plants and animals existing today were
created by God. They were created according to their surroundings all of a sudden and have existed
unchanged from the time they were formed.
According to Christianity, the world was created by the Creator or God in six days:
 First day: sky and sea
 Second day: heaven and earth
 Third day: land and seas
 Fourth day: sun, moon and stars
 Fifth day: birds and fishes
 Sixth day: man and beasts
The first man, Adam, was formed from mud, while the first woman, Eve, was created from his 12th
rib.

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According to parts of mythology, God Brahma created different forms of life from various parts of
his body.
Hence, this theory is purely a religious concept and not a scientific fact, so it is not accepted by
scientists.
Merit: Based on faith / religion
Demerit: Not scientific, no experimental proof

2) Spontaneous Generation Theory (Abiogenesis – old concept)

Before the end of the seventeenth century, scientists and philosophers believed that living things
originated abiogenetically from nonliving matter. According to Empedocles, insects developed from
dew, worms from mud, frogs and toads from muddy bottom of ponds, butterflies from cheese, and
maggots from flesh. According to Aristotle, young mice could arise from wheat grains in 21 days.
Van Helmont (1652) stated that young mice could arise from wheat grains mixed with sweaty shirts.
All these views were experimentally rejected by Francesco Redi (1626–1698), Lazzaro Spallanzani
(1729–1799) and Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), who proposed the theory of biogenesis. Theory is
disproved by the evidences from Redi’s Experiment, Spallanzani’s Experiment and Pasteur’s
Experiment (The experiments are discussed below in theory of biogenesis).

3) Biogenesis Theory
According to biogenesis, life can arise only from pre-existing life and not from nonliving matter.
This theory is supported by the following evidences.

1. Redi’s Experiment
The Italian physician Francesco Redi demonstrated that maggots could not be created from meat.
 Redi placed lumps of boiled meat in jars.
 Some jars were left uncovered.
 Some were covered with fine gauze or muslin cloth.
 Others were covered with parchment paper.
Observation:
 Maggots appeared only in uncovered jars where flies could lay eggs.
 No maggots appeared in covered jars.
Conclusion:
Maggots are formed only from eggs laid by flies, not from meat itself.

2. Spallanzani’s Experiment
Italian scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani poured hay infusion in bottles and corked some bottles while
others were left open.
 After a few days, growth of microorganisms was found in the open bottles.
 No organisms were found in the airtight corked bottles.
He argued that air contains microorganisms and growth occurs due to contamination, not
spontaneous generation.

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3. Pasteur’s Experiment
Louis Pasteur prepared hay infusion in swan-necked flasks.
 The curved neck allowed air to enter but prevented microorganisms from reaching the
infusion.
 No microbes appeared even after 18 months.
 When the neck was broken and infusion came in contact with air directly, microbes appeared.
Conclusion:
Life comes only from pre-existing life and not from nonliving matter.
Thus, Pasteur finally proved that the theory of spontaneous generation is false.

4) Panspermia / Cosmozoic Theory

Early Greek thinkers believed that life came to the earth from outer space. According to this theory,
spores came to the earth from other planets along with meteorites. This theory is called panspermia.
It was supported by Arrhenius (1908), who suggested that life could exist in the form of resistant
spores. The existence of life on any other planet is not known so far.
Moreover, the extreme cold and dryness of space and the intense radiation of the cosmos while
travelling to the earth make it difficult to explain how life originated.
Merit: Possible due to meteorites carrying organic molecules
Demerit: No direct proof of living spores surviving space travel

5) Chemical Evolution Theory (Oparin–Haldane Theory) – Most Accepted

This theory is also called the naturalistic theory.
A detailed theory based on this idea was proposed by the Russian biochemist A. I. Oparin (1923) and
supported by J. B. S. Haldane (1928). They stated that life originated about 3.5 billion years ago.
Explains the origin of life on Earth as a gradual process in which simple inorganic molecules formed
complex organic compounds, which later organized into the first primitive living cells.
or

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Life originated through a long sequence of chemical changes in the primitive Earth environment, not
suddenly or supernaturally.

This evolution occurred in stages:

Stages of Chemical Evolution

1. Primitive Earth and Reducing Atmosphere

Earth (~4.6 billion years ago) had:
 Very high temperature
 No free oxygen (O₂) in the atmosphere
 Atmosphere rich in: C (carbon), CH₄ (methane), NH₃ (ammonia), H₂ (hydrogen) and N
(Nitrogen)
o (The temperature was so high that all these compounds existed in gaseous state. Later
all of these gases formed water and water vapour. Such an atmosphere is called a
reducing atmosphere)
 Strong energy sources:
o UV radiation
o lightning
o volcanic heat
o radioactive decay
These conditions favoured chemical reactions leading to formation of organic molecules.

2. Formation of Simple Organic Molecules (Monomers)

Energy sources acted on the gases in the atmosphere which led to the formation of organic
monomers like:
 Amino acids
 Sugars
 Nitrogen bases
 Fatty acids

3. Accumulation in Oceans
The organic molecules accumulated in oceans forming a rich mixture called:
Hot dilute soup / Primordial soup (Haldane’s term)
This acted as a “chemical reservoir” for further reactions.

