1.

With regard to sensor classification design a liquid level controller in water

tank.

Liquid Level Controller in Water Tank – Based on Sensor Classification

A liquid level controller is used to automatically maintain the water level in a
tank using sensors and a control unit.
Classification of Sensors Used
The liquid level controller mainly uses level sensors, which can be classified as
follows:
1. Contact Type Sensors
These sensors directly touch the liquid.
Advantages:
 Simple
 Low cost
Disadvantages:
 Corrosion may occur
 Needs maintenance
Based on Output Signal
1. Analog Sensors
Provide continuous level measurement.
Example:
 Ultrasonic level sensor
2. Digital Sensors
Provide discrete outputs such as HIGH or LOW.
Example:
 Float switch
Design of Water Tank Liquid Level Controller
To design a water tank controller the Components required are
1. Water tank
2. Level sensors (Low level and High level)
3. Relay
4. Pump motor
5. Microcontroller/control circuit
6. Power supply
Working Principle:
Step 1 – Low Level Detection
When the water level falls below the minimum level
 The LOW-level sensor detects empty condition.
 Controller switches ON the pump motor.
Step 2 – Tank Filling
The pump fills water into the tank.
Step 3 – High Level Detection
When water reaches maximum level:
 HIGH level sensor sends signal.
 Controller switches OFF the pump.
Thus, the tank level is maintained automatically.
Block Diagram
The block diagram of the design concept of the proposed sensor is
demonstrated in the Fig. 1. From the figure it can be observed that float is
placed at the water surface inside a float guide pipe. The float guide pipe
prevents it from floating off out of the sensor’s detection range. The bottom of
the pipe is partially.
Now, the LED source generates input rays which fall on the float surface. The
surface of the float is made up of reflecting material (mirror is utilized in this
work to reflect the incidence rays). The reflected ray from the float surface is
detected by LDRs connected in series. LDRs have been included in the design
because of its simplicity, reliability and low cost. Thus, the sensor network
incorporated in the design helps in measuring the time taken by the signal
generated by the source (LED) to reach the detection point. The measurement
obtained from the sensor network undergoes through signal conditioner. Signal
conditioning has been introduced in the design to obtain proper signal in terms
of strength, which can be processed further. Further, analog-to- digital converter
(ADC) is incorporated in the design to provide proper interfacing with the
microcontroller in the system. Sensor network shown in Fig. 1 consists of source
(LED) and detector (LDR) circuit. Source produces signals that are incident on
the float reflective surface. Based upon the position of float surface inside float
guide pipe, variation in the time scale i.e. duration after which the reflected
signals are detected by the LDRs, is obtained. The variation in time scale is
achieved because of the difference in position of float surface which finally
depends upon the water level to be measured. In general, the path difference
covered by the signal generated by the source is utilized here to determine the
level of water.
2. Mathematical model for second order transducer for 3 input also find the
condition for underdamped and damped when damping ratio is given
A second-order transducer is a dynamic system whose output depends on
acceleration, damping, and restoring forces. Examples include seismic
instruments, accelerometers, and RLC sensor systems.
3. LVDT : What are the factors affecting accuracy of LVDT ?
Explain in detail about LVDT . And then write
the below:
Temperature Variations affects Coil resistance, Core permeability,
Output voltage
Stray Magnetic Fields : External magnetic fields induce unwanted
voltages in the secondary coils, Leads to incorrect output.
Misalignment of Core : If the movable core is not perfectly
aligned inside the coil:
Flux distribution changes, Output becomes nonlinear
Mechanical Vibrations :
 Vibrations cause fluctuations in core position.
 Produces noisy and unstable output voltage.
Frequency Variation of Excitation Supply
 LVDT requires AC excitation.
 Variation in supply frequency changes
4. (i) Differentiate between ultrasonic range sensor and laser sensor range
with respect to range, accuracy and environmental conditions.
Ultrasonic Range
Parameter Laser Range Sensor
Sensor

Working Uses ultrasonic sound

Uses laser light beam
Principle waves

Short to medium Medium to long range

Range range (typically 2 cm (few cm to several
to 10 m) hundred meters)

Accuracy Moderate accuracy Very high accuracy

Resolution Lower resolution Higher resolution

Speed of Slower due to sound Faster due to light

Response propagation propagation

Strongly affected
Effect of because sound Less affected by
Temperature velocity changes with temperature
temperature

Environmental Affected by acoustic Not affected by sound

 Ultrasonic Range
Parameter Laser Range Sensor
Sensor

noise and air

Noise Effect noise
turbulence

Cost Low cost Higher cost

Power
Low Moderate to high
Consumption

Water level sensing, Robotics, surveying,

Applications parking sensors, industrial automation,
obstacle detection autonomous vehicles

(ii) Explain about GPS.

