MODULE 1

Background
to Language
Learning

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Learner characteristics
What are learner characteristics?
Learner characteristics are differences between learners which influence their attitude to learning a language and
how they learn it. These differences influence how they respond to different teaching styles and approaches in the
classroom, and how successful they are at learning a language. The differences include a learner's motivation,
personality, language level, learning style, learning strategies, age and past language learning experience.

Key concepts
Can you think of how the ways in which you like to learn, how you have learned in the past and your age might
influence how you prefer to learn a language?

Learning styles

Learning styles are the ways in which a learner naturally prefers to take in, process and remember information and
skills. Our learning style influences how we like to learn and how we learn best. Experts have suggested several
different ways of classifying learning styles. They relate to the physical sense we prefer to use to learn, our way of
interacting with other people and our style of thinking. Here are some commonly mentioned learning styles:

visual the learner learns best through seeing

auditory the learner learns best through hearing
kinesthetic the learner learns best through using the body
group the learner learns best through working with others
individual the learner learns best through working alone
reflective the learner learns best when given time to consider choices
impulsive the learner learns best when able to respond immediately

You can see from these descriptions how learners with different learning styles learn in different ways, and need to
be taught in different ways. We must remember though, that learners may not fall exactly into any one category of
learning style, that different cultures may use some learning styles more than others and that learners may change
or develop their learning styles.

Learning strategies

Learning strategies are the ways chosen and used by learners to learn language. They include ways to help
ourselves identify what we need to learn, process new language and work with other people to learn. Using the right
strategy at the right time can help us learn the language better, and help to make us more independent or autonomous
learners. Some examples of learning strategies are:
• repeating new words in your head until you remember them
• experimenting/taking risks by using just learned language in conversations
• guessing the meaning of unknown words
• asking the teacher or others to say what they think about your use of language
• deciding to use the foreign language as much as possible by talking to tourists
• recording yourself speaking, then judging and correcting your pronunciation
• asking a speaker to repeat what they have said
• deciding what area of vocabulary you need to learn and then learning it
• thinking about how to remember all the new words you see in each lesson and then deciding to write each new
one on a separate card
• paraphrasing (using other language to say what you want to say).
Different learners use different strategies. Experts think that the strategies that learners use most successfully depend
on their personality and learning style. This means there are no best strategies. But research shows that using
strategies definitely makes learning more successful and that learners can be trained to use strategies.

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Maturity
Maturity involves becoming grown up physically, mentally and emotionally. Children, teenagers and adults have
different learning characteristics and therefore learn in different ways. Here are some of the main differences in
maturity that influence language learning:

Children Teenagers Adults

Need to move Starting to keep still for longer Able to keep still for longer
periods but still need to move periods
Can concentrate for shorter Concentration developing Can concentrate for longer
periods periods
Learn through experience Beginning to learn in abstract Learn in more abstract ways
ways, i.e. through thinking, as
well as experiencing
Are not very able to control and Beginning to control and plan Usually able to control and plan
plan their own behavior their own behavior their own behavior
Are not afraid of making May worry about what others Not so willing to make mistakes
mistakes or taking risks think of them or take risks
Are not aware of themselves Sometimes uncomfortably Aware of themselves and/or
and/or their actions aware of themselves and/or their actions
their actions
Pay attention to meaning in Pay attention to meaning and Pay attention to form and
language increasingly to form meaning in language
Have limited experience of life Beginning to increase their Have experience of life
experience of life

Of course, every learner is different, so everyone may not fit exactly into these descriptions. They are generalizations
that show likely, but not fixed, characteristics. But from looking at these differences we can see that each age group
needs to be taught in different ways.

Past language learning experience

Teenage and adult learners may have learned English before. They may be used to learning in a particular way and
have definite ideas about how to learn best. For example, an adult may have learned English at school through
learning lots of grammar and may have been successful in learning this way. If he then finds himself in a class where
the teaching is done just through asking learners to use language for communication, he may not like learning in
this new way. Another adult may have learned by using translation at school and then come to a class in which
translation is never used. She may or may not like this change. Teachers of adults (and sometimes teachers of
teenagers) need to be aware of how their learners have learned previously and how they want to learn now. The
learners may welcome a change in method but they may want to learn in the same way as they learned before.
Teachers may need to discuss and explain their methods to learners who are unhappy with new methods. They may
also need to change their teaching to make the learner more comfortable and confident in their learning.