4. Polymerization (Formation of Macromolecules)

Monomers combined to form polymers:
 Amino acids → Proteins
 Sugars → Polysaccharides
 Fatty acids → Lipids
 Nucleotides → Nucleic acids (RNA/DNA)
Polymerization likely occurred on:
 Hot surfaces
 Clay minerals
 Rocks near volcanic areas

5. Formation of Protobionts (Protocells)

Complex organic molecules formed cell-like aggregates called:
 Coacervates (Oparin)
 Microspheres (Fox)
Characteristics of protobionts:
 Had boundary-like membranes
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  Could absorb substances
 Showed growth and division-like behavior
 Not true living cells but precursors of life

6. Origin of First Cells

The first true living organisms were:
Anaerobic, heterotrophic prokaryotes
 Used organic molecules from primordial soup
 Did fermentation
 Did not require oxygen
Later evolved:
 Anaerobic autotrophs
 Photosynthetic organisms
 Oxygen release → Ozone layer formation
 Aerobic organisms
This theory was also supported by Miller–Urey experiment (1953)

Limitations / Criticism
Exact atmospheric composition of early Earth is debated
Does not fully explain:
 origin of genetic code
 formation of first self-replicating system (RNA world idea came later)
 exact transition from protobiont to true cell

Significance:
Oparin’s work transformed the origin of life from a philosophical question into a testable scientific
hypothesis and laid the foundation for modern origin-of-life research.

Conclusion
The Oparin–Haldane theory states that life originated by chemical evolution, where primitive Earth
conditions allowed the formation of organic molecules that gradually assembled into protocells and
finally into first living cells.

6) Modern Concept (RNA World Hypothesis)

 RNA evolved before DNA.
 RNA functioned as:
o Genetic material
o Catalyst (ribozymes)
 Later, DNA evolved as a more stable hereditary material.
 RNA became specialised into different types (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA).
 Protein synthesis developed later.
 Genetic variation and mutations led to diversification of life forms.

So sequence:
RNA → DNA → Proteins
Merit: Strong scientific support
Demerit: Exact pathway still under research

Miller–Urey Experiment (1953)

Miller and Urey designed an experimental set-up to demonstrate that organic compounds can be
synthesised under conditions similar to the primitive earth atmosphere.
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Experimental Set-up

 Gaseous mixture: CH₄, NH₃, H₂ and H₂O vapour

 Boiling water flask (simulating primitive ocean)
 Electric discharge chamber (simulating lightning)
 Condenser for cooling
 Collection trap for organic compounds

Result
After a few days, the apparatus contained organic molecules such as:
Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Glycine, Alanine, Lactic acid, Acetic acid, Formic acid
This proved that organic molecules could be formed abiotically under primitive earth conditions.

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Theories of evolution

Various theories regarding evolution have been postulated by different evolutionists. Most important
ones are:

1. Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters (Lamarckism)

2. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection (Darwinism)
3. Modern Concept of Evolution (Synthetic Theory)

Pre-Darwinian Views (Early Ideas of Evolution)

Before Charles Darwin (father of evolution) (1859), many philosophers and naturalists proposed
ideas about the origin, diversity and change of living organisms, but they lacked a strong scientific
mechanism like natural selection. These are called Pre-Darwinian views.

1. Ancient Greek Views

(a) Aristotle (384–322 BC)
 Proposed the Scala Naturae (Great Chain of Being).
 Organisms arranged from simple → complex.
 Believed species are fixed and unchanging.
Contribution: Early classification and comparative studies
Limitation: No evolution; supported fixity of species
(b) Empedocles
 Suggested organisms formed by randomly joining different body parts together.
 Only “fit combinations” survived.
Contribution:Early idea similar to “survival of the fittest” (primitive concept)

2. Religious / Creationist View

 Dominant belief for centuries.
 All species were created by God and remained unchanged.
 Supported by theologians and early naturalists.
Limitation: Did not allow for evolution or transformation

3. Fixity of Species
Many early naturalists believed:
 Species are permanent and do not change.
 Variation was considered minor and temporary.
Example supporters:
 Aristotle
 Linnaeus (initially)

4. Linnaeus (1707–1778) – Father of Taxonomy

 Introduced binomial nomenclature (Genus + species).
 Classified organisms based on similarity.
 Believed species were created and fixed.
Contribution: Systematic classification helped later evolutionary studies
Limitation: Did not accept evolution initially

5. Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) (Grandfather of Charles Darwin)

 Suggested organisms evolve through:
o competition
o sexual selection

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 o gradual changes
 Believed all life came from a common origin
Contribution: Early concept of common ancestry and struggle

6. Geological Views Supporting Evolution

(a) James Hutton (1726–1797)
 Proposed gradualism: Earth changes slowly over time.
 Earth is extremely old.
Contribution: Provided “time” necessary for evolution
(b) Charles Lyell (1797–1875)
 Proposed Uniformitarianism: The same natural processes happening today (like rivers, wind,
rain, earthquakes) also happened in the past and slowly shaped the Earth over a long time
 “Present is the key to the past”
 Geological processes occur continuously and slowly
Contribution: Strong influence on Darwin’s thinking

7. Cuvier (1769–1832) – Catastrophism

 Studied fossils and extinction.
 Proposed:
o Earth experiences sudden disasters (catastrophes)
o After each catastrophe, new species appear
 Did not believe species evolve.
Contribution: Proved extinction and fossil evidence
Limitation: Rejected evolution

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1. Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters)
The theory of inheritance of acquired characters was proposed by French biologist Jean Baptiste de
Lamarck in 1809. It was published in his book “Philosophie Zoologique” in the year 1809. It is
popularly known as Theory of Acquired Characters.

