2.

Mathematical Methods
Can you recall?
1. What is the difference between a scalar and a vector?
2. Which of the following are scalars or vectors?
(i) displacements (ii) distance travelled (iii) velocity
(iv) speed (v) force (vi) work done (vii) energy
2.1 Introduction: described by their magnitude are called scalars,
You will need certain mathematical tools i.e. they are specified by a number and a unit.
to understand the topics covered in this book. For example when we say that a given metal
Vector analysis and elementary calculus are rod has a length 2 m, it indicates that the rod
two among these. You will learn calculus in is two times longer than a certain standard unit
details, in mathematics, in the XIIth standard. metre. Thus the number 2 is the magnitude
In this Chapter, you are going to learn about and metre is the unit; together they give us a
vector analysis and will have a preliminary complete idea about the length of the rod. Thus
introduction to calculus which should be length is a scalar quantity. Similarly mass, time,
sufficient for you to understand the physics that temperature, density, etc., are examples of
you will learn in this book. scalars. Scalars can be added or subtracted by
2.2 Vector Analysis: rules of simple algebra.
In the previous Chapter, you have studied 2.2.2 Vectors:
different aspects of physical quantities like Physical quantities which need magnitude
their division into fundamental and derived as well as direction for their complete
quantities and their units and dimensions. description are called vectors. Examples of
You also need to understand that all physical vectors are displacement, velocity, force etc.
quantities may not be fully described by their A vector can be represented by a directed
magnitudes and units alone. For example if you line segment or by an arrow. The length of the
are given the time for which a man has walked line segment drawn to scale gives the magnitude
with a certain speed, you can find the distance of the vector, e.g., displacement of a body from
travelled by the man, but you cannot find out P to Q can be represented as P Q,
where exactly the man has reached unless where the starting point P is called the tail
you know the direction in which the man has and the end point Q (arrow head) is called the
walked. head
 of the vector. Symbolically we write it as
Therefore, you can say that some physical PQ . Symbolically vectors are also represented
quantities, which are called scalars, can be by a single  capital
  letter with an arrow above


described with magnitude alone, whereas some it, e.g., X , A , etc. Magnitude of a vector X is


other physical quantities, which are called written as | X |.
vectors, need to be described with magnitude Let us see a few examples of different
as well as direction. In the above example the types of vectors.
distance travelled by the man is a scalar quantity
(a) Zero vector (Null vector): A vector
while the final position of the man relative to
having zero magnitude with a particular
his initial position, i.e., his displacement can be
direction (arbitrary) is called zerovector.
described by magnitude and direction and is a
vector quantity. In this Chapter you will study Symbolically it is represented as 0 .
different aspects of scalar and vector quantities. (1) Velocity vector of a stationary particle
2.2.1 Scalars: is a zero vector.
Physical quantities which can be completely (2) The acceleration vector of an object

16
 moving with uniform velocity is a zero 
M is written as u M and is given by
vector. 

(b) Resultant vector: The resultant of two or M = u M M --- (2.1)


more vectors is that single vector, which M
or, u M = --- (2.2)
produces the same effect, as produced by M
all the vectors together.
Hence u M has magnitude unity  and has the
(c) Negative vector (opposite vector): A
same direction as that of M . We use i , j ,
negative vector of a given vector is a
vector of the same magnitude but opposite and k , respectively, as unit vectors along the
in direction to that of the given vector. x, y and z directions of a rectangular (three
  dimensional) coordinate system.
In Fig. 2.1, B is a negative vector to A .
u x = i, u y = j and u z = k
A   
 x  y  z
B ∴ i = , j = and k = --- (2.3)
x y z
Fig. 2.1: Negative vector.   
Here X , y and z are vectors along x, y and
(d) Equal vector: Two vectors A and B z axes, respectively.
representing same physical quantity are
2.3 Vector Operations:
said to be equal if and only if they have
the same magnitude and direction. Two 2.3.1 Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar:
equal vectors are shown in Fig. 2.2. Multiplying a vector P by a scalar quantity,
say s, yields another vector. Let us write
A  
Q = sP --- (2.4)
B 
Q will be a vector whose direction is the
Fig. 2.2: Equal vectors. 
same as that of P and magnitude is s times the
(e) Position vector: A vector which gives
magnitude of P .
the position of a particle at a point with
respect to the origin of a chosen co- 2.3.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors:
ordinate system is called the position The addition or subtraction of two or more
vector of the particle. vectors of the same type, i.e., describing the
same physical quantity, gives rise to a single
vector, such that the effect of this single vector
is the same as the net effect of the vectors which
have been added or subtracted .
It is important to understand that only
vectors of the same type (describing same
physical quantity)
 can be
 added or subtracted
e.g. force F1 and forceF2  can 
be
 added to give
Fig 2.3: Position vector. the resultant force F = F1 + F2 . But a force
 vector can not be added to a velocity vector.

