BIOMASS ENERGY 2022 SCHEME M-5

Biomass Power Plants: Biomass as a renewable energy source: types and

characteristics, Conversion technologies: combustion, gasification, and anaerobic
digestion, biomass feedstock selection and availability, Environmental impacts
and sustainability of biomass power plants, Integration of biomass power plants
with other energy systems.

Biomass as a renewable energy source:

Biomass is the term used to describe all the organic matter, produced by photosynthesis that exists
on the earth’s surface. The source of all energy in biomass is the sun, the biomass acting as a kind
of chemical energy store. Biomass is constantly undergoing a complex series of physical and
chemical transformations and being regenerated while giving off energy in the form of heat to the
atmosphere. To make use of biomass for our own energy needs we can simply tap into this energy
source, in its simplest form we know, this is a basic open fire used to provide heat for cooking,
warming water or warming the air in our home. More sophisticated technologies exist for
extracting this energy and converting it into useful heat or power in an efficient way.

The exploitation of energy from biomass has played a key role in the evolution of mankind.
Until relatively recently it was the only form of energy which was usefully exploited by humans
and is still the main source of energy for more than half the world’s population for domestic energy
needs. Traditionally the extraction of energy from biomass is split into 3 distinct categories:

Solid biomass - the use of trees, crop residues, animal and human waste (all though not
strictly a solid biomass source, it is often included in this category for the sake of convenience),
household or industrial residues for direct combustion to provide heat. Often the solid biomass will
undergo physical processing such as cutting, chipping, briquetting, etc. but retains its solid form.

Biogas - biogas is obtained by anaerobically (in an air free environment) digesting organic
material to produce a combustible gas known as methane. Animal waste and municipal waste are
two common feed stocks for anaerobic digestion.

Liquid Biofuels - are obtained by subjecting organic materials to one of various chemical
or physical processes to produce a usable, combustible, liquid fuel. Biofuels such as vegetable oils
or ethanol are often processed from industrial or commercial residues such as bagasse (sugarcane

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residue remaining after the sugar is extracted) or from energy crops grown specifically for Micro-
organisms , like all living things, require food for growth . Biological sewage treatment consists
of a step-by-step, continuous, sequenced attack on the organic compounds found in wastewater
and upon which the microbes feed.

Photosynthesis Process:

Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the
bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only
light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the
chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs in stems, etc. The
parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundle(s)
(veins), and the stomates. The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts; thus,
photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the rest of the leaf. The
stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for air exchange: they let
CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant's transportation
system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells have
chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs. As you hopefully recall, the parts of a
chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids
stacked in grana.

The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll looks green because it
absorbs red and blue light, making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green
light which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making chlorophyll appear green.
However, it is the energy from the red and blue light that are absorbed that is, thereby, able to be
used to do photosynthesis. The green light we can see is not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and
thus cannot be used to do photosynthesis.

The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is:

6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) C6H12O6 + 6O2. This is the source of the O2 we
breathe, and thus, a significant factor in the concerns about deforestation.

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Stages of Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is a two-stage process. The first process is the Light Dependent Process (Light
Reactions), requires the direct energy of light to make energy carrier molecules that are used in the
second process. The Light Independent Process (or Dark Reactions) occurs when the products of
the Light Reaction are used to form C-C covalent bonds of carbohydrates. The Dark Reactions can
usually occur in the dark, if the energy carriers from the light process are present. Recent evidence
suggests that a major enzyme of the Dark Reaction is indirectly stimulated by light, thus the term
Dark Reaction is somewhat of a misnomer. The Light Reactions occur in the grana and the Dark
Reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts.

Types of Biomasses:

Biofuels:

It is a generic description given to all type of fuel produced from biomass, that is, material derived
from recently living organisms. This is the scientific name given to any plant or animal substance
that is combustible, thus releasing off energy which can be then used for a number of purposes,
including for producing motion (such as the movement of a piston in an internal combustion
engine) and heating liquids (such as water in a boiler).

Types of biofuels: Biofuels can range from solid, liquid and gaseous products, and their
application is as varied as that of the petroleum products they replace. Biofuels can be used in
almost all applications where petroleum products are used. Only in the aviation industry is their
used still very limited, almost inexistent, however recent studies and experimental flights might in
the future lead to a breakthrough and a wider use similar to that experienced in the road transport
sector. The following is a list of the main biofuels available and a brief description of their use.

