Quantitative Methods

✦ Complete Study Notes ✦

■ Chapter 1: Sigma (∑) & Pi (∏) — Sum & Product Notation

■ Chapter 2: Matrix Algebra — Types & Operations

■ Chapter 3: Determinants, Trace & Transformations

■ Study hard, dream big! ■

Made with ■ for easy learning
 Chapter 1 — Sum (∑) & Product (∏) Symbols

What is ∑ (Sigma)?

Instead of writing:
price1 + price2 + price3 + ... + price100
We write: ∑(i=1 to 100) price_i — much shorter! ■

Anatomy of ∑ — Reading the Symbol

∑
n n = STOP (upper limit / ■■■■■■ ■■■■)
a i i=1 = START (lower limit / ■■■■■ ■■■■)
a_i = WHAT we add (expression / ■■■■■)
i=1

Step-by-Step Examples

∑(i=1 to 5) i → 1+2+3+4+5 = 15

∑(i=1 to 3) 3i → 3x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 = 3+6+9 = 18

∑(i=-2 to 2) i^3 → (-8)+(-1)+0+1+8 =0

∑(i=4 to 8) 3 → 3+3+3+3+3 (5 times!) = 15

∑(i=1 to 12) 5 → 12 × 5 = 60

Important Rules for ∑

■ Rule 1 — Constant outside: ∑ c·a_i = c · ∑ a_i

■ Rule 2 — Split sums: ∑ (a_i+b_i) = ∑ a_i + ∑ b_i

■ Rule 3 — Sum of constant: ∑(i=1 to n) c = n · c

What is ∏ (Pi / Pi)? — MULTIPLY instead of adding!

∏(i=1 to 5) i = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120 = 5! (factorial / ■■■■■■■■■)

∏(i=2 to 4) 3i = (3x2) × (3x3) × (3x4) = 6 × 9 × 12 = 648
 Double Sum (■■■■■■■■ ■■■■) ∑∑

What is it? (■■ ■■?)

Imagine a TABLE. Double sum adds EVERY cell in the table!

Outer ∑ = rows (■■■■■) | Inner ∑ = columns (■■■■■■■)
∑(i=1 to m) ∑(j=1 to n) a_ij

Example — Step by Step

Calculate: ∑(i=1 to 3) ∑(j=2 to 3) (2i + j)

i\j j=2 j=3 STEP 1: Fill the table

STEP 2: Add all cells
i=1 2(1)+2=4 2(1)+3=5 4+5+6+7+8+9 = 39 ✓

i=2 2(2)+2=6 2(2)+3=7 Method: fix i, let j vary

Inner: (2i+2)+(2i+3)=4i+5
i=3 2(3)+2=8 2(3)+3=9 Outer: 9+13+17 = 39 ✓

■ Answer = 39 ■

This sum can be solved 5 different ways — all give 39!

Method 1: Inner sum first | Method 2: Outer sum first | Method 3: List all cells
Method 4: List by columns | Method 5: Split into ∑∑2i + ∑∑j

Special Rules for ∑∑

■ Separable terms: ∑∑ a_i · b_j = ∑ a_i · ∑ b_j

■ Constant rule: ∑∑ c = m · n · c

■ Non-1 limits: ∑(i=m to k) ∑(j=n to l) c = (k-m+1)·(l-n+1)·c

■ Split sums: ∑∑(a+b) = ∑∑a + ∑∑b

Quick Practice Examples

∑(i=1 to 5) ∑(j=1 to 10) 7 = 5 · 10 · 7 = 350

∑(i=3 to 5) ∑(j=4 to 8) 2 = 3 · 5 · 2 = 30 ← use (5-3+1)·(8-4+1)
 Chapter 2 — Matrix Algebra (■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■)

What is a Matrix? (■■ ■■■■ ■■■■■■■?)

A matrix is a RECTANGULAR TABLE of numbers! (■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■)

Like a spreadsheet or price list — rows (■■■■■) × columns (■■■■■■■)
Element a_ij = row i, column j | Always: ROW first, COLUMN second!

Matrix Notation & Reading Elements

a11 a12 a13 Size: 3×3 (square!)