In Fig 2.3, = OP is the position vector of
It
  is easy to find addition of vectors AB

the particle present at P.
and BC having the same or opposite direction
(f) Unit vector: A vector having unit but different magnitudes. If individual vectors
magnitude in a given direction is called  are parallel (i.e., in the same direction), the
a unit vector in that direction. If M magnitude of their resultant is the addition of
  
is a non-zero

 vector i.e. its magnitude individual magnitudes, i.e., AC = AB + BC
M =| M | is not zero, the unit vector along

17
and direction of the resultant is the same as
that of the individual vectors as shown in Fig
2.4 (a). However, if the individual vectors are
anti-parallel (i.e., in the opposite direction), the t
ltan
magnitude of their resultant is the difference of esu 
 R B
the individual magnitudes, and the direction is C
  
that of the larger vector i.e., AC = AB - BC
as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b).

A
  
Fig. 2.5 (b): Resultant vector C = A + B .
Fig. 2.4 (a): Resultant of parallel displacements. We can use the triangle law for showing
that
(a) Vector addition is commutative.
 
For any two vectors P and Q ,
   
Fig 2.4 (b): Resultant of anti-parallel forces. P + Q = Q + P --- (2.5)
2.3.3 Triangle Law for Vector Addition: Figure 2.6 (a) shows addition of the two

When vectors of a given type do not act vector P and Q in two different
 ways. Triangle

in the same or opposite directions, the resultant OAB shows P + Q = R = OB , while triangle
   
can be determined by using the triangle law of OCB shows Q + P = R =OB .
vector addition which is stated as follows:    
∴ P +Q = Q + P
If two vectors describing the same physical
quantity are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a triangle taken
in order, then their resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the third side of the
triangle drawn in the opposite sense (from the
starting point of first vector to the end point of
the second vector).
 
Let A and B be two vectors in the plane Fig. 2.6 (a): Commutative law.
of paper as shown in Fig. 2.5 (a). The sum of
(b) Vector addition is associative
these two vectors can be obtained by using the   
triangle law described above as shown in Fig.  If A , B and C are three vectors then
     
2.5 (b). The resultant vector is indicated by C . ( A + B ) +C = A +( B +C )

P B Q

 A  
B  B +  C
C
 +B
A
O  R
 R
A Fig. 2.6 (b): Associative law.
 
Fig. 2.5 (a): Two vectors A and B in a plane, Figure 2.6 (b) shows addition of 3 vectors

18
   
A , B and C in two different ways to give Join OC to complete triangle OBC as

resultant R . shown in (b).
     
    
R = ( A + B ) +C --- from triangle OQR Now, OC = OB + BC = A1 + A2 + A3
    C

R = A +( B + C ) --- from triangle OPR 
A4 A3
     
D B

+A 
i.e., ( A + B ) +C = A +( B +C ) --- (2.6)

3

A2

Thus the Associative law is proved. 

+
 + A2


 

A1
A5 A1
A2
Example 2.1: Express vector AC in terms of
  O

A1 A
vectors AB and CB shown in the following
figure. Fig. (b)
C From triangle OCD,
       
OD = A5 = OC + CD = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4

  Thus OD is the resultant of the four vectors,

A B A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 , represented by
   
Solution: Using the triangle law of addition of OA, AB, BC and CD , respectively.
vectors we can write 2.3.4 Law of parallelogram of vectors:
  
AC +CB = AB Another geometrical method of adding two
   vectors is called parallelogram law of vector
∴ AC = AB - CB
addition which is stated as follows:
Example 2.2: From the following figure, If two vectors of the same type, originating
determine the resultant of four forces from the same point (tails at the same point)
   
A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 are represented in magnitude and direction by
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their
C resultant vector is given in magnitude and
  direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram
A4 A3
starting from the same point as shown in Fig.
D B 2.7.

 
A5 A2

O 
A1 A

Solution: Join OB to complete ∆ OAB as ∝
shown in (a)
C


A3 Fig 2.7: Parallelogram law of vector addition.
A4  
D In
  Fig. 2.7, vector OA = P and vector
B
 + A2
 OB = Q , represent two vectors originating from

A5 A1 
A2
point O, inclined to each other at an angle θ. If
 we complete the parallelogram,
  then according
O A1 A
to this law, the diagonal OC = R represents the
Fig. (a) resultant vector.

