Topic 5: On the Wild Side

5.1: What is an ecosystem:

- Biosphere = the part of the earth and its atmosphere
inhabited by living organisms
- Ecosystem = all the organisms living in a particular area as
well as the non-living features of their environment
- Habitat = a place with a distinct set of conditions where an
organism lives
- Community = all the populations of different species that live
in an area

- Population = all the individuals of one species living in an area

- Abiotic factors are ‘non-living’ factors: Rainfall, soil pH, oxygen

availability
- Biotic factors are ‘living’ factors: Competition, predation,
parasitism, disease, grazing, mutualism

Ecological investigations:
- Based on observations
- Look at patterns in distribution of organisms
- Look at biotic and abiotic factors that affect distribution
- Identify organisms’ adaptations

2 main categories of investigations:

1. Comparing distribution of a species in 2 areas (e.g. lichen
distribution on north and south facing walls). This would use
random sampling
2. Looking at change in distribution of a species along an
environmental gradient (e.g. rocky shore). This uses systematic
sampling

Estimates are only reliable and valid if the samples are taken
using a method that:
- Is unbiased
- Uses the same method
- Collects enough data to be representative

2 main sampling techniques:

1. Random sampling – used to investigate distribution in 2
areas:
- non-motile organisms
- Use: 2 tape measures, random number generator, quadrat
(point or frame)
-
Also need to sample abiotic factors in each area
- Statistical analysis (Mann Whitney U Test)
2. Systematic sampling – used to investigate distribution along
environmental gradients
- Use: A transect line/tape measure, quadrat (point or frame)
- Also need to sample abiotic factors along the transect
- Statistical analysis (Spearman’s Rank Statistical Test)

Systematic sampling different types of transects:

1. Belt transects – quadrats placed next to each other along
transect

2. Line transects – records species touching the transect line

3. Interrupted transects – quadrats placed at intervals along
transect
 Succession:
- A directional change in a community over time
- Starts when pioneer species (algae and lichens) colonise bare
rock
- Conditions are extreme (lack of soil, water, and nutrients)
- Pioneer species start to break down rock
- When they die they add organic matter to broken up rock (this
is basic soil)
- As organic content increases, moisture holding capacity of soil
increases (soil improves and gets deeper)
- New species can colonise and outcompete pioneer species
- If there is an exam question on succession, talk about time
passing

Climax community:
- A community that remains stable and shows little change over
time
- Succession ends when conditions no longer change,
equilibrium is reached
- One / a few species becomes dominant
- Climax communities depend on environmental conditions
(climate and geology)
- In lowland Britain, the climax community is deciduous forest

Deflected succession:
- When a community remains stable only because of human
activity
- In Britain, grazing sheep
prevents woodland
developing.
- Grazing results in deflected
succession

Primary succession:
- The colonisation of
previously uninhabited land by a pioneer species
- Occurs on newly formed habitats (no previous existing
communities)

Secondary succession:
- The re-colonisation of a habitat after a disturbance
- Occurs on bare soil where previous existing communities have
been cleared (e.g. flood, fire, ploughed field)

5.2: Ecosystems rely on Energy Transfer

Food webs and energy transfer:

Why are food chains no longer than 3-4 organisms?
- Between each trophic level energy is ‘lost’ and not passed on.
This limits the number of organisms in a food chain. No
biological system is
100% efficient in
converting energy from
one form to another

- Plants trap sunlight

and convert the light
energy into chemical
energy (glucose), but some of this chemical energy is used for
respiration

Absorption spectra of chlorophyll:

What ways in which energy from light is lost by plants?