Definition:
According to the theory of inheritance of acquired characters, organic changes in the structure or
function of any organ acquired during the life-time of an individual in response to changes in the
surrounding environment are inherited by offspring and keep on adding over a period of time.
These changes lead to the origin of new species.

Postulates of Lamarckism
Lamarckism is based on four basic factors or postulates:
1. Growth.
Living organisms and their component parts tend to increase in size continuously.
2. New organs as the result of need.
Formation of a new organ or a part in the body is the result of the new need (or new want) which has
arisen and continues to be felt by the organism.
3. Use and disuse.
Development of an organ and its power of action is directly proportional to its use; continuous and
constant use strengthens the organ, while disuse results in degeneration.
4. Inheritance of acquired characters.
All changes, which organisms acquire during their life time, are transmitted to their offsprings by the
process of inheritance.
Lamarck’s theory thus states that organisms change, or evolve through time in ways that adapt them
to their local environment. Such changes occur when the environment alters the organism’s
phenotype. The information about this phenotypic change is passed from the somatic cells to the
reproductive cells of the body, and from there via gametes to the offspring.

Evidences in Favour of Lamarckism

1. Evolution of Long Neck in Giraffe
According to Lamarck, giraffes have evolved from some ancestors having short neck and forelimbs
and grazed on grass. As the climate of this area gradually became arid, grasslands changed into
desert vegetation. As the climate changed, grass became scarce and giraffes had to feed on leaves of
trees. For feeding on leaves of tall trees, they had to continuously stretch their neck and forelegs. The
continuous stretching of neck to reach the tree leaves resulted in greater elongation of neck and
forelimbs. The increase was transmitted to the members of next generation. This process of time
resulted in the long neck of giraffe.

2. Evolution of Snakes
According to Lamarck, the ancestors of snakes were limbed and lizard-like. They lived in thick
jungles. Out of fear of many enemies, they started creeping on the ground and living in narrow
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crevices or burrows. For creeping, burrowing and living in narrow crevices, the legs which were of
no use but proved to be a hindrance in creeping and burrowing, gradually disappeared.

3. Evolution of Aquatic Birds

Aquatic birds like ducks, swans and geese, etc., have arisen from terrestrial ancestors.
(a) Developing web between the toes for wading in water (adaptation to aquatic mode of life –
continuous use). Web developed because of the constant spreading of their toes.
(b) Reduction in the size of wings due to their continuous disuse.

4. Evolution of Feet of Modern Horse and Deer

They have developed the power of fast running through continuous efforts to escape from enemies.
Therefore, lengthening of limbs and reduction of toes of forelimbs has taken place.

Criticism of Lamarckism
Objections against Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters were:
1. The tendency to increase in size has been noted in many forms, but many times evolution shows
reduction in size.
For example:
 In Angiosperms, the primitive plants had woody stems, but herbs evolved later.
 Persons constantly busy in reading and writing and using their eyes more than others often
develop impaired sight.

2. The new organs develop where the organism feels their need is also not true.
Example: Birds desired to fly but could not develop wings.
3. Organisms do react to the environment and may undergo temporary changes in their organisation,
but these changes cannot be inherited by the offspring because no change will be produced in the
germplasm.
4. Experiments have disproved the law of inheritance of acquired characteristics.
For example,
 if any of the parent becomes blind or deaf or lame before producing the offspring, the
offspring shall not be blind or lame.
 mutilations and wounds of parents do not appear in the offspring.
 piercing of ear lobes of women and circumcision of penis in Jews and Muslims are age old
customs, yet these effects do not appear in the offspring.
 the muscles of a wrestler are not inherited by his children.
5. August Weismann (1904):
He cut off the tails of rats for about 80 generations, but tailless offspring were never born.
6. Pavlov:
A Russian physiologist, trained mice to come to food on hearing the bell. But such acquired
characters were not inherited.

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2. DARWINISM
Darwinism / the theory of evolution proposed by Darwin is also called ‘Theory of Natural Selection’
as best adapted organisms were selected by nature to pass on their traits to the next generation.
Theory of Natural Selection was explained by Darwin in his book “The Origin of Species by Natural
Selection”.

Basic postulates of Darwinism

Darwin’s theory of natural selection is based upon the following five fundamental propositions.

1. Enormous fertility in living beings / over reproduction.

All living beings have an amazing fertility and every organism has an innate desire to produce its
own progeny for the continuity of race. The productivity of all living organisms is far beyond the
ultimate numbers which can possibly survive. The space and the available food supply is limited but
the number of organisms increases in a geometric ratio.
 The elephant, the slowest breeder among mammals, produces six young ones in its life time
of about 90 years. If we presume that all progeny survive, then in a period of 750 years there
would be 19 million elephants descended from a single pair.
 An oyster lays about six million eggs in a year, and if the entire progeny survived and
multiplied then the heaps of their shells would be the size of the earth in a year’s time.
 Huxley estimated that descendants of a single pair of green fly, if all survived and multiplied,
at the end of one summer only, would weigh down the population of China.
However, regardless of the rate of reproduction of a species, its number remains roughly constant
under a fairly stable environment.