Key concepts and the language teaching classroom

• Learners are not all the same. They do not all learn in the same way.
• Some learner characteristics, such as past language learning experience and learning strategies, are more
relevant to teaching teenagers and adults than to teaching children.
• We can find out what our learners' characteristics are by asking them, observing them, giving them
questionnaires, asking at the end of a lesson whether they liked the activities done in class and why, and in
what different ways they might like to work.
• Learner characteristics may not be fixed. We must not limit a learner by thinking they can only learn in a
particular way.
• We can train learners to become aware of and use different learning strategies.
• It is not possible for the teacher of a big class to meet the learner characteristics of each learner all the time.
Across a number of lessons teachers can try to vary how they teach so that they can match the learner
characteristics of a range of learners.

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Multiple Intelligences
What does it mean to be intelligent? Traditionally, intelligence refers to a person's ability to perform certain
academic skills, primarily knowledge-building and mathematics. However, parents and teachers often notice
that each child is unique in the way he or she understands the world, and unique in terms of his or her skills
and abilities. Some children are smart in very specific ways that may or may not be measurable on a standard
intelligence test. This can be explained, in part, by the theory of Multiple Intelligences. This theory was
developed by psychologist Howard Gardner and explained in his book Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner argues
that there are many ways of being intelligent. He recognized seven distinct intelligences: logical-mathematical,
linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Naturalist, an eighth
intelligence, was added later.

INTELLIGENCE DESCRIPTION ACTIVITIES

Logical- a capacity for logical thinking, an math, logic problems, and puzzles; working
Mathematical enjoyment of numbers and patterns with language rules or formulas

Linguistic an understanding of how language communication activities: speaking, listening,

works; an enjoyment of its sound, reading, and writing tasks covering different
rhythm, and meaning; and a genres (poems, stories, recipes, etc.); language
sensitivity towards its subtleties analysis

Musical an ability to produce and appreciate songs, rhymes, chants, poems; work with
rhythmic and melodic sound and an sentence rhythm and intonation patterns
understanding of musical expression

a skillful and coordinated use of the miming, acting, dance, action games
Bodily-
body for movement and expression,
Kinesthetic
and the manipulation of objects

Spatial an accurate perception of the craft activities and art work, labeling activities
visual/spatial world, an (body parts), constructing models and labeling
understanding of one's relation to it,
and the ability to remember and
recreate visual scenes

Interpersonal a natural ability to relate to others doing role-plays, dialogues, surveys,

and to respond to moods, presentations, peer-teaching; pair and small-
temperaments, and intentions of group work
others; empathy, charisma, and
social skills

Intrapersonal an ability for introspection and writing a journal, setting goals, doing self-
perceptive understanding of oneself: evaluation, identifying learning strategies
feelings, motivations, why we do
things

talking about nature, observing the natural

a special appreciation and
environment, doing demonstrations and
Naturalist understanding of nature and its
experiments in class, bringing plants or animals
cycles
to class, telling folklore and rural myths

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 Logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligences are traditionally valued in schools. Children whose strengths
fall within those categories of intelligence tend to perform better in the academic setting, not because they are
"intelligent" and the other students are not, but because their form of intelligence is well aligned with the
content and methods of traditional academic study. According to Multiple Intelligences Theory, teachers need
to value these other strengths, or intelligences, and avoid weighting the system heavily in favor of specific
groups of learners. In addition, they should give children an opportunity to expand their abilities across the
range of intelligences, rather than focusing only on a narrow set of skills. In practice, this means incorporating
a variety of materials and activities into lessons (see the third column in the table above).

Learner needs

What are learner needs?

When a learner learns a foreign language he or she has various kinds of needs which influence his/her learning.
They are personal needs, learning needs and future professional needs. Meeting these learner needs is part of being
a good teacher.

Key concepts
Can you think of any learner needs that your learners have?
The different kinds of learner needs are shown in this table:

Learner Needs
Kinds of needs Where the needs come from
Personal needs Age
Gender
Cultural background
Interests
Educational background
Motivation
Learning needs Learning styles
Past learning experience
Learning gap (i.e. gap between present level and the
target level of language proficiency and knowledge of
the target culture)
Learning goals and expectations for the course
Learner autonomy
Availability of time
(Future) Professional needs Language requirements for employment, training, or
education

We can see from the table that different learners have different needs. This means they need to be taught in
different ways and learn different things in the English classroom.