- Energy used to evaporate water from leaves

- Reflected from the waxy cuticle
- Transmitted through the leaf
- Wrong wavelength

- Gross primary productivity = the total amount of energy fixed

as chemical energy during photosynthesis carried out by
producers
- Net primary productivity = The amount of chemical energy
that is available for transfer once the amount of energy loss
from respiration is deducted from the total amount of energy
(NPP = GPP – R)
- Trophic level = The position that an organism holds in a food
chain, food web, pyramid of numbers, or pyramid of biomass

Photosynthesis:
- The process of harnessing the energy from sunlight to split
apart the bonds in water molecules and store the hydrogen in
organic molecules by combining it with carbon dioxide

- Chloroplast envelope = The double membrane encloses the

chloroplast, keeping all the components needed for
photosynthesis close to each other. The transport proteins
present in the inner membrane control the flow of molecules
between the stroma and cytoplasm

- Stroma = The gel-like fluid contains enzymes that catalyse the

reactions of photosynthesis

- DNA = The chloroplast DNA contains genes that code for

some of the proteins used in photosynthesis

- Ribosomes = Ribosomes enable the translation of proteins

coded by the chloroplast DNA

- Thylakoid membrane = There is a space between the 2

membranes of this double membrane known as the thylakoid
space, in which conditions can differ from the stroma (a proton
gradient can be established between the thylakoid space and
the stroma). The space has a very small volume so a proton
gradient can develop very quickly

- Grana = The grana create a large surface area, maximising

the number of photosystems and allowing maximum light
absorption. Grana also provide more membrane area for
proteins such as electron carriers and ATP synthase enzymes,
which together enable the production of ATP

- Photosystems =

Adenosine Triphosphate:
- ATP is an energy transfer molecule
- In cells, ATP gets hydrolysed and energy is released. This can
then be used in metabolic reactions
- ADP + Pi  ATP

Light-dependent reactions:
- The LDRs take place in the thylakoid membranes of the
chloroplast
- The chlorophyll and electron carrier molecules are embedded
in the membranes
- The LDRs split water using light energy
- The LDRs produce reduced NADP, ATP, and O2

1. Sunlight hits chlorophyll, 2 electrons excited and are

released from PSI and PSII
2. As electrons from PSII are passed along the electron
transport chain, the energy released is used to make ATP
(photophosphorylation)
3. The electrons from PSII must be replaced by splitting of
water releasing oxygen gas H ions
4. The electrons from PSI that have passed along the
electron transport chain combined with NADP and H ions
from water form NADPH
Light-independent reactions:
- The LIRs take place in the stroma of the chloroplast and make
up the Calvin Cycle
- The LIRs used the reduced NADP and ATP from the LDR and
CO2
-The LIRs produce glucose as the main product of
photosynthesis
- It also produces ADP + Pi and (oxidised) NADP which can be
used again in the LDRs
Limiting factors:
- Temperature
- Light intensity (+ light wavelength)

- Carbon dioxide concentration

5.3: Is the climate changing?
Evidence for Global Climate Change:
- Anecdotal (observations)
- Temperature records
- Pollen analysis
- Tree rings
- Ice cores
- Borehole measurements
- Coral bleaching
- Records of lake levels
- Records of glacier advances and retreats

Temperature records:
- Long data sets are available
- E.g. Central England from 1659
- E.g. Toronto, Canada from 1780

Palynology = the study of plant pollen

- Peat bogs: Partially decayed organic matter, mainly plants. Anaerobic
and acidic conditions delay decay

-
Pollen grains particularly well preserved

What is so great about pollen:

- Lots
- Tough outer layer (will not decay)
- Distinct types
- Peat forms in layers (can date)
- Infer climate from types of plants in existence

Ice core samples:

- Temperature records back till 1659

- Tree ring studies back up to 3000 years ago
- Pollen studies back up to 20,000 years ago
- Previous data from ice core samples:

 Analysis of oxygen isotopes in bubbles of air in ice allow estimation

of air temperature
 Analysis of air bubbles can provide carbon dioxide concentrations
Dendrochronology:
- The
study of
tree
rings
- It is
believed that warmer temperatures will give larger gaps between the tree
rings and this is an indication of temperature
- Criticisms: There are other influences apart from temperature that may
affect tree ring growth (e.g. water availability)
5.4: Why is the climate changing:
- Why does the earth need to be warm?
- Photosynthesis and metabolic reactions to sustain life
- Troposphere = the lowest layer of the atmosphere

Methane:
- Produced by rotting manure, incomplete combustion, rubbish, cow farts
- Although methane absorbs more infrared than carbon dioxide, it doesn’t
stay in the atmosphere for very long
- Reduce methane production by using biofuels, reduction in land fill, and
be vegetarian
Does increased carbon dioxide cause global warming:

- There is a strong correlation between temp and carbon dioxide. There is

a relationship, but we still can’t say it is the cause although there is strong
scientific evidence

- An argument is controversial when are there many alternative points of

view
- There is incomplete knowledge – many of the figures are estimates
- People are influenced by politics and economics

Ethics:
- We all have the right to choose whether we use fossil fuels
- We have a duty to allow others to improve their standard of living
- We have a duty to preserve the environment for the next generation
5.5: Predicting future climates
- Global warming can be considered multifactorial because many factors
are involved
- Climate modelling can be used to predict future climate change often
using computers
- It uses current data and extrapolates (extends the line) to predict
possible future outcomes
- Extrapolation = predicting something based on existing data

- It means that different scenarios can be investigated as the future is

never a certainty
- Changes in atmospheric [Link] from 1920 to 2000

Other factors to affect climate change:

- Other greenhouse gases
- Aerosols
- The degree of reflection from those parts of the earth free from ice and
snow
- The extent of cloud cover
- Changes in the sun’s radiation
Climate modelling limitations:
Relies on:
- Having enough data to establish a trend
- Including all variables (unknown factors may exist)
- Limited knowledge of complex climate systems
- Assumption that presents trends will continue into the future
- Limited computer resources
But:
- Cannot be sure of future greenhouse gas emissions (multinational issue)
- Cannot predict how rainforests/oceans are going to react

5.6: Coping with Climate Change

- What effect does increased temperature have on an enzyme controlled
reaction?
- As the temperature increases both the enzyme and substrate gain
kinetic energy

Temperature coefficient:

Most enzyme-controlled reactions have a Q10 of between 2 and 3.

The effects of global warming:
- Rising temperatures
- Changing rainfall patterns
- Changes in seasonal cycles
These affect plants’ and animals’:
- Distribution
- Development
- Life cycles
- Enzyme activity

Change in distribution:
- Organism are adapted to their habitats
- If their habitats change they need to relocate or adapt
- Problems arise if the organism is on the edge of its habitat or cannot
migrate/disperse easily
- Community dynamics may change as some organisms may become
better adapted and more able to compete in new conditions
- Food supplies may alter within communities
Negative outcomes:
1. Polar bears and shrinking sea ice – nowhere to go
2. Scottish primrose adapted to colder climates only found in very north of
Scotland and Orkney Isles
3. Pests may increase their range

Positive outcomes:
1. Roesel’s bush cricket – adapted to warmer climates so can increase
range north in Britain
2. Tropical crops could be grown further away from the tropics

Change in development and life cycles:

- Warmer temperatures can lead to organism starting life cycles earlier –
change in environmental triggers
- Life cycles may be shorter due to faster rates of development – enzymes
- Invertebrate population sizes may increase due to the ability to complete
more life cycles within a growth season
- Sex ratios can be disrupted if temperature affects sex determination –
can lead to decrease in population size
- Warmer climate crops may have increase yields but in tropical areas crop
yield may decrease

Phenology = The study of recurring plant and animal life cycle events and
how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual climate variations
Photoperiodism = The physiological reaction of organisms to the changing
length of day and night acting as a biological calendar

High spring temperature advance flowering by an average of 4 days per

degree Celsius. High temperatures in the previous autumn can sometimes
delay flowering. In humid tropics, periodic water shortages can stimulate
flowering through drought stress.

Climate change drives a shift in the timing of food availability

(temperature-driven) that outpaces the development of consumers
(photoperiod-driven), creating ecological imbalances where the consumer
misses the food peak.