Solid biofuels Examples of solid biofuels are probably the most common to understand as their
use has been present for as long as man has discovered fire. The main examples are wood and
charcoal which are used for everyday use in heating and cooking.

Liquid biofuels Liquid biofuels, as their name suggests, are fuels derived from biomass and
processed to produce a combustible liquid fuel.

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There are two main categories:

• Alcohol fuels - these include ethanol and methanol

• Vegetable oils - derived from plant seeds, such as sunflower, sesame, linseed

Bioethanol Ethanol fuels basically an alcohol fuel produced by the use of enzymes and micro-
organisms through the process of fermentation of starches and sugar. It can be used as a fuel,
mainly as a biofuel alternative to petrol, and is widely used in cars in Brazil, where sugar cane is
used as the base material. Ethanol with less than 1% water called anhydrous ethanol can be blended
with petrol in varying quantities. Currently, all spark ignited petrol engines can operate with
mixtures of up to 5% bioethanol (E5), however certain engine manufacturers do not discourage
and actually suggest higher blends of bioethanol to be used. The substitution of ethanol for gasoline
in passenger cars and light vehicles in Brazil is one of the largest biomass-to-energy programmes
in existence today. Engines that run strictly on gasoline are no longer available in the country,
having been replaced by neat ethanol engines and by gasohol engines that burn a mixture of 78 per
cent gasoline and 22 per cent ethanol by volume. Technological advances, including more efficient
production and processing of sugarcane, are responsible for the availability and low price of
ethanol. The transition to ethanol fuel has reduced Brazil‟s dependence on foreign oil (thus
lowering its import export ratio), created significant employment opportunities and greatly
enhanced urban air quality. In addition, because sugarcane-derived ethanol is a renewable resource
(the cane is replanted at the same rate it is harvested), the combustion of ethanol adds virtually no
net carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and so helps reduce the threat of global warming.

Methanol Itis produced by a process of chemical conversion. It can be produced from any biomass
with moisture content of less than 60%; potential feed stocks include forest and agricultural
residues, wood and various energy crops. As with ethanol it can either be blended with gasoline to
improve the octane rating of the fuel or used in its neat form. Both ethanol and methanol are often
preferred fuels for racing cars.

Vegetable oils A further method of extracting energy from biomass is the production of vegetable
oils as a fuel known as biodiesel. The process of oil extraction is carried out the same way as for
extraction of edible oil from plants. There are many crops grown in rural areas of the developing

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world which are suitable for oil production – sunflower, coconut, cotton seed, palm, rapeseed, soy
bean, peanut, hemp and more. Sunflower oil, for example, has an energy content about 85% that
of diesel fuel.

There are two well-established technologies for oil extraction:

• The simple screw press, which is a device for physically extracting the oil from the plant - this
technology is well suited to small-scale production of oil as fuel or as foodstuff in rural areas. The
press can be motorised or hand-operated.

• Solvent extraction is a chemical process which requires large, sophisticated equipment. This
method is more efficient - that is, it extracts a greater percentage of the oil from the plant - but is
less suited to rural applications.

The oil, as well as being used for lighting and heating, can be used as a fuel in internal combustion
engines.

Biodiesel production(Transesterification) is not complex and can be done on a small scale.

The vegetable oil is converted to a useable fuel by adding ethanol or methanol alcohol along with
a catalyst to improve the reaction. Small amounts of potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide
(commonly called lye or caustic soda, which is used in soap making) are used as the catalyst
material. Glycerine separates out as the reaction takes place and sinks to the bottom of the
container. This removes the component that gums up the engine so that a standard diesel engine
can be used. The glycerine can be used as a degreasing soap or refined to make other products.

Gaseous biofuels Biogas is a renewable fuel, which is produced by the breaking down of organic
matter by a process of microbiological activity. Basically this means that rotting municipal waste,
food waste or sewage (both human and animal) is turned into gas by means of „anaerobic
conversion‟ in a digester. Biogas contains methane, which in itself is a fuel and can be recovered
from industrial anaerobic digesters, mechanical biological treatment systems and engineered
landfills. In engineered landfills, the collected landfill gas can be used to produce electricity and
heat.

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Characteristics of Biomass:

1) Renewable and Abundant:

Biomass is a renewable resource, as it can be replenished through natural processes, and is widely
available.

2) Diverse Composition:
Biomass materials vary widely, including wood, bark, straw, grasses, algae, and animal waste.

3) High Oxygen Content:

Biomass generally has a higher oxygen content compared to fossil fuels, which can affect its
combustion characteristics.