[ ] m = rows (■■■■■) = 3
a21 a22 a23 n = columns (■■■■■■■) = 3
a_ij: i=row, j=column
a31 a32 a33 a12 = row1, col2
a23 = row2, col3

All Types of Matrices — Visual Guide

■ Square ■ Zero O ■ Identity I ■ Diagonal

[1 2] [0 0] [1 0] [3 0]
[3 4] [0 0] [0 1] [0 5]
Same rows & columns Every element is 0 Diagonal=1, rest=0 Non-zero only diagonal
(■■■■■■■■■) m = n (■■■■■■■) all=0 (■■■■■■■■) diag=1 (■■■■■■■■■■■) off=0

■ Upper Tri ■ Lower Tri ■ Symmetric ■ Column Vec

[2 3] [2 0] [1 2] [a]
[0 4] [3 4] [2 5] [b]
Zeros BELOW diagonal Zeros ABOVE diagonal Mirror across diagonal [c]1 column
Only
(■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■)
below=0 (■■■■■■■■■■■■■■)
above=0 (■■■■■■■■■■) A=A^T (■■■■■■-■■■■■■■■)
n=1
 Matrix Operations (■■■■■■■■ ■ ■■■■■■■■■)

1. Transpose A^T (■■■■■■■■■■■■■■) — Swap rows & columns!

[1 2] A^T = [1 3]
A=
[3 4] [2 4] A (3x2) → A^T (2x3) | Note: size flips! (A^T)^T = A
Row 1 becomes Column 1, Row 2 becomes Column 2!

2. Addition & Subtraction — SAME SIZE only!

[2 -3] + [7 2] = [2+7 -3+2] = [9 -1]

[−5 0] [−2 3] [−5+(−2) 0+3] [−7 3]
■■ RULE: Matrices must be EXACTLY THE SAME SIZE! (■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■)
✓ A + B = B + A (commutative) ✓ (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (associative) ✓ A + O = A (zero matrix changes nothing!)

3. Scalar Multiplication — Multiply EVERY element!

3 · [2 0 ] = [3·2 3·0 ] = [6 0 ]
[−1 3 ] [3·(−1) 3·3] [−3 9 ]
Multiply EVERY element by the scalar (number)!

4. Matrix Multiplication — THE MOST IMPORTANT!

RULE: A (m × k) · B (k × n) = C (m × n)
■■ Inside numbers MUST match! (■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■)
■■ AB ≠ BA in general! Order MATTERS! (■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■!)
Example:
A=[1 2] B=[2 -1 3] → A(2×2) · B(2×3) = C(2×3)
[3 -2] [3 0 2]
c11 = 1·2 + 2·3 = 8 | c12 = 1·(-1) + 2·0 = -1 | c13 = 1·3 + 2·2 = 7
c21 = 3·2+(-2)·3 = 0 | c22 = 3·(-1)+(-2)·0 = -3 | c23 = 3·3+(-2)·2 = 5
Result C = [8 -1 7] ← this is our answer! ✓
[0 -3 5]

5. Powers of Matrices (■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■) — Square only!

A^2 = A·A A^3 = A^2·A = A·A·A A^0 = I (identity!) A^1 = A

A^0 = I ← just like how any number to the power 0 equals 1! (■■ a^0=1)
Chapter 3 — Transformations, Trace & Determinant

Elementary Transformations (■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■) — 3 Types!

T1 Multiply row/column by α ≠ 0
Pick ONE row or column → multiply EVERY element by α
T1^c(1,5): multiply column 1 by 5 [2 3] → [10 3] (col1 × 5)
[-1 4] [-5 4]
T2 Swap two rows or two columns
Exchange positions of two rows (or columns)
T2^r(1,2): swap row 1 and row 2 [0 5 9] → [-2 -3 -4]
[-2 -3 -4] [0 5 9]
T3 Add multiple of one row to another
new row i = old row i + α × row j (row j stays same!)
T3^r(2,1,2): new row2 = old row2 + 2×row1 [3 2 -1 0] → [3 2 -1 0]
[-1 2 5 7] [5 6 3 7]

T3 is your BEST FRIEND! It creates zeros without changing the determinant!

Trace (■■■■ ■■■■■■■) — Sum of Diagonal Elements!

tr(A) = a11 + a22 + a33 + ... + ann ← ONLY diagonal elements!

(■■■■ ■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■)

A = [1 2 3] [4 5 6] → tr(A) = 1+5+9 = 15
[7 8 9]
B = [1 4 8 5] [-2 5 9 -5] → tr(B) = 1+5+(-16)+10 = 0
Properties: tr(A+B)=tr(A)+tr(B) | tr(AB)=tr(BA) | tr(αA)=α·tr(A) | tr(In)=n
[3 -7 -16 8]
 Determinant (■■■■■■■■■) — Special Number from a Matrix!

The determinant is a special NUMBER we calculate from a SQUARE matrix.

Written as: det(A) or |A| It tells us important info about the matrix!