5. (i) Design a magneto sensor well suited for finding the position in
automation system.
A magneto sensor is a sensor that detects magnetic fields and converts them
into electrical signals. In automation systems, magneto sensors are widely
used for position sensing, speed sensing, and proximity detection.
Principle of Operation
The sensor detects the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet
attached to the moving object.
When the magnet comes near the sensor:
 Magnetic field changes
 Sensor output changes
 Position of the object is detected
A Hall Effect based sensor is highly suitable for automation systems
Components Required
1. Hall effect sensor
2. Permanent magnet
3. Comparator or controller
4. Power supply
5. Output indicator/relay/PLC
Working
A permanent magnet is fixed to the moving part of the machine. A Hall-effect
sensor is mounted at the required position. When the magnet approaches the
sensor: Magnetic flux changes and Hall voltage is generated. The controller
interprets the signal and determines the object position.
The Hall voltage is given by:
BI
V H=
net
Where:
 V H = Hall voltage
 B= Magnetic flux density
 I = Current
 n = Charge carrier density
  e = Electronic charge
 t = Thickness of material

(ii) Justify the solution of heading sensors like

gyro,compass,inclinometer for unmanned aerial system with
reference to accuracy, reliability , response time.
In an Unmanned Aerial System (UAS), heading and orientation sensing
are essential for:
 Navigation
 Stability control
 Altitude and attitude measurement
 Autonomous flight

Reliabili Response Best

Sensor Accuracy
ty Time Application
Very Flight
Gyroscope Very High Very Fast
High stabilization
Moderate– Moderat Navigation
Compass Moderate
High e heading
Inclinomet Slow– Tilt
Moderate Good
er Moderate measurement

[Link] Heading Advantages Disadvantages

. Sensors
1, Gyroscope  Detects rapid Drift error
orientation accumulates over
changes time
 Essential for
flight
stabilization
 Works
independent of
Earth’s
magnetic field
2. Compass  Provides  Sensitive to
absolute electromagne
heading tic
reference interference
 No drift  Affected by
over time nearby
metallic
structures

3. Inclinometer  Measures  Affected by

pitch and vibration and
roll angle acceleration
 Simple and  Less accurate
stable during fast
maneuvers
[Link] the characteristics , principle of RDT,
THERMISTOR and Thermocouple in measuring
temperature.
Temperature sensors convert thermal energy into an electrical signal for
measurement and control.
RTD : An RTD measures temperature based on the change in resistance of a
metal with temperature. The resistance of metals increases with temperature.
The relation is:
Rt =R0 (1+ αT )
Where:
 Rt = resistance at temperature T
 R0 = resistance at 0∘ C
 α = temperature coefficient

Thermistor
A Thermistor is a semiconductor temperature sensor whose resistance
changes significantly with temperature.
Principle
Most thermistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC):
 Resistance decreases as temperature increases.
Relation:
1 1
β( − )
T T0
Rt =R0 e
Where:
 Rt = resistance at temperature T
 β = material constant

Thermocouple
A Thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals joined together. Works on the Seebeck
effect.
When two dissimilar metals are joined and heated, an emf is generated.
E=α (T h −T c )
Where:
 E = thermoelectric emf
 T h= hot junction temperature
 T c= cold junction temperature

Parameter RTD Thermistor Thermocouple

Resistance change in Resistance change in
Principle Thermoelectric emf
metal semiconductor
Accuracy Very high High Moderate
Sensitivity Moderate Very high Low
Linearity Excellent Poor Moderate
Temperature
Wide Limited Very wide
Range
Response Time Moderate Fast Very fast
Cost High Low Moderate

[Link] the MEMS and Nano sensor deigned for

micro electronic systems.
MEMS and nano sensors are advanced sensing devices widely used in
microelectronic systems for measurement, monitoring, automation, and smart
applications. MEMS sensors are miniature devices that integrate: Mechanical
elements, Sensors, Actuators , Electronics
on a single silicon chip using microfabrication technology. MEMS sensors operate
by converting physical quantities such as pressure, Acceleration, Motion,
Temperature
into electrical signals.
Types of MEMS Sensors
MEMS Accelerometer : Measures acceleration and vibration. Applications:
Smartphones, UAVs , Automotive airbags
MEMS Gyroscope
Measures angular velocity : Applications: Drones, Robotics, Navigation systems
MEMS Pressure Sensor
Measures pressure changes using diaphragm deformation. Applications:
Biomedical devices
Industrial automation.

Advantages of MEMS Sensors

 Compact size
 Low manufacturing cost
 High accuracy
 Mass production capability
 Low power operation
Limitations of MEMS Sensors
 Sensitive to fabrication defects
 Limited signal strength
 Packaging challenges
Nano Sensors
Definition
Nano sensors are sensing devices developed using nanotechnology with
dimensions in nanometers (10−9 m). These sensors detect very small physical,
chemical, or biological changes.
Working Principle : The sensing mechanism is based on changes in Electrical
conductivity
Optical properties, Magnetic properties of the sensor.
Types of Nano Sensors
Chemical Nano Sensors
Detect gases and chemicals. Applications: Pollution monitoring,Industrial safety
Biosensors
Detect biological molecules . Applications: Medical diagnosis, Healthcare
monitoring
Nano Pressure and Strain Sensors
Used for precision measurement in microelectronics.
Comparative Analysis
Paramete
MEMS Sensors Nano Sensors
r
Size Micrometer scale Nanometer scale
Sensitivity High Extremely high
Fabrication Microfabrication Nanotechnology
Cost Moderate High
Application Automotive, Biomedical,
s electronics environmental
Integration Easy with ICs Advanced integration
Paramete
MEMS Sensors Nano Sensors
r
needed