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Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
Adults or older teenagers with specific professional, general or academic goals for learning English need courses
that meet their needs. Here, for example, is a range of different kinds of professional, general and academic English
courses. Notice the differences there are between them.
1 A four-week intensive course on exam strategies for taking a university entrance exam.
2 A series of one-to-one lessons over eight weeks on business presentation skills.
3 A six-month course for future tourists focusing on speaking and listening for social and daily survival English.
4 A year-long course on writing academic essays and reading academic books and articles.
5 A short summer course in the UK for teenagers, involving lots of sports, trips to tourist sites and chatting with
English teenagers.
6 A once-a-week course for a small group of accountants held in the learners' company, a large accountancy
firm, on English for accountants.
7 A four-week online course on writing business letters in English.
You can see that to meet the future needs of learners these courses vary in length, frequency, class size, language
skill focused on, type of English, teaching methods and activities.
Learners at primary or secondary school may not yet have professional or academic needs, but they do have
personal and learning needs in English. Meeting these needs presents the teacher with various choices for the
classroom. These are shown in the table below.

Learner needs How the teacher can meet learner needs

Personal needs Choosing suitable:
- Materials
- Topics
- Pace (speed) of lessons
- Activities
- Approach to teaching
- Treatment of individual learners
- Skills
- Interaction patterns (e.g. group, pair or individual
work)
- Types of feedback (comments on learning)
Learning needs Choosing suitable:
- Materials
- Activities
- Interaction patterns
- Approach to teaching
- Language and skills
- Learning strategies
- Workload

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Differences between L1 and L2 learning
What are the differences between L1 and L2 learning?
When we learn our first language (L1) we are likely to learn it in different ways and in different contexts from when
we learn a second language (L2). We are also likely to be a different age.

Key concepts
What differences can you think of between L1 and L2 learning? Think about the learners' age, ways of learning and
context that they are learning in.

L1 learning L2 learning (in the classroom)

Age • Baby to young child. • Usually at primary school and/or
(L1 learning lasts into adolescence for secondary school, it can also start or
some kinds of language and language continue in adulthood.
skills, e.g. academic writing.)

Ways of  By exposure to and picking up the  Sometimes through exposure but

learning
language. often by being taught specific
 By wanting and needing to language.
communicate, i.e. with strong  Through interaction with a teacher
motivation. and sometimes with classmates.
 Through interaction with family and  Often by talking about life outside
friends. the classroom.
 By talking about things present in  Often by needing to produce
the child’s surroundings. language soon after it has been
 By listening to and taking in the taught.
language for many months before  Often by using language in controlled
using it (silent period). practice activities.
 By playing and experimenting with
new language.
Context  The child hears the language  The learner is not exposed to the L2
around him/ her all the time. very much – ofter no more than
 Family and friends talk to and about three hours per week.
interact with the child a lot.  Teachers usually simplify their
 The child has lots of opportunities language.
to experiment with the language.  Teachers vary in the amount they
 Caretakers* often praise (tell the praise or encourage learners.
child he/ she has done well) and  The learner does not receive
encourage the child’s use of individual attention from the
language. teacher.
 Caretakers simplify their speech to  Teachers generally correct learners a
the child. lot.
 Caretakers rarely correct the form
and accuracy of what the child says
in an obvious way.

* Caretakers are people who look after a child. Often they are parents. But they may also be brothers or sisters,
other members of the family, etc.

It is not always easy to describe L2 learning in the classroom because it happens in different ways in different
classrooms. The description in the table above may not be true of all classrooms. Of course, L2 learning sometimes
takes place outside the classroom when children or adults pick up language. In this situation, L2 learning is more
similar to L1 learning, except that the learner often does not get as much exposure to the language as the L1 learner
and may not be so motivated to learn. Another big difference between L1 and L2 learning is that L1 learning is
nearly always fully successful, while L2 learning varies a lot in how successful it is.

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 Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
 Foreign language learners need to be exposed to a rich variety of language, use it to communicate and interact,
and have opportunities to focus on form. This helps to make the circumstances of L2 learning more similar
to those in L1 learning and allows L2 learners (who are usually older than L1 learners) to use their different
abilities to process language.
 Motivation is very important in language learning, so we should do all we can to motivate learners.
 Learners are different from one another (in learning style, age, personality, etc.) so we should try to
personalize our teaching to match their learning needs and preferences. We can do this by varying our
teaching style, approaches, materials, topics, etc.
 Learners may find a silent period useful, but some learners, especially adults, may not.
 We should encourage learners to use English as much as possible in their out-of-class time. This increases
their exposure to it. They could, for example, listen to radio programs or songs, read books or magazines,
look at websites, make English-speaking friends, talk to tourists, write to English-speaking pen friends, etc.
 We should try to simplify our language to a level that learners can learn from, and avoid correcting them too
much. They need to build up their fluency, motivation and confidence, and have opportunities to pick up and
experiment with language.
 In the classroom we should try to praise learners and give them as much individual attention as we can.

Motivation
What is motivation?
Motivation is the thoughts and feelings we have which make us want to do something, continue to want to do it
and turn our wishes into action, i.e. motivation influences:
 why people decide to do something
 how long they want to do it for
 how hard they are prepared to work to achieve it.