1×1 Matrix 2×2 Matrix 3×3 Sarrus Rule

|a b| 3 diagonals → ADD (+)
det[a] = a
det[5]=5 det[-3]=-3 |c d| = ad - bc 3 diagonals → SUBTRACT (-)

2×2 Examples — Practice!

|3 4| |1 2| |a 3|
= 3·6 - 4·5 = 18-20-2
= = 1·4 - 2·3 = 4-6 -2
= a^2 - 36 = 0 → a=±6
(singular!)
|5 6| |3 4| |12 a|

3×3 Sarrus Rule — Step by Step!

det [1 0 1]
[2 3 1] = ?
[-1 2 0]
POSITIVE diagonals (■ ADD): NEGATIVE diagonals (■ SUBTRACT):
1·3·0 = 0 (-1)·3·1 = -3
0·1·(-1) = 0 2·1·1 = 2
1·2·2 = 4 ← sum = 4 0·2·0 = 0 ← sum = -1
det = 4 - (-1) = 5 ✓ (positive sum minus negative sum!)

4×4+ Laplace Expansion — Choose row/col with MOST zeros!

Sign Pattern: Example - expand by row 4:

+ - + - |0 1 -1 2|
|3 0 1 1| ← row 4 = [0 0 2 0]
- + - + |1 0 1 2| only a43=2 is non-zero!
+ - + - |0 0 2 0|
- +
(-1)^(i+j) - + = 2·(-1)^(4+3)·det(3×3) = 2·(-1)·(-5) = 10 ✓
 Properties of Determinants (■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■■)

1 Two PROPORTIONAL rows/cols det = 0 If row2 = 2·row1 → det = 0!

2 DIAGONAL matrix det = product of diagonal det diag(3,5,7) = 3·5·7 = 105

3 TRIANGULAR matrix det = product of diagonal Same rule as diagonal!

4 IDENTITY matrix In det = 1 det(I) = 1 always!

5 ZERO row or column det = 0 Any zero row/col → det = 0!

6 Transpose: det(A) = det(A^T) det unchanged! Rows and columns are EQUAL!

7 Two EQUAL rows/cols det = 0 Exactly the same rows → det = 0!

8 T1 applied (×α) new det = α · old det Multiply row by 2 → det doubles!

9 T2 applied (swap rows) new det = -old det Swapping rows changes the SIGN!

10 T3 applied (add×row) det STAYS THE SAME! Most useful property! → use freely!

Cauchy Theorem (■■■■■■■ ■■■■) — Very Important!

det(A·B) = det(A) · det(B) AND det(BA) = det(AB)

Example: if det(A)=36 and det(B)=-2 → det(AB) = 36·(-2) = -72
BONUS: det(k·A_n) = k^n · det(A) where n = SIZE of matrix!

Singular vs Nonsingular (■■■■■■■■■ vs ■■■■■■■■■■■)

SINGULAR (■■■■■■■■■): NONSINGULAR (■■■■■■■■■■■):

det(A) = 0 det(A) ≠ 0
No inverse exists! Has an inverse! (healthy matrix)
 ■ Master Cheat Sheet ■
Everything you need in one place! (■■■ ■■ ■■■■■■■■ ■■ ■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■!)

∑&∏ MATRIX BASICS MATRIX MULTIPLY

∑(i=1,n) a_i = a1+a2+...+an A(m×n): m rows, n cols, element a_ij A(m×k) · B(k×n) = C(m×n)

∏(i=1,n) a_i = a1·a2·...·an A^T: swap rows & columns Inside must MATCH! (k must be same)

∑ c·a_i = c·∑ a_i (constant outside) (A^T)^T = A | symmetric: A = A^T AB ≠ BA (order matters!)

∑(i=1,n) c = n·c (sum of constant) A+B: add matching elements (same size!) A·I = I·A = A (identity)

∑∑ c = m·n·c (double sum constant) k·A: multiply every element by k A^0 = I A^1 = A A^n = A·A·...·A

TRACE DETERMINANTS TRANSFORMATIONS

tr(A) = a11+a22+...+ann |a b| T1: row/col × α → det × α

tr(A+B) = tr(A)+tr(B) |c d| = ad - bc T2: swap rows → det × (-1)

tr(AB) = tr(BA) 3×3: Sarrus rule (+diag - diag) T3: add α×row → det UNCHANGED!

tr(αA) = α·tr(A) 4×4+: Laplace (pick row with zeros!) Singular: det = 0 (■■■■■■■■■)

tr(In) = n det(AB) = det(A)·det(B) (Cauchy) Nonsingular: det ≠ 0 (■■■■■■■■■■■)

You've got this! ■

■■■■■■■ ■■ ■■■■ ■■■■■■■, ■■ ■■■■■■■■! (Matrices aren't as scary as they seem!)
Practice makes perfect ■ ■■■■■■■■ — ■■ ■■■■■■■, ■ ■■ ■■■■ ■