2. Struggle for existence.

Since the number of individuals produced is far more than the number that will ultimately survive,
there is an everlasting competition between organisms Thus there is struggle for their existence, and
this struggle may be of the following three types.
(a) Intraspecific struggle.
It is the struggle between the members of the same species, since their needs are precisely similar.
Every one of them tries to take the most of the food, shelter, light, etc., and also to produce more
individuals to perpetuate the race.
(b) Interspecific struggle.
It is the struggle between the members of different species living together. Every living form
depends upon some other organisms for its food and thus it is the struggle between the aggressor and
the victim.
(c) Extraspecific struggle or struggle with the environment.
This is a struggle with the environment where excess of moisture, drought, heat, cold, floods,
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions play a major role. A large number of organisms die due to these
natural calamities.

3. Variations under nature.

No two individuals of a species are exactly similar and they have some differences. These
differences are called variations and without variations evolution is not possible. Variations give rise
to new characters and heredity passes them on to the next generation. Only those variations which
can be inherited take part in the evolution of species. Variations may be of the following types.

4. Natural selection or survival of the fittest.

Due to struggle for existence and useful heritable variations, only those individuals survive which are
best fitted to new conditions of life. The individuals which survive show high selective value and in
the course of time they develop various adaptive modifications to suit the changed conditions of life.

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Such selection was called natural selection by Darwin and as survival of the fittest by Herbert
Spencer. Natural selection indicates the automatic weeding out of the less perfect forms.

Darwin illustrated the survival of the fittest by natural selection by taking the example of Lamarck’s
giraffe. In a population of giraffes with somewhat variable neck lengths, those that could not reach
the leaves on tall trees did not get enough food to survive and reproduce. Giraffes with longer necks
got more food and left more offspring and thus the forms of giraffes with longer necks and legs
became abundant and the ones with shorter necks and legs gradually became extinct. The most
successful organisms are those which have several adaptations. Natural selection causes heritable
variations which would produce new species over the long period of geological time.

5. Origin of species.
In the course of long periods of time the best fitted and suitable individuals survived and became
adjusted to the nature. As environment is ever changing, further changes occur and thus new
adaptations appear in organisms. The later descendants after several generations become quite
distinct from their ancestors. In this way new species appear.
Origin of new species by natural selection as envisaged by Darwin can be summed up in the form of
the following Wallace’s chart.

Example: Evolution of Long Neck in Giraffe

 Darwin explained evolution of long neck of giraffe by natural selection.
 In the beginning existence of variability in the length of neck and legs in the ancestral
population of giraffe was present. Giraffes with longer necks were more successful in
reaching higher foliage for feeding. Therefore, natural selection favoured longer-necked
progeny.
 Selection of longer neck for several generations resulted in the evolution of present-day
longer-necked modern giraffe.

Drawbacks of Darwinism
1. Theory of Pangenesis
Darwin failed to explain the mechanism of inheritance or mode of transmission of variations.
In 1868, Darwin proposed theory of pangenesis to explain this phenomenon.
According to this theory, every cell, organ or part of body produces minute hereditary
particles called pangens, which were carried by blood and deposited in the reproductive
organs. According to Germplasm theory, pangens were not carried by blood. These were
carried by germplasm. However, according to germplasm theory, germplasm gets
differentiated from somatoplasm early in embryonic development, ruling out inheritance of
somatic changes on germ cells.
2. Inheritance of Somatic Variations
Darwin held that small variations from the raw material for evolution. But occurrence of
somatic variations in those organs can be useful to the organism only when they are fully
developed and functional. At initial stage as a small variation, when they cannot be of any
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 advantage. For example, wing of bird in its initial stage as a small structure would have been
of no use to the organism. Such a structure was favoured by selection and inherited to
subsequent generations, with gradual improvement.
3. Existence of Vestigial Organs
According to natural selection, only useful organs are selected and favoured in the struggle
for existence. The existence of vestigial organs cannot be explained because these are of no
use to the possessor.
4. Overspecialisation
Overspecialisation of some organs in certain animals like antlers of deer and tusks of
elephants beyond the stage of usefulness rather causes hindrance in daily life cannot be
explained by natural selection. Also, Darwin had explained the survival of the fittest but did
not explain the arrival of the fittest. Darwin could not explain the mechanism of occurrence
of variations and their inheritance.

Evidences in Support of Darwinism

1. Artificial Selection
There is a close parallelism between natural selection and artificial selection. By artificial selection,
breeders and farmers for several generations select certain plants and animals for desired characters.
New races of dogs, horses, pigeons, cattle, etc. have been developed by man by artificial selection.
Plants like wheat, rice, sugarcane, etc. have been developed by man. Thus, artificial selection proves
that new species can be produced by selection.
2. Mimicry and Protective Colouration
Mimicry and protective colouration as seen in certain animals is due to gradual changes occurring
side by side both in the animals occupying the same area.
3. Correlation between Position of Nectaries in Flowers and Length of Proboscis of Pollinating
Insects
This selection between two different organisms can evolve gradually and can be explained by natural
selection.
4. Extinct Forms
Study of fossils shows that new organisms are formed regularly and older ones become extinct from
time to time. The resemblance of fossils to the present day living forms is indicative of their gradual
modification.