Motivation is very important in language learning. It helps make learning successful.

Key concepts
Why were/are you motivated to learn English? List your reasons.
Many factors influence our motivation to learn a language. These factors include:
 the usefulness to us of knowing the language well, e.g. for finding jobs, getting on to courses of study, getting
good marks from the teacher
 our interest in the target language culture (the culture of the language we are learning)
 feeling good about learning the language: success, self-confidence (feeling that we can do things successfully),
learner autonomy/independence (feeling responsible for and in control of our own learning)
 encouragement and support from others, e.g. teacher, parents, classmates, school, society
 our interest in the learning process: the interest and relevance to us of the course content, classroom activities,
the teacher's personality, teaching methods.

Learners may have strong motivation in one of these areas and little in another, or their motivation may be quite
balanced. Different learners will also be motivated in different ways from one another, and motivation can change.
Learners may, for example, be quite uninterested in learning a particular language, then meet a teacher who they
like so much that they begin to love learning the language. Motivation can change with age, too, with some factors
becoming more or less important as learners get older. We can see that motivation needs to be both created and
continued.

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Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
Here are some suggestions from two experts on motivation about how teachers can encourage greater motivation in
their learners.
1. Set a personal example with your own behavior (i.e. be motivated as a teacher yourself).
2. Create a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom (i.e. try to prevent anxiety in yourself or the learners),
3. Present tasks in an interesting way which makes the tasks seem achievable to the learners.
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.
5. Increase the learners' self-confidence about language learning (i.e. help learners feel they can be
good at learning the language).
6. Make the language classes interesting.
7. Promote learner autonomy.
8. Personalize the learning process (i.e. make the course feel relevant to the learners' lives).
9. Increase the learners' awareness of their goals (i.e. what they want to achieve).
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.
(adapted from Ten commandments for motivating language learners: results of an empirical study' by Z. Dornyei and K.
Csizer, Language Teaching Research, Hodder Arnold 1998)

How to keep your students motivated

By Cristina Cabal

 Involve your students

You will not keep your students motivated if you do not involve them and let them take an active role
in your classes. Long gone are the days when teachers talked for most of the lesson, with students
taking a passive role. Classes need to be student-centered. The teacher should act as a coach and
facilitator; to help, guide and direct the learning process.
 Give students the chance to shine
It is also very important to give students the opportunity to be successful. Give them tasks where they
can see the results of their efforts. That feeling of 'yeah, I did it!', that 'a-ha' feeling students get when
they have done a difficult exercise, boosts their motivation.
 Make learning fun
Make your classes memorable. Use games and competitions. Everybody loves competitions, and it
gives students a nice opportunity to interact with each other, have fun and learn at the same time.
 Step away from the textbooks
Bring in authentic material that your students can connect with, and that matches their needs and
interests. Create your own activities and show them that you are also prepared to put in a lot of effort
and time to help them succeed.
 Explain why you are doing things a certain way
There is nothing more boring than a teacher telling students to open their book on page 22, and asking
them to do exercise five. You need to explain why it is important for them to do this exercise, and what
they are going to accomplish by doing it.
 Give very clear instructions
When setting a task, be clear and allow students time to prepare first and ask you any questions. There
is nothing more frustrating for them than not being able to perform well, because they didn’t understand
the task. This is very important to students. They need to have a very clear idea of what they are
supposed to do.
 Set clear, attainable goals for every lesson
You want your students to leave your class thinking it was worth their while. Start your lessons by
writing down your lesson plan on the corner of the board, so that students know what they are going to
learn. At the end of the class, point to the lesson plan and go over everything they have learned. It’s
important for them to see where they are now, and where you are going to take them next.
 Vary the social dynamics and include movement
Ask students to work in pairs or in groups. Get them out of their seats and moving. Ask them to change
partners regularly. To keep your students’ attention, set a variety of engaging, meaningful activities,
and create a friendly atmosphere where they feel they can talk freely and ask questions.

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  Use different materials
We all know that our students prefer looking at a screen than at a book, so use visuals, flashcards,
infographics, quizzes, and make use of new technology. There are plenty of sites that offer
online quizzes, games or videos. As teachers, it’s up to us to seek out new resources that may benefit
our classes, and bringing technology into our lessons is a great way to motivate students. You cannot
expect your students to be motivated if you spend half the class doing endless grammar and vocabulary
exercises.
 Don’t over-correct
Avoid over-correcting, especially when students are speaking in front of the class. Don’t undermine
their confidence by interrupting every single time they make a mistake. Listen to them, and when they
finish, thank them for their contribution and point out one or two important mistakes they might have
made. You can then remind students that making mistakes is a natural part of learning and that
everybody makes mistakes, even the teacher.
 Praise
In capital letters. A 'well done' or a 'thank you' at the end of their contribution, even if their answer was
not correct, will boost confidence a lot, especially for weaker students. There is always something
positive to say. Start with the positive thing, and then tactfully move on to what needs to be improved.