    
Now, OB = OA + AB = A1 + A2 To find the magnitude of R , drop a

19
perpendicular from C to reach OA (extended) at P sin  
1 
D. In right angled triangle ODC, by application similarly derived that   tan  
by Pythagoras theorem,  Q  P cos  
Example 2.3: Water is flowing in a stream
OC2 = OD2+DC2
with velocity 5 km/hr in an easterly direction
= (OA+AD)2 + DC2 relative to the shore. Speed of a boat is relative
OC2 = OA2+[Link]+AD2+DC2 to still water is 20 km/hr. If the boat enters the
In the right angled triangle ADC, by stream heading North, with what velocity will
application of Pythagoras theorem the boat actually travel?

AD2+DC2=AC2 Solution: The resultant velocity R of the boat
... OC2=OA2+2OA. AD+ AC2 --- (2.7) can be obtained by adding the two velocities
Also, using ∆ OAB shown in the figure. Magnitude
       of the resultant velocity is calculated as follows:
= OA P, = AC OB = Q and OC = R 5 km/hr
In ∆ ADC, cos θ = AD/AC A B
... AD=AC cos θ = Q cos θ
Substituting in Eq. (2.7) R
20 km/hr
R2 = P2+Q2+2 P Q cos θ.
 R = P 2 +Q 2 + 2 P Q cos --- (2.8) α
Equation (2.8)
 gives us the magnitude of
resultant vector R . O
 To find the direction of the resultant vector R= 20 2  52
R , we will have to find the angle (α) made by
   425  20.61 km / hr
R with P .
The direction of the resultant velocity is
DC
In  ODC, tan  =  5 
= tan -1    tan (0.25)
-1
OD
DC  20 
= --- (2.9)
OA + AD  14 0 04 ∴
DC The velocity of the boat is 20.61 km/hr in a
From the figure, sin = direction 14004′ east of north.
AC
 DC = AC sin = Q sin 2.4 Resolution of vectors:
Also, A vector can be written as a sum of two
AD = AC cosθ = Q cosθ or more vectors along certain fixed directions.
 
and OA = P , Thus a vector V can be written as

Substituing in Eq. (2.9), we get V  V1  V2   V3  --- (2.11)

Q sin
tan  = where  , 
 ,  are unit vectors along chosen
P + Q cos 
directions. V1, V2 and V3 are known as
 Q sin  
  = tan -1
 --- (2.10) components of V along the three directions
 P + Q cos  
 ,  and  .
Equation (2.10) gives us the direction of The process of splitting a given vector
resultant vector R . into its components is called resolution of the
 
If β is the angle between R and Q , it can be vector. The components can be found along

20
directions at any required angles, but if these 
Equation (2.16) gives
 the magnitude of R .
components are found along the directions
which are mutually perpendicular, they are To find the direction of R , from Fig. 2.8,
called rectangular components. Ry
tan =
Rx
 Ry 
 = tan -1   --- (2.17)
R
 x 
  
Similarly, if R x , R y and 
R z are the
rectangular components of R along the x,
Fig. 2.8 : Resolution of a vector. y and z axes of the rectangular Cartesian co-
Let us see how to find rectangular ordinate   
system in three dimensions, then

components in two dimensions. R = R x + R y + R z = Rx i + Ry j + Rz k
  
Consider a vector R = OC , originating or , R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 + Rz 2 ---- (2.18)
from the origin of a rectangular co-ordinate
system as shown in Fig. 2.8. If two vectors are equal, it means that their
corresponding components are also equal and
Drop perpendiculars from C that meet the vice versa.
x-axisat
 Aand y-axis
 of at B.   
OA = R x and OB = R y ; R x and R y being the
If A =B
      
components of OC along the x and y axes, i.e., if Ax i + Ay j + Az k = Bx i + By j + Bz k , then
respectively. Ax = Bx , Ay = By and Az = Bz
Then by the law of parallelogram of Example 2.4: Find a unit vector in the direction
vectors,
   of the vector 3i + 4 j
R = R x + R y --- (2.12)
Solution:
 
R = Rx i + Ry j --- (2.13) Let V = 3i + 4 j
 
 
where i and j are unit vectors along the x  Magnitude of V = | V | = 32  4 2  25  5
 
and y axes respectively, and Rx and Ry are the V = α | V | , where α is a unit vector along V .