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Neo-Darwinism (Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution / Genetical theory of natural selection)
Neo-Darwinism, also called the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution, is the updated form of
Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
It combines the concept of natural selection proposed by Charles Darwin with the principles of
heredity discovered by Gregor Mendel.
Darwin explained that evolution occurs through natural selection, but he did not know the genetic
basis of variation. After 50-60 years the knowledge of genetics, chromosomes, and mutations
came which helped to explain how variations arise and are inherited.
The integration of Darwin’s theory with Mendelian genetics led to the development of Neo-
Darwinism during the early 20th century.

Main Points / Features of Neo-Darwinism

1. Evolution occurs in populations, not individuals.
2. Variations are genetic and heritable.
3. Variation arises due to:
o Mutation
o Recombination
4. Natural selection acts on phenotype.
5. Favourable variations increase in frequency.
6. Evolution = change in gene pool.
7. Sexual reproduction increases variation.

Several scientists contributed to the development of the Modern Synthetic Theory, including August
Weismann, J. B. S. Haldane, Sewall Wright, and Theodosius Dobzhansky.

In summary, Neo-Darwinism explains evolution as a genetic change in populations caused by natural

selection acting on heritable variations, supported by the principles of genetics and population
biology.

Peppered Moth (Industrial Melanism)

The classic example of natural selection is seen in the peppered moth, Biston betularia.
Before the Industrial Revolution in United Kingdom, most moths were light-coloured (typica form)
and blended well with lichen-covered trees. Dark-coloured moths (carbonaria form) were rare.
During industrialization, soot from factories darkened tree trunks. Light-coloured moths became
easily visible to predators (birds), while dark moths were better camouflaged. As a result, dark moths
survived and reproduced more.
After pollution control, light-coloured moths again increased in number.
Significance:
Shows change in allele frequency due to environmental pressure (natural selection acting on genetic
variation).

DDT-Resistant Insects
When the insecticide DDT was widely used, most insects were killed. However, a few insects had
natural genetic mutations that made them resistant.
These resistant insects survived and reproduced, passing resistance genes to their offspring. Over
time, the population became predominantly DDT-resistant.
Examples include resistance seen in mosquitoes such as Anopheles gambiae.
Significance:
Demonstrates evolution through:
 Mutation
 Natural selection

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  Increase in resistant allele frequency

Shore Crab Variation

The shore crab, Carcinus maenas, shows variation in colour and pattern depending on habitat.
 Crabs living on sandy shores are lighter in colour.
 Crabs living among rocks and seaweed are darker.
Predators more easily catch individuals that contrast with their surroundings. Hence, better-
camouflaged crabs survive and reproduce more successfully.
Significance:
Shows environmental selection maintaining adaptive variation in populations.
Conclusion
All three examples — peppered moth, DDT-resistant insects, and shore crab — clearly support Neo-
Darwinism because they demonstrate:
 Presence of genetic variation
 Environmental selection pressure
 Differential survival and reproduction
 Change in gene frequency over generations
These are direct evidences that evolution occurs through natural selection acting on heritable genetic
variation.

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Adaptive Radiation
One ancestor → Different habitats / foods → Many new species.
It is an evolutionary process.-
Adaptive radiation is a type of evolution in which a single ancestral species rapidly diversifies into
multiple new species, each adapted to different ecological niches.
or
Adaptive radiation is when one ancestral species evolves into many different species, each adapted
to different habitats or food sources.
 Occurs when new habitats or resources become available
 Often follows migration, mass extinction, or environmental change
 Produces many species with different structures and functions

The classic example of adaptive radiation is seen in Darwin’s finches of the Galapagos Islands.
The Galapagos Islands are located about 600 miles west of South America.
A small sparrow-like ancestral bird reached these islands long ago.
Because the islands had:
 Different climates
 Different vegetation
 Different food sources
 Very little competition
The birds spread to different islands and evolved into many species.
Today there are about 14–15 species of Darwin’s finches.
They are grouped into 4 genera:
 Geospiza
 Camarhynchus
 Certhidea
 Pinaroloxias
All evolved from one common ancestor.

The most important adaptive feature was the beak.

Different food types favored different beak shapes:
Seed Eaters
 Thick, strong, crushing beaks
 Adapted to break hard seeds
 Example: Ground finches
Insect Eaters
 Thin, pointed beaks
 Good for catching insects from bark or leaves
 Example: Warbler finch
Cactus Feeders
 Long, sharp beaks
 Used to feed on cactus nectar and pulp
Tool-Using Finches
 Some species even use sticks to remove insects from tree bark (woodpecker finch).

Result – Formation of New Species

Over time
 Genetic differences accumulated
 Reproductive isolation developed

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  Many distinct finch species evolved
Today, there are about 15+ species of Darwin’s finches, all descended from one ancestor.
Reason for formation of New Species
• Different islands → Geographic isolation
• Different foods → Different natural selection
• Over time → New species formed

5. Why This Is Adaptive Radiation

 One ancestral species
 Rapid diversification
 Different ecological niches
 Homologous structures (same basic beak origin, different forms)
Importance
Charles Darwin studied these finches.
Their differences helped him develop the theory of natural selection.