4) Varied Energy Content:

The energy content (or heating value) of biomass can vary significantly depending on its type and
moisture content.

5) High Moisture Content:

Biomass often has a higher moisture content than fossil fuels, which can affect its energy density
and combustion efficiency.

6) Potential for Different Uses:

Biomass can be converted into various forms of energy, including heat, electricity, and biofuels
through processes like combustion, gasification, and anaerobic digestion.

7) Sustainable Management:

Biomass resources can be sustainably managed to ensure long-term availability and minimize
environmental impacts.

8) Combustion Characteristics:

Biomass fuels, like wood, have specific combustion characteristics, including lower density and
friability compared to coal.

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9) Chemical Composition:

Biomass primarily consists of lignocellulosic content (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), along
with proteins, starch, and sugars.

10) Pyrolysis Products:

Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal, bio-oil, renewable diesel, methane, and
hydrogen.

11) Co-firing with Coal:

Biomass can be co-fired with coal in power plants, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and greenhouse
gas emissions.

Biomass conversion technologies:

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THERMOCHEMICAL CONVERSION

Thermochemical conversion processes include combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and solvent

liquefaction. Each process functions at a distinct degree of oxidation, temperature, heating rate
and reaction time to produce electric power, heat, fuels, and/or chemicals.

1) Combustion

Combustion was one of the first advanced uses of biomass conversion. Combustion is an
exothermic (heat-producing) reaction between oxygen and the hydrocarbon in biomass. The
biomass is converted into heat, water, and carbon dioxide. Biomass combustion remains a major
source of energy production throughout the world and has replaced coal as a renewable source of
energy in many power plants.

The advantages of combustion include the extreme simplicity of process operation: burning. Since
biomass combustion is discouraged or banned in certain regions due to the release of polluting
contaminations, gasification and other processes may be favored due to lower concentrations of
CO2, SO2, NOx and solid waste in the end products, in addition to ease of fuel transport and
flexibility in applications (gas, liquid, chemical production).

2) Gasification

Gasification is defined as a high-temperature conversion of carbonaceous materials into a

combustible gas mixture under reducing conditions. Through gasification, a heterogeneous solid
material can be converted into gaseous fuels intermediate (producer gas and syngas) that can be
used for heating, industrial processes, electricity generation, and liquid fuel production.

• Producer gas – a low heating value gas mixture of CO2, H2, CO, CH4, N produced from
gasification feedstocks in air.
• Synthesis gas – a gas mixture of predominantly CO and H2 produced from gasification
feedstocks in oxygen and steam followed by gas separation to remove CO2. This H2 rich
mixture was developed for the synthesis of fuels and chemicals.

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Gasification of biomass has four key steps:

1. Heating & drying – to reduce the moisture content from 10-50% to bone dry. The analysis
of the energy to heat and dry the feedstock must be balanced against the chemical makeup
of the products produced that are affected by the moisture. Higher moisture will result in
higher CO2 and H20 in the final mixture, while lower moisture results in higher CO,
H2, and CH4.
2. Pyrolysis – is the rapid thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen.
Starting at 300 – 500oC, the process is accompanied by the release of volatiles, including
producer water, which is a chemical compound produced from the reaction of the elements
within the biomass, not the moisture, and permanent gases (CO, CO2, H2), which are gases
that do not condense when cooling. Pyrolysis converts about 70-90% of biomass to vapors
and gases, which is double the proportion converted in coal.
3. Gas Solid Reactions – after pyrolysis, chemical reactions continue to occur between char
and the surrounding gas, typically when carbon and O2, CO2, H2O, and H2 react to form
CO, 2CO, H2+CO, and CH4.
4. Gas Phase Reactions – the volatiles released in pyrolysis continue to react in gas phase
reactions where CO reacts with H2O to form H2 + CO and CH4 + H2O.

The catalyst required for gasification typically consists of air, oxygen, steam, or a mixture of those
three. The key benefits of using biomass as an energy source include the fact that the components,
when released, do not constitute a net contribution back into the atmosphere as well as the
reduction on the dependence of non-renewable or imported fuel sources.

3) Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis involves the conversion of biomass into hydrocarbon liquids, gases, or solids in the total
absence of oxygen at temperatures ranging from (400 – 900oC). Pyrolysis can be segmented into
three process types; torrefaction, slow pyrolysis, and fast pyrolysis each with different
temperatures, pressures, and reaction [Link] pyrolysis will produce gases and solid bio-chars
while fast pyrolysis will produce liquids. The product of fast pyrolysis, called bio-oil, is an energy-
rich liquid recovered from condensable vapors and aerosols. Bio-oil consists of a mixture of

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oxygenated organic compounds including carbolic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, saccharides,
and other compounds.