magnitudes of the two components of  R . V 3 4
   = i + j

Let θ be the angle made by R with the |V | 5 5
x-axis, then  
Rx Example 2.5: Given a = i + 2 j and b = 2i + j ,
cos = what are the magnitudes of the two vectors? Are
R
 Rx = R cos --- (2.14) these two vectors equal?
Solution:
sin =
Ry 
1 +2 =
2 2
R |a | = 5
 Ry = R sin

--- (2.15) 2 +1 =
2 2
|b| = 5
Squaring and adding Eqs. (2.14) and  
(2.15), we get The magnitudes of a and b are equal.
However, their corresponding components are
R 2 cos 2  + R 2 sin 2 = Rx 2 + Ry 2 not equal i.e., ax≠ bx and ay ≠ by . Hence, the two
 R 2 = Rx 2 + Ry 2 vectors are not equal.

or , R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 --- (2.16)

21
2.5 Multiplication of Vectors: (3) Scalar product obeys the distributive law of
We saw that we can add or subtract multiplication
      
vectors of the same type to get resultant vectors P . (Q + R ) = P .Q + P . R
 
of the same type. However, when we multiply (4) Special cases of scalar product P . Q = P
vectors of the same or different types, we get Q cos θ
a new physical quantity which may either be  
(i) If θ = 0, i.e., the two vectors P and Q are
a scalar (scalar product) or a vector (vector parallel to each other, then
product). Also note that the multiplication of a 
.
P Q = P Q cos θ = P Q
scalar with a scalar is always a scalar and the
multiplication of scalar with a vector is always Thus, i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅ k =1
a vector. Let us now study the characteristics
of a scalar product and vector product of two Do you know ?
vectors. Scalar and vector products are very
2.5.1 Scalar Product (Dot Product): useful in physics. They make mathematical
The scalar product or dot product of two formulae and their derivation very elegant.

nonzero vectors P and Q is defined as the Figure below shows a toy car pulled
product of magnitudes of the two vectors and the 
through a displacement S . The force F
cosine of the angle θ betweenthe two vectors. responsible for this is not in the direction of
 
The scalar product of P and Q is written as, S but is at an angle θ to it. Component of
 .  
P Q = PQ cos θ, --- (2.19) displacement along the direction of force F
  is S cosθ. According to the definition, the
where θ is the angle between P and Q .
work done by a force is the product of the
Characteristics of scalar product force and the displacement in the direction
(1) The scalar product of two vectors is of force. ∴W = FS cosθ. According to the
equivalent to the product of magnitude of one definition of scalar product,
vector with the magnitude of the component of  
F . S = F S cosθ
the other vector in the direction of the first.  
∴W = F . S

-----------------

Q Also W = F (S cosθ) = (F cosθ) S

Hence dot or scalar product is the
osθ

- product of magnitude of one of the vectors

----
Pc

--- and component of the other vector in the

------- direction of the first.
--
θ ---- Power is the rate of doing work on a
 
O Q cos θ P body by an external force assumed to
P  F
be constant in time. If v is the velocity of
Fig. 2.9: Projection of vectors. the body under the action of the force then
From Fig. 2.9, 
 .  power P is given by the scalar product of F
P Q = PQ cos θ  
and v i.e., P = F . v .
= P (Q cos θ)  
= P (component
  of Q in the direction of P )
Similarly P . Q = Q (P cos θ)

= Q (component of P in the direction of Q )
(2) Scalar product obeys the commutative law
of vectormultiplication.  
 .
P Q = P Q cos θ = Q P cos θ = Q . P

22
   Solution:
(ii) If θ = 180°, i.e., the two vectors P and Q  
are anti-parallel, then v 1  v 2  ( i + 2 j +3 k )  (3 i +4 j - 5 k )
 
P . Q = P Q cos 180° = -P Q =1×3 +2 ×4 +3× ×(-5)
(iii) If θ = 90°, i.e., the two vectors are =-4
perpendicular to each other, then as i  i = j  j = k  k =1,
 
P . Q = P Q cos 90° = 0 and i  j = i  k = j  k = j  i = k  i = k  j =0
Thus, i ⋅ j = j ⋅ k = k ⋅ i =0
    2.5.2 Vector Product (cross product):
(5) If P = Q then P . Q = P2 = Q2 The vector 
product or cross product of two
(6) Scalar product of vectors expressed in terms 
vectors ( P and Q ) is a vector whose magnitude
of rectangular components : is equal to the product of magnitudes of the

Let P = Px i + Py j + Pz k two vectors and sine of the smaller angle (θ)
 between the two vectors. The direction of the
and Q = Qx i +Q y j +Qz k
  product vector is given by u r which is a unit
Then P  Q = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz vector perpendicular to the plane containing the
Proof : two vectors and is given by the right hand screw
  rule. This is shown in Fig. 2.10 (a) and (b)
P  Q =(Px i + Py j + Pz k )  (Qx i +Q y j +Qz k )   
a) R = P  Q = PQ sin  u r --- (2.18)
  