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Patterns of evolution
Patterns of evolution describe the recurring, observable ways species change over time, driven by
environmental pressures and genetic variation.
The primary patterns include:
 divergent evolution
 convergent evolution
 parallel evolution and
 coevolution

Divergent Evolution
One ancestor → Different environments → Different adaptations → New species.
Divergent evolution is the process in which a single common ancestral species gradually splits into
two or more new species that develop different characteristics. This usually happens when
populations of the same species become separated and adapt to different environmental conditions or
ecological niches. Over time, natural selection favors different traits in each group, leading to the
formation of distinct species.
 Produces homologous organs (same origin, different function)
 Shows structural similarity but functional difference
 Caused by adaptation to different habitats
Example:
The evolution of modern humans and apes from a common ancestor. Both belong to the family
Hominidae but evolved different traits such as bipedalism in humans and arboreal adaptations in
many apes.
Another classic example is Darwin’s finches in the Galápagos Islands, where different species
evolved different beak shapes based on their feeding habits.
Importance: Evidence for common ancestry.

Convergent Evolution
Different ancestors → Same environment → Similar adaptations.
Convergent evolution is the process in which unrelated species independently develop similar
traits because they adapt to similar environments or ecological niches. Even though these species
do not share a recent common ancestor, natural selection leads them to evolve similar features.
 Produces analogous organs (different origin, same function)
 Similar adaptations due to similar selective pressures
Examples:
 Wings of birds and insects
 Streamlined body in sharks (fish) and dolphins (mammals)
 Succulent stems in desert plants
Importance: Shows adaptation, not common ancestry.

Parallel Evolution
Related ancestors → Similar environments → Similar adaptations evolving separately.
Parallel evolution is the process in which different but closely related species independently
develop similar traits after diverging from a relatively recent common ancestor. These species
evolve in similar environments, so natural selection favors similar adaptations in each lineage.
 Occurs in related species
 Traits evolve independently but in a similar direction
 Common ancestor already had similar basic features
Examples:

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• Placental mammals and marsupial mammals developing similar body forms (e.g., wolf-like forms
evolving separately in different lineages).
• Similar adaptations in related primate species living in comparable habitats.
• Repeated evolution of similar traits in cichlid fishes in African lakes such as Lake Victoria and
Lake Malawi.

Coevolution
Species A changes → Species B adapts → Species A adapts again → Continuous cycle of evolution.
Coevolution is the process in which two or more species evolve together because they reciprocally
influence each other’s evolution. Changes in one species create selective pressure on the other,
leading to evolutionary adaptations in both.
 Involves close ecological interactions
 Can occur in mutualism, predation, parasitism, or competition
 Leads to specialized adaptations in interacting species
Types
Mutualistic coevolution
Mutualistic coevolution occurs when two animal species (or an animal and another organism) evolve
together in a way that both benefit from the interaction.
Example:
Ants protect aphids in a mutualistic relationship where they act as farmers, guarding the sap-sucking
insects from predators like ladybugs, lacewings, and parasitic wasps. In return, ants consume the
nutrient-rich, sugary "honeydew" that aphids secrete. Ants may also transport aphids to new,
healthier plant sites and shelter them.
Cleaner fish, such as wrasses and gobies, form mutualistic relationships with large marine fish by
removing parasites, dead skin, and infected tissue. These specialists operate "cleaning stations" on
reefs, where large predators, including groupers and moray eels, wait patiently to be cleaned. Cleaner
fish, obtain a reliable food source—specifically ectoparasites, dead skin, and infected tissue—from
the bodies, gills, and mouths of larger fish.
Predator–Prey Coevolution
Predator–prey coevolution is a type of coevolution where predators and their prey exert
reciprocal selective pressures on each other, leading to continuous adaptive changes in both. It is
often described as an evolutionary arms race.
How It Works (Arms Race Model)
 Prey evolve better defense mechanisms
 Predators evolve improved hunting strategies
 Prey evolve further improvements.
 Cycle continues.
Examples:
Speed in Cheetahs and Gazelles
• Faster gazelles escape predation.
• Faster cheetahs catch prey.
Camouflage and Detection
• Insects evolve cryptic coloration.
• Birds evolve sharper vision to detect prey.

Host–Parasite Coevolution
Host–parasite coevolution is a type of coevolution in which hosts evolve defenses against parasites,
while parasites evolve strategies to overcome those defenses. This results in a continuous
evolutionary arms race between the two.
 Host evolves resistance
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  Parasite evolves better infectivity
 Reciprocal adaptation over generations

How It Works
 Parasite infects host.
 Host evolves immune resistance or behavioral defense.
 Parasite evolves new virulence mechanisms.
 Cycle continues.
This dynamic is often explained by the Red Queen Hypothesis — species must continuously evolve
just to maintain their fitness.

Example:
Brood Parasitism in Birds
 Parasitic birds lay eggs in host nests.
 Hosts evolve egg recognition ability.
 Parasites evolve egg mimicry.
Rabbits and Myxoma Virus
 The myxoma virus was introduced to control rabbit populations in Australia.
 Rabbits evolved resistance.
 Virus strains evolved different levels of virulence.