5.7: Adapt or Die

Darwin’s ideas:
- Darwin supported his ideas with scientific evidence from careful
observation of similarities and differences between organisms as well as
their geographical distribution
- Fossil records also provided evidence

How does the scientific community validate evidence about

evolution:
- Before publishing new ideas in scientific journals (e.g. nature),
scientists peer review the work (author often unknown to reduce bias)
- They would evaluate the methods used, the statistical testing, as well
as the conclusions. Once it had passed through this the work would be
published and possibly presented at a scientific conference.
- The reviewers may also carry out the experiment to see if they could
reproduce the findings

Molecular evidence for evolution

- Genomics = the study of DNA
- Proteomics = the study of proteins
- Gene = section of DNA that codes for a specific protein
DNA Hybridisation:
- Technique used to work out the similarity between species
- DNA heated = Hydrogen bonds break
- Mix DNA strands from different species and bases pair up
- When the hybrid is heated the more similar they are the higher the
temperature for denaturing the hybrid DNA
- 1oC temperature difference = 1% difference in DNA

DNA Profiling:
- DNA is cut using restriction enzymes and the fragments visualised as
bands or on a DNA profile
- If mutations have occurred the fragments will be of different size
- Therefore information about genetic variation between individuals can be
established

DNA and Protein Sequencing:

- Comparing DNA or amino acid sequences of proteins it is possible to
determine how closely related the organisms are

DNA Molecular Clocks:

- PCR = allows determination of DNA sequence
- Species are believed to accumulate random mutations at a regular rate
- Compare the differences between species it is possible to calculate how
long ago they shared a common ancestor
Speciation

Key words:
- Advantageous alleles
- Selection pressure
- Offspring
- (Evolution) over several generations

- Evolution is the change in allele frequency over time

- Populations have naturally occurring genetic variation
- New alleles are created through mutations in DNA
- Organisms produce more offspring than can survive and reproduce
- Intra-specific competition exists (due to selection pressures)
- Individuals with advantageous phenotypes survive and reproduce
(‘survival of the fittest’)
- Advantageous alleles are more likely to be inherited
- Advantageous alleles become more common in the population
- Those organisms that are not so well adapted die before maturity and so
do not produce many offspring
- Over time, the allele frequency will change to the more advantageous
form

- Speciation is the development of a new species from a pre-existing

species, caused by reproductive isolation
- It is mainly caused by:

 Geographical isolation (Allopatric speciation): e.g. island vs

mainland, mountain or river barrier

-
Each population has different selection pressures
- A selection pressure is any factor that influences survival and/or
reproduction
- Different phenotypes benefit each population
- Populations evolve differently over time through natural selection and
random mutations
- If populations meet again, interbreeding may not be possible due to
genetic incompatibility; there is now reproductive isolation
- When hybrid offspring are infertile speciation has occurred

- Reproductive isolation may also occur due to Sympatric Isolation: This is

when there is no physical barrier

 Temporal isolation = members of the same species begin to

reproduce at different times (e.g. flowering seasons)
  Behavioural isolation = members of the same species begin to
develop behaviour which is more or less attractive (e.g. courtship
rituals)
 Physical incompatibility = changes in genitalia prevent
successful mating
 Hybrid unviability = In some species hybrids are produced, but
don’t survive long enough to breed
 Hybrid sterility = Hybrids survive to reproductive age, but cannot
reproduce

- These are all caused by the occurrence of random mutations

5.8: Getting the balance right

Ways to reduce global warming:

- Why should there be a balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere = to
sustain plant life, which therefore sustains human life. Too little carbon
dioxide means plants will die, and too much carbon dioxide means
humans will die.
- Why is the balance not correct = excessive burning of fossil fuels
releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
- What can be done to readdress the unbalance = use renewable
resources, reduce fossil fuel use

What can be done to readdress the imbalance:

- Reduce fossil fuel combustion (release of carbon dioxide) using
alternative renewable energy resources e.g. biofuels such as:

 Wood
 Straw
 Dried chicken litter
 Vegetable oil
 Methane

What are biofuels:

- Fuels recently produce from biomass (living matter)
- When burnt there is no net release of carbon dioxide
- Carbon dioxide produced = carbon dioxide absorbed (growth)
- Stops an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide

Disadvantages of biofuels:
- Land clearance
- Monoculture
- Still using heavy machinery

De/reforestation:
- Mature forests are stable ecosystems
- So plant new trees in previously forested areas
- Increase carbon dioxide absorption for photosynthesis
- Locks carbon dioxide in plant biomass
- Reduces atmospheric carbon dioxide
- But there is a limit to how much and for how long this can happen
- Would the increase in temperature mean that the forests can’t grow?