Pyrolysis can be thought of as a standalone process or a precursor process to gasification or other

technologies where the gas or liquid product of pyrolysis is used as an intermediate feedstock in
the production of more complex products downstream.

4) Hydrothermal Liquefaction

Hydrothermal liquefaction is a relatively low-temperature (300–400°C), a high-pressure process

that produces bio-oil from relatively wet biomass in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen.
Biomass with high water content may be directly utilized without energy-intensive pre-treatment
and converted into a bio-oil and platform chemicals. The bio-oil has certain similarities to
petroleum crude and can be upgraded to the whole distillate range of petroleum-derived fuel
products. Hydrothermal liquefaction (also known as direct liquefaction) is
essentially pyrolysis in hot liquid water. Liquefaction’s main use case involves the conversion of
bio-organic waste with high water content, including wet primary and secondary sludges.

Advantages of hydrothermal liquefaction include:

1) The ability to convert wet biomass without expensive pre-treatment or drying.

2) Substantially reduced greenhouse gas emissions vs other technologies.

3) Production of a crude oil type product that can be distilled into a range of petroleum fuels and
chemicals.

4) Recognition of the technology by the US Department of Energy and other agencies.

5) Thermal conversion efficiency of over 80%.

6) A direct path to convert bio-organic waste to heavy transportation fuels.

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BIOCHEMICAL CONVERSION

Biochemical conversion utilizes bacteria and enzymes to break down biomass molecules. The
process is slower by an order of magnitude than gasification (hours or days versus minutes or
seconds) but it does not require a significant amount of external energy. The three main routes for
biochemical conversion are:

1) Anaerobic/Aerobic Digestion

In anaerobic digestion, the bacteria access oxygen from the biomass itself, not from the air, to
produce methane and carbon dioxide. Aerobic digestion, or composting, breaks down biomass in
the presence of oxygen while using microorganisms that take the oxygen from the air, producing
carbon dioxide, heat, and a solid digestate.

2) Fermentation

Fermentation converts the biomass partially into sugars using acids and/or enzymes. The sugars
can be converted into ethanol or other chemicals with the addition of yeast. Whereas anaerobic
digestion produces gases, the principal products of fermentation are liquids. The fermentation of
starch and sugar-based feedstocks has been fully commercialized via corn and cane-based ethanol
production in the US, Brazil, and elsewhere. Ethanol is used as a blendstock for gasoline-powered
vehicles, making up nearly 10% of the gasoline supply in most markets in the US.

3) Enzymatic/Acid Hydrolysis

Cellulosic ethanol, which would rely upon the conversion of the non-starch/sugar portions of
biomass (lignocellulose), has not been as successful as the pre-treatment of the feedstocks through
hydrolysis (acid, enzymatic, and hydrothermal). It has proven to be less efficient and economical
in breaking down the inputs into simple sugars that could be accessible by the yeast and bacteria
in the process.

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Biomass Resources:

Some of Biomass resources classified according to the supply sector, as shown in the table
below.

Supply sector Type Example

Short rotation plantations (e.g. willow,

Dedicated forestry
poplar, eucalyptus)
Forestry
Wood blocks, wood chips from
Forestry by-products
thinnings

Dry lignocellulosic Herbaceous crops (e.g. miscanthus,

energy crops reed canarygrass, giant reed)

Oil seeds for methylesters (e.g. rape

seed, sunflower)

Oil, sugar and starch Sugar crops for ethanol (e.g. sugar
energy crops cane, sweet sorghum)
Agriculture

Starch crops for ethanol (e.g. maize,

wheat)

Straw, prunings from vineyards and

Agricultural residues
fruit trees

Livestock waste Wet and dry manure

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Industrial waste wood, sawdust from

sawmills
Industry Industrial residues
Fibrous vegetable waste from paper
industries

Residues from parks and gardens (e.g.

Dry lignocellulosic
prunings, grass)

Demolition wood

Organic fraction of municipal solid

Waste
waste
Contaminated waste
Biodegradable landfilled waste,
landfill gas

Sewage sludge

Factors Influencing Biomass Feedstock Availability:

1) Local Net Primary Production (NPP):

Biomass supply is directly linked to the amount of organic matter produced by plants in a specific
area, which varies spatially and temporally due to environmental and human activities.