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Microevolution vs Macroevolution
Evolution can be studied at two levels: microevolution (small-scale changes) and macroevolution
(large-scale changes).

Microevolution
Small changes in allele frequencies within a population over a short period of time.
Occurs due to:
 Mutation
 Natural selection
 Genetic drift
 Gene flow
Happens within a species.
Examples:
 Industrial melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia)
 DDT resistance in mosquitoes
 Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Key Point:
Microevolution does not create new species immediately but may eventually lead to speciation.

Macroevolution
Large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over long geological time, leading to the formation of
new species and higher taxonomic groups.
Includes:
 Speciation
 Adaptive radiation
 Mass extinction
 Evolution of major groups
Examples:
 Evolution of birds from reptiles
 Adaptive radiation of finches in the Galapagos Islands
 Evolution of mammals after dinosaur extinction
Key Point:
Macroevolution is the accumulation of microevolutionary changes over long periods.

Difference between Micro and Macro Evolution

Feature Microevolution Macroevolution
Level Within species Above species level
Time scale Short Long (millions of years)
Result Variation in population New species, genera, families
Study field Population genetics Paleontology & evolutionary biology

Allele Frequency

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Genotype Frequency

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26 |Dr. Janhavi P
Hardy–Weinberg Principle

Definition

The Hardy–Weinberg Principle states that allele frequencies and genotype frequencies remain
constant from generation to generation in a population if no evolutionary forces act on it.

It is also called:

 Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
 Genetic Equilibrium

Statement of Principle

In a large, randomly mating population:

 allele frequencies remain constant

 genotype frequencies remain constant

provided there is:

 no mutation
 no migration
 no natural selection
 no genetic drift

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Conditions Required for Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium

1. Large Population

 Population should be very large.

 Prevents genetic drift.

2. Random Mating

 Individuals mate randomly.

 No selective mating.

3. No Mutation

 No change in genes.

4. No Migration (Gene Flow)

 No entry or exit of individuals.

5. No Natural Selection

 All genotypes survive equally.

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Forces of Evolution
Definition
Forces of evolution are factors that cause changes in allele frequencies in a population over
generations. These forces disturb the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and lead to evolution.

Main Forces of Evolution (5 main forces)

1. Mutation
2. Gene Flow (Migration)
3. Genetic Drift
4. Natural Selection
5. Non-random Mating

1. Mutation
Mutation is a sudden heritable change in genetic material (DNA).

Effects
 Produces new alleles
 Introduces genetic variation
 Raw material for evolution

Types
1. Gene mutation
2. Chromosomal mutation

1. Gene mutation
Gene mutation is a sudden heritable change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene.
It alters the genetic information present in DNA.
Causes of Gene Mutation
1. Spontaneous Mutations
Occur naturally due to:
 errors during DNA replication
 natural chemical changes in DNA

2. Induced Mutations
Caused by mutagens such as:
 radiation (X-rays, UV rays)
 chemicals
 viruses

Types of Gene Mutation (7 types of gene mutation)

1. Point Mutation (Substitution)
A single nucleotide is replaced by another nucleotide.

Types of Point Mutation

a) Silent Mutation
 Codon changes but amino acid remains the same.
 No major effect on protein.

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Example:
GAA → GAG
Both code for glutamic acid.
b) Missense Mutation
 One amino acid is replaced by another.
 Protein function may change.
Example:
Sickle Cell Disease is caused by a missense mutation in hemoglobin.
c) Nonsense Mutation
 Mutation changes a codon into a stop codon.
 Protein synthesis stops prematurely.

2. Frameshift Mutation
Occurs when nucleotides are inserted or deleted in numbers not divisible by three, shifting the
reading frame.
Types
 Insertion
 Deletion

a. Insertion Mutation
Addition of one or more nucleotides into DNA sequence.
 May cause frameshift if not multiple of 3.

b. Deletion Mutation
Removal of nucleotides from DNA sequence.
 Can remove one amino acid or shift the reading frame.

Effects:
 Alters all codons after mutation
 Usually produces nonfunctional proteins
Associated diseases:
 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
 Tay–Sachs Disease

5. Duplication Mutation
A segment of DNA is repeated one or more times.

6. Inversion Mutation
A DNA segment breaks off, reverses, and reattaches.

7. Repeat Expansion Mutation

Certain nucleotide sequences repeat many times abnormally.
Example: Huntington's Disease

Summary Table
Mutation Type Description Effect
Silent No amino acid change Usually harmless
Missense One amino acid changes Protein altered
Nonsense Stop codon formed Short protein
Frameshift Reading frame shifts Severe effect

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 Mutation Type Description Effect
Insertion Bases added May cause frameshift
Deletion Bases removed May cause frameshift
Duplication DNA repeated Abnormal protein
Inversion DNA segment reversed Gene disruption
Repeat Expansion Repeated sequences increase Neurological disorders

Example of Gene Mutation

Sickle Cell Anemia
Caused by substitution mutation in β-globin gene.
Normal codon: GAG→Glutamic
Mutated codon: GUG→Valine
This changes normal hemoglobin into sickle hemoglobin.