= Px i  (Qx i +Q y j +Qz k ) b) S = Q  P = PQ sin  u s --- (2.19)
+Py j  (Qx i +Q y j +Qz k )
+Pz k  (Qx i +Q y j +Qz k )
=( i  i ) Px Qx +( i  j ) Px Q y +( i  k )Px Qz

+( j  i ) Py Qx +( j  j ) Py Q y +( j  k )Py Qz R

+( k  i ) Pz Qx +( k  j ) Pz Q y +( k  k ) Pz Qz Q
u r
Since, i  i = j  j = k  k =1 θ
O
and i  j = j  k = k  i = i  k = j  i = k  j =0 
  P
 P  Q = Px Qx +0 +0   
+ 0 + Py Q y +0 Fig. 2.10 (a): Vector product R = P × Q .

+0 +0 + Pz Qz Q
 
 P  Q = Px Qx + Py Q y + Pz Qz O
     θ
(7) If a  b a  c , where a ≠ 0 , it is not necessary u s 
that b = c . Using the distributive law, we can P
    
 
write a  b  c  0 . It implies that either b - c

= 0 or a is perpendicular  to b - c . It does not S
necessarily imply that b  c  0
Example 2.6: Find the scalar product of the
two vectors
 
v  i  2 j  3 k and v  3 i  4 j  5 k
1 2
  
Fig. 2.10 (b): Vector product S = × P .
Q

23
 According to the right hand screw rule,       
 if A×( B +C ) = A×B + A×C --- (2.21)
the
 screw is rotated in a direction from P to (3) Special cases of cross product
Q through the smaller angle, then the direction  
| P ×Q |= P Q sin θ --- (2.22)
in which the tip
 of the screw advances is the
direction of R , perpendicular to the plane (i) If q =0. i.e., if the two nonzero vectors are
 parallel to each
containing P and Q . One example of vector  other,
 their vector product is a
 zero vector | P ×Q |= P Q ⋅ 0 = 0
or cross product is the force F experienced
 by
a charge q moving with velocity v through a (ii) If q = 180°, i.e., if the two nonzero vectors
uniform magnetic field of magnetic induction are anti-parallel,
  their vector product is a zero
 vector | P ×Q |= P Q sin 180  P Q sin   0
B . It is an empirical law (experimentally

determined) given by F  q v  B . (iii) If q = 90°, i.e., if the two nonzero vectors
are perpendicular to each other, the magnitude
Do you know ? of their vector product is equal to the product of
magnitudes of the two vectors.

 
[Link] linear displacement x is the distance | P ×Q |= P Q sin 90° = P Q
travelled by a body along
 the line of travel,
angular displacement θ is the angle swept Thus i × j = k , j × k = i and k × i = j
by a body about a given axis. The rate        
of change of angular displacement
 is the (4) If P = Q then | P ×Q |= | P ×P |=| Q ×Q |= 0 .
angular velocity denoted by ω . If a body Thus i × i = j × j = k × k =0
is rotating about as axis, it possesses 
an angular ω (5) Let P = Px i + Py j + Pz k
 velocity . If at a point at a
distance r from the axis of rotation the 
    and Q = Qx i +Q y j +Qz k
body has linear velocity v , then v = ω × r .  
 
P ×Q = Px i + Py j + Pz k × Qx i +Q y j +Qz k 
2. An external force is needed to move a body
from one point to other. Similarly to rotate      
= Px Qx i ×i + Px Q y i × j + Px Qz i ×k

+ P Q  j ×i  + P Q  j × j  + P Q  j ×k 
a body about an axis passing through it,
torque is required. Torque is a vector with y x y y y z

its direction along the axis of rotation and + P Q  k ×i  + P Q  k × j  + P Q  k ×k 

z x z y z z
magnitude  describing the turning effect
of force F acting on the body to rotate it Now i ×i = j × j = k ×k =0, and
i ×k = - j , j ×i = -k , k × j = -i
about
 the   axis. Torque τ is given
 given
as τ = r × F , r being the perpendicular i × j = k , j ×k = i , k ×i = j.
distance of a point on the body where the  
force is applied from the axis of rotation. ∴ P ×Q = 0 + Px Q y k - Px Qz j
Characteristics of Vector Product: - Py Qx k +0 + Py Qz i
(1) Vector product does not obey commutative
+ Pz Qx j - Pz Q y i +0
law of multiplication.
   