So what is the best tip I can offer? The one I stick to after 26 years teaching, which probably best
summarizes all the tips I have shared here, is 'teach as you would like to be taught'. It is as simple as
that.

Exposure and focus on form

What are exposure and focus on form?
Across the centuries people have studied how foreign languages are learned. Many experts now believe that one
way we learn a foreign language is by exposure to it, i.e. by hearing and/or reading it all around us and without
studying it. They say we then pick it up automatically, i.e. learn it without realizing. This is the main way that
children learn their first language.
Experts also say that to learn a foreign language, particularly as adults, exposure to language is not enough. We
also need to focus our attention on the form of the foreign language, i.e. on how it is pronounced or written, on
how its grammar is formed and used, and on the form and meaning of vocabulary. They say we need to use language
to interact and communicate, too.

Key concepts
Have you learned English more successfully from formal study or just by picking it up?
Research has identified three main ways in which we learned a foreign language. Firstly, experts talk of us acquiring
language. This means the same as picking it up. They say that to really learn a foreign language we need exposure
to lots of examples of it, and that we learn from the language in our surroundings. We need to hear and read lots of
language which is rich in variety, interesting to us and just difficult enough for us, i.e. just beyond our level, but not
too difficult. Acquisition takes place over a period of time, i.e. not instantly, and we listen to and read items of
language for a long time before we begin to use them (a silent period).
Secondly, to learn language we need to use it in interaction with other people. We need to use language to
express ourselves and make our meanings clear to other people, and to understand them. The person we are talking
to will show us, directly or indirectly, if they have understood us or not. If they have not, we need to try again, using
other language, until we manage to communicate successfully.
Thirdly, research shows that foreign language learners also need to focus on form. This means that they need to
pay attention to language, e.g. by identifying, working with and practicing the language they need to communicate.
Nowadays, experts generally agree that we do not learn a foreign language best through learning grammar and
translating (the grammar-translation method). Nor do we learn by constantly practicing until we form habits (the
behaviorist or structuralist approach) or just by communicating (the communicative approach). We learn by
picking up language, interacting and communicating and focusing on form. But the research still continues, and we
do not yet fully understand how foreign languages are learned.

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Key concepts and the language teaching classroom
 To acquire language, learners should hear and read a wide variety of language at the right level for them. They
need exposure to language both inside and outside the classroom.
 Learners need time to acquire language. They may need a silent period before they can produce new language
and we cannot expect them to learn things immediately. Learning language is a gradual process.
 Learners need to use language in the classroom to interact with classmates or the teacher. This gives them the
opportunity to experiment with language and find out how successful their communication is.
 Learners need opportunities to focus on forms of language they have read or listened to in texts or used in tasks.
The teacher can help them to notice certain points about language, think about their use and practice them.
 But we need to remember that some learners may like to learn and/or are used to learning in particular ways.
Teachers always need to match their teaching to the characteristics and needs of the learner.

The role of error

What is the role of error?
This unit focuses on mistakes learners make when they speak or write English. Mistakes are often divided into
errors and slips. Errors happen when learners try to say something that is beyond their current level of language
processing. Usually, learners cannot correct errors themselves because they don't understand what is wrong. Errors
play a necessary and important part in language learning, as we will see below. Slips are the result of tiredness,
worry or other temporary emotions or circumstances. These kinds of mistakes can be corrected by learners once
they realize they have made them.

Key concepts
There are two main reasons why learners make errors. Can you think what they are?
There are two main reasons why second language learners make errors. The first reason is influence from the
learner's first language (L1) on the second language. This is called interference or transfer. Learners may use sound
patterns, lexis or grammatical structures from their own language in English.
The second reason why learners make errors is because they are unconsciously working out and organizing
language, but this process is not yet complete. This kind of error is called a developmental error. Learners of
whatever mother tongue make these kinds of errors, which are often similar to those made by a young first language
speaker as part of their normal language development. For example, very young first language speakers of English
often make mistakes with verb forms, saying things such as 'I goed' instead of 'I went'. Errors such as this one, in
which learners wrongly apply a rule for one item of the language to another item, are known as overgeneralization.
Once children develop, these errors disappear, and as a second language learner's language ability increases, these
kinds of errors also disappear.
Errors are part of learners' interlanguage, i.e. the learners' own version of the second language which they speak
as they learn. Learners unconsciously process, i.e. analyze and reorganize their interlanguage, so it is not fixed. It
develops and progresses as they learn more. Experts think that interlanguage is an essential and unavoidable stage
in language learning. In other words, interlanguage and errors are necessary to language learning.
When children learn their mother tongue they seem to speak their own form of it for a while, to make progress
on some language items, then to go backwards, and to make mistakes for a time before these mistakes finally
disappear, usually without obvious correction.
Errors are a natural part of learning. They usually show that learners are learning and that their internal mental
processes are working on and experimenting with language. We go through stages of learning new language, and
each new piece of language we learn helps us learn other pieces of language that we already know more fully - like
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle which only make full sense when they are all in place.