2) Environmental Factors:

Climate, soil type, and water availability play a significant role in determining the types and
quantities of biomass that can be grown or collected.

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3) Anthropogenic Factors:

Human activities like land use, agricultural practices, and waste management can influence
biomass availability.

4) Surplus Availability Fraction (SAF):

This factor, also known as the recoverability factor, estimates the amount of biomass residues that
can be realistically collected for bioenergy generation after accounting for other uses.

5) Sustainability Criteria:

Biomass feedstock availability must be sustainable and meet the minimum quality requirements
for the energy conversion product.

6) Competition with Other Uses:

There can be competition for biomass between different sectors, such as food production, forestry,
and bioenergy

Environmental Impacts:

➢ Deforestation and Habitat Loss:

The extraction and use of biomass for energy can lead to deforestation and habitat destruction,
impacting biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.

➢ Air Pollution:

Burning biomass releases pollutants like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter,
contributing to air pollution and potentially exacerbating climate change.

➢ Water Pollution:

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Biomass production and processing can contaminate water resources through runoff of fertilizers
and pesticides, as well as wastewater discharge from power plants.

➢ Soil Degradation:

Unsustainable biomass harvesting practices can lead to soil erosion and nutrient depletion,
impacting agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.

➢ Competition with Food Crops:

Growing crops specifically for bioenergy can compete with food production, potentially driving
up food prices and impacting food security.

➢ Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

While biomass is often considered carbon-neutral, emissions from biomass power plants can still
contribute to climate change, depending on the feedstock and production process.

➢ Eutrophication:

Biomass power plants can contribute to eutrophication, a process where excessive nutrients in
water bodies lead to oxygen depletion and harm aquatic life.

Sustainability Concerns:

➢ Resource Depletion:

Over-reliance on biomass for energy can lead to unsustainable harvesting practices and resource
depletion, particularly if not managed responsibly.

➢ Social Impacts:

Biomass energy projects can have social impacts on local communities, including displacement,
loss of livelihoods, and potential conflicts over land use.

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➢ Waste Management:

The disposal of ash and other waste products from biomass power plants can pose environmental
challenges if not managed properly.

➢ Technological Advancements:

Developing more efficient and sustainable biomass conversion technologies is crucial for
mitigating environmental impacts.

➢ Circular Economy:

Utilizing waste biomass as a resource and minimizing environmental impacts aligns with the
principles of the circular economy.

Mitigation and Sustainable Practices:

➢ Sustainable Sourcing:

Prioritizing biomass from sustainably managed forests and agricultural residues, rather than clear-
cutting forests, is crucial.

➢ Technological Innovation:

Developing advanced biomass conversion technologies, such as gasification and pyrolysis, can
improve efficiency and reduce emissions.

➢ Waste Utilization:

Utilizing biomass waste products, like ash, for other purposes, such as fertilizer or construction
materials, can minimize waste and improve resource efficiency.

➢ Water Management:

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Implementing efficient irrigation techniques and wastewater treatment systems can minimize
water pollution and resource consumption.

➢ Land Use Planning:

Carefully planning land use to avoid competition with food production and protect ecosystems is
essential.

➢ Policy and Regulations:

Strong policies and regulations are needed to ensure sustainable biomass energy practices and
minimize environmental impacts.

➢ Monitoring and Assessment:

Regularly monitoring and assessing the environmental impacts of biomass power plants is crucial
for identifying and addressing potential problems.

Integration of biomass power plants with other energy systems

Integrating biomass power plants with other energy systems, like smart grids and combined heat
and power (CHP) systems, enhances efficiency, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, and promotes
renewable energy integration.

1. Enhanced Efficiency and Renewable Energy Integration:

✓ Smart Grids:

Connecting biomass power plants to smart grids allows for optimized utilization of biomass energy
within the broader electricity grid, increasing the penetration of renewable energy and enhancing
grid stability and reliability.

✓ Combined Heat and Power (CHP):

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Biomass-powered CHP systems can provide both electricity and heat, making them an efficient
way to utilize biomass resources.

✓ District Heating Systems:

Biomass-powered CHP systems can be integrated into district heating systems, providing heat to
buildings and other infrastructure.

✓ Thermal Energy Storage:

Integrating thermal energy storage (TES) systems with biomass-powered CHP can increase
reliability and versatility, allowing for energy storage during periods of high biomass availability
and low demand.

2. Biomass Conversion Technologies:

✓ Direct Combustion:

Biomass can be burned directly for heating and electricity generation.