P ×Q ≠ Q ×P --- (2.20) =(Py Qz - Pz Q y ) i
   
However, | P ×Q |= | Q ×P | i.e., the magnitudes + (Pz Qx - Px Qz ) j
are the same but the directions are opposite to
+(Px Q y - Py Qx ) k
each other.
This can be written in a determinant form as
(2) The vector product obeys the distributive
law of multiplication.

24
 
i j k Example 2.8: If A = 5i +6 j + 4k and
  
P × Q = Px Py Pz --- (2.23) B = 2i - 2 j + 3k , determine the angle between
 
Qx Q y Qz A and B .
(6) The magnitude of cross product of two  
Solution: A . B = A B cosθ = AxBx+AyBy+AzBz
vectors is numerically equal to the area of a
parallelogram whose adjacent sides represent Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az Bz
the two vectors. cosθ =
AB
Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
cosθ =
Ax 2 + Ay 2 + Az 2 Bx 2 + B y 2 + B z 2
(5)(2) +(6)(-2) +(4)(3)
cosθ =
25 +36 +16 4 +4 +9
10
= = 0.2764
77. 17
Fig 2.11: Area of parallelogram and vector
product. θ = cos -1 0.2765 =73°58'

As shown in fig. 2.11, Example 2.9: Given P = 4i - j + 8 k and
       

 
j + 4 k , find m if P and Q have the
P = OA , Q = OB, P and Q are inclined at Q = 2 i - m
an angle θ. same direction.
 
Perpendicular BD, of length h drawn on Solution: Since P and Q have the same
OA, gives the height of the parallelogram with direction, their corresponding components must
OA as base. be in the same proportion, i.e.,
Area of parallelogram Px Py P
= = z
= base × height Qx Q y Qz
BD 4 -1 8
= OA  BD, as sin   = =
OB 2 -m 4
= P Q sin 1
  ∴m =
 P ×Q 2
2.6 Introduction to Calculus:
= magnitude of the vector product --- (2.24)
Calculus is the study of continuous (not
Example 2.7: The angular momentum 

    discrete) changes in mathematical quantities.
L = r × p , where r is a position vector and p is This branch of mathematics was first developed
linear momentum of a body. by G.W Leibnitz and Sir Issac Newton in the
  
     
If r = 4i ×6 j - 3k and p = 2i +4 j - 5k , find L 17 century and is extensively used in several
th

branches of science. You will study calculus

Solution:
in mathematics in XIIth standard. Here we will
i j k learn the basics of the two branches of calculus
   namely differential and integral calculus. These
L =r×p = 4 6 -3
are necessary to understand the topics covered
2 4 -5 in this book.
  2.6.1 Differential Calculus:
∴ L = (-30 +12) i + (-6 + 20) j +(16 - 12)k
Let us consider a function y = f(x). Here x
  
= -18i +14 j + 4k . is called an independent variable and f(x) gives
the value of y for different values of x and is the

25
dependent variable. For example x could be the Thus,
position of a particle moving along x-axis and dy ( y  y )  y
 lim
y = f(x) could be its velocity at that position dx x0
x  0 x
x. We can thus draw a graph of y against x as df(x) f ( x0 + x )  f ( x0 )
shown in Fig. 2.12 (a). Let A and B be two points  lim
dx x0 x 0 x
on the curve giving values of y at x = x0 and
x = x0 + ∆x, where ∆x is a small increment in x. We can drop the subscript zero and write
The slope of the straight line joining A and B is a general formula which will be valid for all
y values of x as
given by tan   . dy
 lim
f(x + x) - f(x) df(x)
=
x x
--- (2.25)
If we make ∆x smaller, the point B will dx x  0 dx
come closer to A and if we keep making ∆x In XIIth standard you will learn about
smaller and smaller, we will ultimately reach a the properties of derivatives and how to find
stage when B will coincide with A. This process derivatives of different functions. Here we will
is called taking the limit ∆x going to zero and just list the properties as we will need them in
lim . In this limit the line AB
is written as x0 later Chapter s. dy/dx is called the derivative of
extended on both sides to P and Q will become y with respect to x (which is the rate of change of
the tangent to the curve at A, i.e., at y with respect to change in x) and the process of
finding the derivative is called differentiation.
Let f1(x) and f2(x) be two different functions of
x and let s be a constant. Some of the properties
of differentiation are
d(sf(x)) df(x)
1. =s --- (2.26)
dx dx

d df1 (x) df 2 (x)