Developmental errors and errors of interference can disappear by themselves, without correction, as the learner
learns more language. In fact, correction may only help learners if they are ready for it, i.e. they are at the right stage
in their individual learning process. But experts believe that learners can be helped to develop their interlanguage.
There are three main ways of doing this. Firstly, learners need exposure to lots of interesting language at the right
level; secondly they need to use language with other people; and thirdly they need to focus their attention on the
forms of language. (See Unit 10 for more about these three ways.)
Sometimes errors do not disappear, but get 'fossilized'. Fossilized errors are errors which a learner does not stop

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making and which last for a long time, even for ever, in his/her foreign language use. They often happen when
learners, particularly adults, are able to communicate as much as they need to in the foreign language and so have
no communicative reason to improve their language. These fossilized errors may be the result of lack of exposure
to the L2 (second language) and/or of a learner's lack of motivation to improve their level of accuracy.

Key concepts and the language teaching classroom

 We need to think hard about whether, when and how to correct learners.
 We mustn't expect instant learning. Learning is gradual, and errors will occur.
 We need to think about what kind of mistake the learner is making - a slip or an error.
 If the mistake is a slip, the learner can probably correct him/herself, maybe with a little prompting from the
teacher or another learner.
 Sometimes, particularly in fluency activities, it is better not to pay attention to learners' errors (i.e. ignore them)
so that the learners have an opportunity to develop their confidence and their fluency, and to experiment with
language.
 Some errors may be more important to correct than others. Those which prevent communication are more
important than those which do not, e.g. missing the final s off the third person singular of a present simple
tense verb doesn't prevent communication. But using the present simple tense instead of the past simple tense
can sometimes prevent communication.
 We need to think about what is best for the learning of each learner. Different learners within the same class
may need to be corrected or not, depending on their stage of learning, learning style and level of confidence.
Different learners may also need to be corrected in different ways.
 Ways of helping learners get beyond their errors are:
- to expose them to lots of language that is just beyond their level through reading or listening
- to give them opportunities to focus on the form of language
- to provide them with time in class to use language to communicate and interact and see if they can do so
successfully.
 A good time to correct learners or to provide them with new language is when they realize they have made a
mistake or need some new language. We should encourage learners to ask us for this help.
 Errors are useful not only to the learner but also to the teacher. They can help the teacher see how well learners
have learned something and what kind of help they may need.

Teaching Young Learners

Teaching a foreign language requires educators to recognize the needs of their students. The requirements of adult
learners differ greatly from those of young English language learners (YELLs). By identifying their needs, teachers
can then adapt various factors in the classroom in order to have the greatest impact on YELL learning.
The way YELLs process information in their native language (L1) as well as in the foreign language (L2) differs
from adults. From an early age, children first begin to sort out words involving concrete objects. When introduced
into the L2 classroom, they “need very concrete vocabulary that connects with objects they can handle or see”. In
contrast, adult learners are able to cope with abstract ideas.
YELLs do not comprehend abstract ideas such as grammar.
Who are young learners?
On standard assumptions, young learners, also known as child second language (L2) learners, refer to children
whose first exposure to another language occurs after their first language has been established for at least 3-5 years.
In EFL contexts young learners are generally referred to children aged six to twelve.

Age of acquisition
If there is anything about second language acquisition that has attracted so much attention and has led to much
controversy all over the world, it is probably the debate about the age of acquisition, perhaps mainly because many
child L2 learners generally perform better than adult language learners. According to many research findings, the
younger the child is when L2 acquisition starts, the better proficiency the child arrives at. Overall, one can argue
that normally developing children can learn another language at an early age, given sufficient exposure and
interaction.

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YELL MOTIVATION
Research has proven that “motivation is one of the main determinates of second/foreign language learning
achievement”. Several types of motivation must be considered. Intrinsic motivation relates to a learner who has a
desire to do something regardless of external pressures. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, involves outside
forces that want the learner to complete a task.