[Link] a case study for MEMS in magnetic

Sensor .
MEMS magnetic sensors are miniature devices used to detect magnetic
fields and convert them into electrical signals. These sensors are widely
used in: Automotive systems ,Smartphones ,Industrial automation,
Navigation systems ,Biomedical devices
A common MEMS magnetic sensor is the MEMS Hall-effect magnetic
sensor.
Case study:
To measure wheel speed and rotational position in automobiles using a
MEMS magnetic sensor.
Components required: Permanent magnet, Rotating toothed wheel, MEMS
Hall-effect magnetic sensor, Signal conditioning circuit ,Electronic Control
Unit (ECU)
Working Principle
The sensor works based on the Hall Effect. When a magnetic field passes
through the MEMS Hall sensor: Charge carriers experience Lorentz force,
Hall voltage is generated
and Output changes according to magnetic flux density. Hall voltage is
given by:
BI
V H=
net

A toothed ferromagnetic wheel rotates along with the vehicle wheel. As

each tooth passes near the MEMS magnetic sensor: Magnetic flux changes
periodically.
The MEMS Hall sensor generates voltage pulses. The ECU counts pulses to
determine:
 Wheel speed
 Rotational position
 Direction of rotation
Advantages in Automotive Systems
1. Compact Size
Suitable for embedded vehicle electronics.
2. Fast Response
Enables real-time wheel monitoring.
3. High Reliability
Operates under vibration and harsh environments.
4. Low Power Consumption
Useful for battery-operated systems.
5. Contactless Operation
No mechanical wear and tear.
Applications
 ABS (Anti-lock Braking System)
 Electronic Stability Control
 Speed sensing
 Position sensing
 Electric vehicle motor control
8. Design a microactuator with inverse piezo effect&
magnetic sensor for industrial automation system.
A microactuator is a miniature actuator used to produce precise motion or
displacement in microelectronic and automation systems.
The Piezoelectricity inverse piezoelectric effect states that:
When an electric field is applied to a piezoelectric material, mechanical deformation is
produced. Thus electrical energy is converted into mechanical displacement.
Mathematically :
The displacement produced is:
S=dE
Where:
 S= strain produced
 d = piezoelectric coefficient
 E = applied electric field
For design of microactuator the following components are used : Piezoelectric actuator
element , permanent magnet, Magnetic position sensor (,Hall sensor), Control
circuit/microcontroller , Power supply , Mechanical load.
For example :

The principle idea of vibration energy harvesting is to convert vibrations to

electrical power . The above figure depicts the ME-PE harvesting block
diagram .Vibration energy harvesting is two steps conversion process
where ambient vibrations are firstly converted in a relative motion
between two elements . This step is known as mechanical-to-mechanical
conversion in a spring suspended mass system. The second step is
mechanical to-electrical conversion using the ME-PE transducer. In
resonance condition, the relative motion between the mass and the
vibrated housing is amplified; thereby, harvested energy is increased.
Harvested voltage from the ME-PE transducer is alternating because the
suspended mass deflects in two perpendicular directions. As such, a
special interface circuit is required to convert and condition the alternating
voltage to a form usable by load circuits, this circuit is known as the AC-DC
converter. The AC-DC converter should extract maximum available power
from the energy transducer . In addition, it should reduce the loss in
efficiency due to interface circuit and capacitances and resistances.
Storage element stores extra power from magnetic energy transducer to
be used later by multiple loads. Finally, power management unit drives
each load with suitable voltage level while maintaining low power and
minimum leakage operation.
Industrial Automation Applications
  CNC machine positioning
 Robotic arms
 Precision valve control
 Semiconductor manufacturing
 Micro assembly systems
 Optical alignment systems
Limitation Description
Small displacement Piezo actuators have limited range
Hysteresis Nonlinear piezo behavior
Temperature sensitivity Affects actuator and sensor characteristics

[Link] optics and its application

Describe about fiber optics and find the application below :
Used for:
 Temperature monitoring
 Pressure sensing
 Displacement measurement
 Process control
Applications:
 Chemical plants
 Power stations
 Manufacturing industries
Used in medical instruments because optical fibers are flexible and
electrically safe.
Applications:
 Endoscopy
 Blood flow monitoring
 Body temperature sensing
 Minimally invasive surgery
Used for:
 Optical signal transmission
 Network monitoring
Applications:

 Internet backbone
 Optical communication networks

10. Potentiometer sensor and its application as

motion sensor

Explain abt potentiometer sensor and below is the applications

Industrial Applications
 Machine tool positioning
 CNC machine feedback systems
Automotive Applications
 Throttle position sensing
Consumer Electronics
 Audio volume control
 Television brightness control
 Gaming joysticks
Robotics and Automation
 Robot arm position measurement
 Servo control systems
 Motion control applications
Aerospace and Defense
 Flight control position sensing
 Radar antenna positioning
Medical Equipment
 Adjustable hospital beds
 Prosthetic limb position sensing.