2. (f1 (x) + f 2 (x)) = + --- (2.27)
dx dx dx
Fig. 2.12 (a): Average rate of change of y d df 2 (x) df1 (x)
with respect to x. 3. (f1 (x)× f 2 (x)) = f1 (x) + f 2 (x)
dx dx dx
--- (2.28)
d  f1 (x)  1 df1 (x) f1 (x) df 2 (x)
4.  = - 2
dx  f 2 (x)  f 2 (x) dx f 2 (x) dx
--- (2.29)
5. If x depends on time another variable t then,
df(x) df(x) dx
= --- (2.30)
dt dx dt
6.
Fig. 2.12 (b): Rate of change of y with
respect to x at x0
x = xo. In this limit both ∆x and ∆y will go to
zero. However, when two quantities tend to
zero, their ratio need not go to zero. In fact
 y 
lim  
x  0 x becomes the slope of the tangent
 
shown by PQ in Fig. 2.12 (b). This is written as
dy/dx at x = xo. The derivatives of some simple functions
of x are given below.

26
 d 2.6.2 Integral calculus
1. (x n ) = n x n-1 --- (2.31)
dx Integral calculus is the branch of
x ax
mathematics dealing with properties of integrals
2. d(e ) = e x and d(e ) = ae ax --- (2.32) and their applications. Physical interpretation
dx dx of integral of a function f(x), i.e., ∫ f(x)dx is
d 1
3. (ln x) = --- (2.33) the area under the curve f(x) versus x. It is the
dx x reverse process of differentiation as we will see
4. d below.
( sin x) = cos x --- (2.34)
dx We know how to find the area of a
5. d --- (2.35)
( cos x) = - sin x rectangle, triangle etc. In Fig. 2.13(a) we have
dx shown y which is a function of x, A and B being
6. d ( tan x) = sec 2 x --- (2.36) two points on it.
dx
d
7. ( cot x) = - cosec x
2
--- (2.37)
dx
8. d ( sec x) = tan x sec x --- (2.38)
dx
d
9. ( cosec x) = - cosec x cot x --- (2.39)
dx
Example 2.10: Find the derivatives of the
functions. Fig. 2.13 (a): Area under a straight line.
(a) f(x) = x 8 (b) f(x) = x 3 + sin x
(c) f(x) = x 3sin x
Solution : n
(a) Using dx = nx n-1 ,
dx
8
d(x )
= 8x7
dx
(b) Using
d df1 (x) df 2 (x)
(f1 (x) + f 2 (x)) = + and Fig. 2.13 (b): Area under a curve.
dx dx dx
The area under the curve (straight line)
d ( sin x) from x = a to x = b is shown by shaded area.
= cos x
dx This can be obtained as sum of the area of the
d d(x 3 ) d ( sin x) rectangle ADEC = f(a) (b-a) and the area of the
(x 3 + sin x) = +
dx dx dx triangle ABC = 1/2 (b-a) (f(b)-f(a))
2
= 3x + cos x Figure 2.13(b) shows another function of
c) Using x. We do not have a simple formula to calculate
d df 2 (x) df1 (x) the area under this curve. For this calculation,
(f1 (x) f 2 (x)) = f1 (x) + f 2 (x) we use a simple trick. We divide the area into a
dx dx dx
large number of vertical strips as shown in the
d( sin x)
and = cos x figure. We assume thickness (width) of each
dx strip to be so small that it can be assumed to be
d 3 3 d ( sin x) d(x 3 ) a rectangle as shown in the figure and add the
(x sin x) = x + sin x
dx dx dx areas of these rectangles. Thus the area under
= x 3 cos x +3x 2 sin x the curve is given by

27
 Area under the curve Indefinite integrals of some basic functions
n n are given below. Their definite integrals can be
=  Ai =  (xi - xi -1 ) f(xi ) obtained by using the Eq. (2.44)
i =1 i =1
where n is the number of strips and ∆Ai is the 1. ∫ x n dx = x
n+1

area of the ith strip. --- (2.47)

n +1
As the strips are not really rectangles, the
area calculated above is not exactly equal to the 1
2. ∫ dx = ln x
--- (2.48)
area under the curve. However as we increase x
n, the sum of areas of rectangles gets closer to
the actual area under the curve and becomes 3. ∫ sin x dx = - cos x --- (2.49)
equal to it in the limit n →∞. Thus we can write, 4. ∫ cos x dx = sin x --- (2.50)
Area under the curve
n 5. ∫ e x dx = e x --- (2.51)
= lim
n 
 (xi - xi -1 ) f(xi ) --- (2.40)
i =1 Example 2.11: Evaluate the following
Integration helps us in getting exact area if
integrals:
the change is really continuous, i.e., n is really
∫ x dx
8
x =b (a)
infinite. It is represented as ∫ f(x)dx and is 5