Teachers can adapt lessons through the use of stir and settle activities. When a teacher finds that students’ attention
begins to wander, or they are becoming more reticent, the activity needs to be switched to one that is more active.
This can renew interest in the lesson. Activities such as oral work, competitions, games or any activity that requires
the students to stand up and move about all stir the classroom.
Playing games in the classroom raises students’ interest and motivation to participate in class. It is important to
remember that these games need to relate to the language being learned. One good way of getting students to review
vocabulary is to play a memory or category game. Students can sit in a circle and start to say words one by one
based on the topic of the lesson. The students continue one by one to say different words on the topic until one
student cannot think of a word, or repeats what another students has said. They are then “out” and the game
continues, or the game resets using a different topic, typically from a previous lesson. One variation of this is when
the students say their word, and then subsequent students must say all of the preceding words before saying their
own word.
In situations when the students become more rowdy or too noisy, settle activities need to be applied. This will be
anything that will focus the students’ attention on something in front of them, and reduces interaction with the other
students. Reading tasks, or if their level allows for it, any kinds of writing are examples of settle activities. When
the students are involved in producing something on their own, the classroom mood will become more subdued.

Methodology in young learners’ classrooms

Principles
 Listening and speaking should be taught first.
 The primary focus should be on meaning rather than form.
 Activities should be fun and enjoyable.
 Activities should involve "doing" or performing tasks.
 Activities should create a need or a desire to communicate.
 Young learners should feel relaxed in the classroom.
 Language use should be illustrated by use of objects, pictures, actions or gesture.
 Suitable activities include use of rhymes, songs, stories, poems and drama.
 The use of 'chunks' of language should be promoted.
 Lessons should be conducted in the L2 as much as possible.
 There should be a variety of activities.
 Classroom routines should be established.
 Activities should use children's sense of imagination.
 Tasks should be simple enough for children to understand what they are expected to do.
 Activities should be demanding, but not too demanding, and must be achievable.

Why teach English to young learners?

While there may not be immediate linguistic benefits in teaching English to young learners, there are many good
reasons for doing so. Most crucially, positive early experiences of learning a foreign language may help young
learners to develop self-esteem and positive attitudes that will equip them to study English with greater confidence
when they are older. It can also help them apply more developed learning and cognitive skills to the more formal
and abstract learning they may experience in secondary school. Intercultural benefits may derive from the realization
that other countries have a language with sounds and rules different from their own. As they realize both the
similarities and differences between English-speaking people and themselves, they may also learn values of
tolerance, empathy and curiosity. These values will be useful in later life and for the society in which they live.
They may gain academic benefits from learning English, too: generic concepts such as time, number and changes
in the season can be consolidated through learning English, as can learning skills such as planning, organizing and
checking work.

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Teaching Teenagers
The students
Today’s teenagers, just like previous generations, are a varied and fascinating group of individuals. They are
changing physically, sometimes at astonishing speed, and are often preoccupied with their appearance. They are
coping with new and strange emotions and at the same time they are learning to think in a more abstract way, which
allows them to discuss issues and ideas. Through this whirlwind of change, teenagers are trying to establish their
identity and learn who they are.
Unlike previous generations, today’s teenagers are surrounded by technology, which they can generally use with
ease and efficiency. They live in a world where sounds, images, words, and ideas come at them in a constant stream
from many different sources. They usually think nothing of surfing the Internet, texting, listening to music, and
watching TV at the same time.
New technology also gives teenagers increased contact with their peer group – often the most influential group of
people in a teenager’s life. The need to appear cool and be accepted by this group can often be the strongest
motivating force in a teenager’s life. These peer group pressures, coupled with rapid mental and physical changes,
may from time to time lead to conflict with family, friends, and authority.
Another pressure on today’s students is the increasing need for qualifications that demonstrate their skills in foreign
languages, especially English. Given all of the influences mentioned, teenage students of English need teaching
materials that reflect their world and that broaden their skills to facilitate their goal of gaining qualifications.
In addition to helping students attain competence in the English language, classroom materials should help students
explore and establish their own moral and ethical values. What is right and wrong can be a challenging area for
teenagers, and it is important that they have the chance to hear the opinions of others, voice their own, and judge
for themselves.

The teaching situation

Motivation
Many students will have had several years of formal instruction in English before they start a course. These
experiences may not always have been successful or enjoyable. Consequently, students may bring to the classroom
preconceived ideas about whether or not learning English is fun, and whether they are “good” at languages or not.
If their experience of learning English has not been positive, their level of interest and motivation may be low. On
the other hand, their previous experience of learning English may have been a positive one, in which case, their
level of motivation when they join an English class may be quite high. In either case, it is essential that their new
English course include topics that are interesting to them and exercises that are intellectually challenging and that
have “real-world” value in their eyes.