Effects of Gene Mutation

Harmful Effects
 Genetic disorders
 Cancer
 Reduced survival
Beneficial Effects
 Creates variation
 Helps evolution and adaptation
Neutral Effects
 No visible effect

Chromosomal Mutation
Chromosomal mutation is a change in the structure or number of chromosomes.
It affects many genes at the same time and may produce major genetic changes.

Types of Chromosomal Mutation

Chromosomal mutations are mainly of two types:
1. Structural chromosomal mutations
2. Numerical chromosomal mutations
1. Structural Chromosomal Mutations
These occur due to breakage and rearrangement of chromosome segments.

A. Deletion
Loss of a chromosome segment.
Effect
 Missing genes
 Abnormal phenotype
Example
Cri-du-chat syndrome

B. Duplication
A chromosome segment is repeated.

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Effect
 Extra copies of genes
 Increased gene dosage
C. Inversion
A chromosome segment breaks and reattaches in reverse order.
Types
 Paracentric inversion
 Pericentric inversion
Effect
 Alters gene arrangement

D. Translocation
Transfer of chromosome segment to another chromosome.
Types
 Reciprocal translocation
 Non-reciprocal translocation
Example
Philadelphia chromosome in leukemia

2. Numerical Chromosomal Mutations

Changes in chromosome number.

A. Aneuploidy
Gain or loss of one or few chromosomes.

Types
Monosomy
2n – 1n = n
One chromosome missing.
Example:
 Turner syndrome

Trisomy
2n + 1n = 3n
One extra chromosome.
Example:
 Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)

B. Polyploidy
Increase in complete sets of chromosomes.

Types
 Triploidy (3n)
 Tetraploidy (4n)
Common in
 Plants
Importance
 Produces larger fruits and crops

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Causes of Chromosomal Mutation
 Radiation
 Chemicals
 Errors during meiosis
 Nondisjunction of chromosomes

Nondisjunction
Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
Leads to:
 aneuploidy
 abnormal chromosome number

Effects of Chromosomal Mutation

Harmful Effects
 Genetic disorders
 Developmental abnormalities
 Infertility
Beneficial Effects
 Evolution
 Speciation
 Crop improvement in plants

Examples of Chromosomal Disorders

Disorder Chromosomal Change
Down syndrome Trisomy 21
Turner syndrome XO
Klinefelter syndrome XXY
Cri-du-chat syndrome Deletion in chromosome 5 - 5 P arm

2. Gene Flow (Migration)

Movement of genes from one population to another due to migration of individuals or gametes.
When individuals migrate and reproduce in a new population, they introduce new alleles into that
population.

Effects
 Introduces new alleles
 Changes allele frequencies
 Increases genetic variation
Example: Pollen transfer between plant populations
Birds migrating and breeding in new regions
Human migration between populations

3. Genetic Drift
Random change in allele frequencies due to chance events, especially in small populations.

Characteristics
 More effective in small populations
 May lead to loss of alleles

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Types
a) Founder Effect
The founder effect is a type of Genetic Drift that occurs when a small group of individuals separates
from a large population and forms a new population.

Example: A few birds blown to an island establish a new population. Their genes determine the
genetic makeup of future generations.
Cheetah populations show very low genetic diversity due to past bottleneck events.

Importance
 Contributes to evolution
 Can lead to formation of new populations or species
 Common in island populations

b) Bottleneck Effect
The bottleneck effect is a type of Genetic Drift in which a large population suddenly becomes very
small due to environmental or accidental events.
Population size drastically reduces due to disasters.

Importance
Alters allele frequencies by chance
Demonstrates evolution through random events
Important in conservation biology

Example: If a disease kills most members of a population, the surviving few individuals reproduce
and pass on only their genes to future generations.
Northern Elephant Seal populations experienced a bottleneck due to excessive hunting and now show
low genetic variation.

4. Natural Selection
Natural selection is the process by which organisms with favourable traits survive and reproduce
more successfully than others.
Proposed by: Charles Darwin

Effects
 Increases adaptive traits
 Eliminates unfavourable traits
Types of Natural Selection
a) Directional Selection
Directional selection is a type of Natural Selection in which one extreme phenotype is favoured over
other phenotypes.
Example: Industrial melanism in moths

b) Stabilizing Selection
Stabilizing selection is a type of Natural Selection in which the intermediate or average phenotype is
favoured, while extreme phenotypes are selected against.
Example: Average-weight babies have higher survival rates than very small or very large babies.

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c) Disruptive Selection
Disruptive selection is a type of Natural Selection in which both extreme phenotypes (very small or
very large) are favoured, while the intermediate phenotype is selected against.
Examples:
 Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
 Pesticide resistance in insects
 Long neck of Giraffe

5. Non-random Mating
Non-random mating occurs when individuals in a population do not mate by chance but choose
partners based on specific traits or relationships.

Effects
 Changes genotype frequencies
 Can increase homozygosity
Types of Non-random Mating
a) Assortative Mating
Individuals mate with others that are similar in appearance or traits.
Example: Tall individuals mating with tall individuals
b) Disassortative Mating
Individuals mate with partners that are genetically or physically different.
Example: Preference for genetically different mates
c) Inbreeding
Mating between closely related individuals.
Effects: Increases homozygosity and May expose harmful recessive genes

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