∫ x dx
2
x =a (b)
called the definite integral of f(x) from x = a to 2

x = b. (c) ∫ (x + sin x) dx
x=b n
Solution: (a) Using formula
Thus,  f(x) dx = lim  (xi - xi-1 ) f(xi )
n 
x n+1 x9
∫ n +1 ∫
x=a i=l n 8
--- (2.41) x dx = , x dx =
9
The process of obtaining the integral is called
integration. We can also write (b) Using Eq. (2.44),
x3 5 5
3
2
3
125 - 8 117
F(x) = ∫ f(x)dx
5

--- (2.42) ∫2
x 2 dx =
3 2
=
3
-
3
=
3
=
3
F(x) is called the indefinite (without any
(c) Using Eq. (2.45),
limits on x) integral of f(x). Differentiation
is the reverse process to that of integration.   f (x) + f (x) dx = f (x)dx +  f (x)dx
1 2 1 2

Therefore,
and  sin x dx = cos x, we get  (x + sin x) dx
d
f(x) = (F(x)) --- (2.43) x2
dx  x dx +  sin x dx = 2
- cos x
b b
 F(x) = F(b) - F(a) =  f(x)dx --- (2.44)
a a

Internet my friend
Properties of integration
1.   f1 (x) + f 2 (x)  dx =  f1 (x)dx +  f 2 (x)dx 1. [Link]/hbase/vect.
html#veccon
--- (2.45) 2. [Link]/hbase/
[Link]
2. ∫ K f(x)dx = K ∫ f(x)dx for K = constant

--- (2.46)

28
 Ex
erc
ises
Exercises
1. Choose the correct option. 
iv) Find a vector which is parallel to v = i - 2 j
i) The resultant of two forces 10 N and 15 N
and has a magnitude 10.
acting along + x and - x-axes respectively,
is  10  20  
 Ans : i- j
(A) 25 N along + x-axis  5 5 

(B) 25 N along - x-axis v) Show that vectors a = 2i + 5 j - 6k and
(C) 5 N along + x-axis  5
(D) 5 N along - x-axis b = i + j - 3k are parallel.
2
ii) For two vectors to be equal, they should
have the 3. Solve the following problems.
(A) same magnitude   
i) Determine a ×b , given a = 2i +3 j and
(B) same direction 
b = 3i +5 j .
(C) same magnitude and direction
(D) same magnitude but opposite direction  Ans : k 
iii) The magnitude of scalar product of two 
ii) Show that vectors a = 2i +3 j +6k ,
unit vectors perpendicular to each other is  
(A) zero (B) 1 b = 3i - 6 j +2k and c =6i +2 j - 3k are
(C) -1 (D) 2 mutually perpendicular.
iv) The magnitude of vector product of two iii) Determine the vector product of
 

unit vectors making an angle of 60° = with v1 2i  +3 j - k and v i +2 j - 3k ,
= 2
each other is
 Ans : - 7i +5 j +k 
(A) 1 (B) 2  
 
(C) 3/2 (D) 3 / 2    
  iv) Given v1 = 5i + 2 j and v 2 = ai - 6 j are
v) If A, B and C are three vectors, then perpendicular to each other, determine the
which of the following is not correct? value of a.
      
 
(A) A  B  C  A  B  A  C
   


 Ans : 
12 
 5
(B) A  B  B  A v) Obtain derivatives of the following
   
(C) A  B  B  A functions:
      

(D) A  B  C  A  B  B  C  (i) x sin x
(iii) x/sin x
(ii) x4+cos x

2. Answer the following questions.

 Ans : (i) sin x + x cos x, 
 i - j  
i) Show that a =
2
is a unit vector. (ii) 4x 3 - sin x, (iii) 11 - x cos2 x 
 
  sin x sin x 
=ii) If v1 3i=  +4 j +k and v i - j - k ,
2
  vi) Using the rule for differentiation for
determine the magnitude of 1 2 . v + v quotient of two functions, prove that
[Ans: 5] d  sin x  2
 
  cos x  = sec x
  dx  
iii) For v1 = 2i - 3 j and v 2  6i +5 j ,
determine
   the magnitude and direction of vii) Evaluate the following integral:
v1 + v 2 .  /2 5
(i)  sin x dx (ii)  x dx
 -1  1  0 1
Ans : 2 5 ,  = tan  with - axis


 2
 
x 
  Ans : (i) 1,(ii) 12
***

29