Large classes
In a significant number of schools, large classes are the norm rather than the exception. Large classes make it
difficult for teachers to ensure that all students have the amount of practice for them to make significant progress.
Furthermore, large classes make it more difficult for teachers to pay individual attention to students.
The use of pair work and group work allows each student to have more practice time in class and may enable more
proficient students to help less proficient ones. Once pairs or groups have been set up, the teacher can then monitor
students and provide more individual attention to those students who need the most help.

Not enough teaching hours

Students frequently have only three English lessons per week and it is sometimes difficult for teachers to feel that
they are achieving enough in the time available. They may feel unable to cover the work as thoroughly as they

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would wish or to ensure that all students are making enough progress. Teachers and students need to have a clear
goal in the time available and a sense of progress as they move through the book. Extra materials are necessary for
those students who risk falling behind, and reinforcement and review for those students who are keeping up.

Monitoring progress
Close monitoring of students’ progress is increasingly a feature of teaching in schools today. This results in a heavier
workload, as teachers have to prepare and grade tests, give assessments, and write student profiles. Plenty of review
and testing material helps with the assessment of students’ progress.

Multi-level and mixed-ability classes

Many English classes today are multi-level. Some members of the class will have studied English for many years
and a few are joining the class as complete beginners to foreign language learning. Classes are invariably also mixed
ability. In one class, there will be students who have a natural aptitude for learning languages, with excellent skills
and strategies, and others whose natural aptitude lies elsewhere. These students will need more time to achieve the
same level and a lot of teacher patience and encouragement to make relative success of language learning. Practice
material in motivating formats is needed to occupy faster learners as well as providing extra material for those who
need more practice.

Principles behind an effective language course

1. Motivate
The design of a course, and the topics and issues it deals with, must motivate students from the start. This can be
achieved by:
 using authentic location photography, magazine articles, website articles, and e-mails, as well as games
 using teenage characters with whom students can easily identify
 focusing on situations, topics, and emotional issues that students recognize and respond to
 presenting authentic functional language and everyday expressions that teenage native speakers of English
use in daily conversation
 including topics that expand students’ knowledge of the world

2. Maintain interest
Learning tasks must involve and challenge students both linguistically and cognitively to maintain students’ interest
and ensure that learning is effective. This can be achieved by:
 cognitive stimulus through memory exercises and puzzles
 interesting and varied exercises to encourage practice of key language (for example, fun quizzes and
questionnaires)
 personalization of the language to allow students to talk about themselves and
their opinions
 real-life functional exchanges that provide realistic communicative practice of everyday language

3. Enable all students to succeed

An effective course material should make it possible for every student to achieve success at his or her level of
ability.

TEACHING ISSUES
Though most teachers are busy with planning, preparation, teaching, and grading students’ work, it can be useful

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for a teacher to pause from time to time to consider any ongoing teaching issues and problems that they may have,
and to try different approaches in the classroom to find out which ideas work best. This can refresh and renew
teaching techniques and keep lessons alive for teachers and students alike. Below is a brief review of some current
issues with suggestions for modifying teaching techniques.

Teaching teenagers
A typical class of teenagers will include students with a wide-ranging level of physical development, emotional
maturity, and cognitive ability. Indeed, some students will appear to be one or two years older than other students.
This is because teenagers develop at different rates. Girls tend to develop faster than boys, but there are also different
rates of maturity among girls and boys.

Although teenage behavior can be erratic, most teenagers, given the right classroom environment, genuinely want
to learn. However, there are certain conditions that turn teenagers off. Most of them don’t like being seen as
different. Acceptance by their peer group is very important. If asked a question in class, they may not want to answer
in case they are seen by their friends as not smart enough or, alternatively, too smart.
Teenagers are often shy and self-conscious and feel embarrassed if asked to do activities like miming or performing.
They also don’t like being patronized. Many teenagers have a wealth of knowledge about particular subjects, and
they are often happy to share this knowledge in pairs or small groups. Tapping into this knowledge and openly
acknowledging those areas where students know more than the teacher can help to create mutual respect in the
classroom.
Tips
 Avoid asking teenagers to do something that may embarrass them in front of their peers, unless you know
that they have a particular talent for performance.
 Avoid activities that students might see as childish or patronizing, such as miming or answering questions
which are obvious.
 Take the opportunity to put students into pairs or groups. Pair and group work allow them to work in English
with reduced risk of embarrassment and also allows shyer students to make their voices heard.

Learn as much as possible about your students as individuals and as learners. A successful class is often
one that allows students to achieve the goal in whichever way suits them best.

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