✓ Gasification:

Biomass can be converted into a synthesis gas (syngas) through gasification, which can then be
used to generate electricity or as a fuel for other processes.

✓ Pyrolysis:

Biomass can be converted into bio-oil through pyrolysis, which can be used as a fuel or as a
feedstock for other processes.

✓ Anaerobic Digestion:

Organic matter can be decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas, which
can be used for heating or electricity generation.

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3. Examples of Integration:

➢ Hybrid Combined Cycle (HCC):

Biomass can be integrated into a combined cycle configuration (CCGT plant) by using biomass
combustion in the bottoming cycle, while gas or oil/diesel is used in the gas turbine topping cycle.

➢ Co-firing:

Biomass pellets can be co-fired with coal in existing coal power plants, reducing reliance on coal
and increasing the use of renewable energy.

➢ Biomass-to-Energy Systems:

Integrated biomass-to-energy systems can combine different biomass conversion technologies to

produce electricity, heat, and other valuable products, such as hydrogen or biofuels.

➢ Solar and Biomass Integration:

Integrating solar energy with biomass systems can further enhance efficiency and sustainability,
for example, using solar energy for hydrogen production or other processes.

Biomass power plants:

1) Fixed-dome type plants:

A fixed-dome plant consists of a digester with a fixed, non-movable gas holder, which sits on top
of the digester. When gas production starts, the slurry is displaced into the compensation tank. Gas
pressure increases with the volume of gas stored and the height difference between the slurry level
in the digester and the slurry level in the compensation tank.

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a) Function - A fixed-dome plant comprises of a closed, dome-shaped digester with an

immovable, rigid gas-holder and a displacement pit, also named 'compensation tank'. The gas is
stored in the upper part of the digester. When gas production commences, the slurry is displaced
into the compensating tank. Gas pressure increases with the volume of gas stored, i.e. with the
height difference between the two slurry levels. If there is little gas in the gas-holder, the gas
pressure is low

b) Digester - The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures; structures of
cement and ferro-cement exist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:

o technical suitability (stability, gas- and liquid tightness)

o Cost-effectiveness

o Availability in the region and transport costs

o Availability of local skills for working with the particular building material.

Fixed dome plants produce just as much gas as floating-drum plants, if they are gas-tight. However,
utilization of the gas is less effective as the gas pressure fluctuates substantially. Burners and other
simple appliances cannot be set in an optimal way. If the gas is required at constant pressure (e.g.,
for engines), a gas pressure regulator or a floating gas-holder is necessary.

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c) Gas Holder - The top part of a fixed-dome plant (the gas space) must be gas-tight. Concrete,
masonry and cement rendering are not gas-tight. The gas space must therefore be painted with a
gas-tight layer (e.g. 'Water-proofer', Latex or synthetic paints). A possibility to reduce the risk of
cracking of the gas-holder consists in the construction of a weak-ring in the masonry of the
digester. This "ring" is a flexible joint between the lower (water-proof) and the upper (gas-proof)
part of the hemispherical structure. It prevents cracks that develop due to the hydrostatic pressure
in the lower parts to move into the upper parts of the gas-holder.

2) Floating-Drum Plants:

Floating-drum plants consist of a digester and a moving gasholder. The gasholder floats either
direct on the fermentation slurry or in a water jacket of its own. The gas collects in the gas
drum, which thereby rises. If gas is drawn off, it falls again. The gas drum is prevented from
tilting by a guide frame.

Advantages:
Simple, easily understood operation, constant gas pressure, volume of stored gas visible
directly, fewmistakes in construction.

Disadvantages:
High construction cost of floating-drum, many steel parts liable to corrosion, resulting in short
life (up to 15 years; in tropical coastal regions about five years for the drum), and regular
maintenance costs due to painting.

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In spite of these disadvantages, floating-drum plants are always to be recommended in cases of
doubt. Water-jacket plants are universally applicable and especially easy to maintain. The drum
won't stick, even if the substrate has high solids content.
Floating-drums made of glass-fiber reinforced plastic and high density polyethylene have been
used successfully, but the construction cost is higher than with steel. Floating-drums made of
Wire-mesh-reinforced concrete are liable to hairline cracking and are intrinsically porous. They
requirea gaslight, elastic internal coating. PVC drums are unsuitable because not resistant to
UV.
The floating gas drum can be replaced by a balloon above the digester. This reduces construction
costs (channel type digester with folia), but in practice problems always arise with the
attachment of the balloon at the edge. Such plants are still being tested under practical
conditions.

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