Topic 4: Biodiversity & Natural Resources

4.1: Why are there so many different

species?
- Species = A group of organisms with similar morphology,
physiology, and behaviour which can interbreed to produce
fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other
species
- Some species can
produce hybrids 
infertile so cannot
reproduce at all

How do we tell if an organism is the same or separate species?

- DNA analysis  HOWEVER, the DNA can’t tell us if the 2
organisms can breed together to produce fertile offspring so
the decision about whether a population is a separate species
can just be a matter of judgement. E.g. They may look different
but be the same species or look the same and be a different
species

Key definitions:
 - Habitat = The place where an organism lives that has a
set of conditions that supports a distinctive combination of
organisms
- Population = A group of interbreeding individuals of the
same species found in an area
- Community = All the populations that live within a

particular habitat

Different niches avoid competition:

- Each species occupies a different niche
- Niche = The role of the organism in the environment  This
means that if 2 species use the environment in the same way
(e.g. eat the same food) they will compete directly with each
other and those better adapted will outcompete the other
Ecological niche:
- How an organism fits into and responds to the specific abiotic
and biotic factors in its environment.
- How the species behaves, when the species is active and the
habitat

Adaptations:
- Features that enable organisms to survive in their
environment
- Behavioural adaptation = features that are actions carried
out to help them survive or reproduce
- Physiological adaptation = features of the internal
workings of an organism that help them to survive or
reproduce. Often chemical and reversible reactions
- Anatomical adaptation = Structures that we can see when
we dissect or observe an organism

- The parasite Trichinella Spiralis (pork worm) is a nematode

worm that infects pigs, bears, rodents and humans, causing the
disease trichinosis
- The parasite grows in a “nurse cell” inside the host. There is
limited oxygen available for the worm at this time
- The nurse cells can survive within the host for up to 30 years
- Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that infects, among others,
rats, cats and humans, causing the disease toxoplasmosis
- It can be spread by eating uncooked meat, or contaminated
soil. It can also be passed on by blood transfusions and it can
even cross the placenta to affect an unborn child
- When it has invaded an organism such as a rat, it has been
found to affect the behaviour of the rat. Rats lose their fear of
cats, and in fact are even attracted to the smell of cats. In
humans, it has been linked to an increase in schizophrenia and
traffic accidents.

4.2: How did organisms become so well

adapted?
Adaptation, Evolution, and Natural Selection:
- Lamark (1744-1829): Environment gives rise to change in
animals
- Malthus (1766-1834): Population studies – population
growth exceeds available resources
- Darwin (1809-1882): Evolution through natural selection
- Wallace (1823-1913): Theory of evolution at same times
as Darwin
- Lyell (1845-1920): Geologist – World was millions of years
old rather than thousands
Key terms:
 - Natural selection = the mechanism by which organisms
change over time as they adapt to their environment
- Evolution = a change in allele frequency in a population
over time
- Selection pressure = any cause which reduces
reproductive success (e.g. drought, disease, change in
environment)
- Gene pool = all the alleles present in a population

Evolution by natural selection:

1. A population contains genetic variation caused by mutations
2. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive and
reproduce
3. A change in environment causes a selection pressure
4. Intra-specific competition occurs (competition within a
species)
5. An allele with no previous advantage now becomes
favourable
6. Organisms with this advantageous allele are more likely to
survive and reproduce (‘survival of the fittest’)
7. Advantageous allele passed on to offspring
8. Over time advantageous allele frequency will increase in the
gene pool and others may become less frequent

Hardy Weinberg equation: Allele frequency

p² + 2pq + q² = 1
p+q=1
 p = frequency of dominant allele
 q = frequency of recessive allele
 p2 = homozygous dominant individuals
 q2 = recessive homozygous individuals
  2pq = heterozygous individuals

4.3: Quantifying
biodiversity
Measuring Biodiversity:
1. Species richness = The total
number of different species present
in a habitat  The greater the
species richness, the greater the
biodiversity
2. Species evenness = The number of individuals of each
different species  A habitat in which most species have
similar abundances has high evenness.
- High evenness means more diverse.
- A dominant organism is a very common species in a habitat
3. Genetic diversity = the number of different alleles in the
gene pool of a species.
- A gene pool = all the different alleles of all the different genes
in a population  difficult to count all alleles so scientists can
collect DNA samples and analyse base sequences
- The more variation in base sequences, the greater the genetic
diversity
- The greater the genetic diversity the more species can adapt
to selection pressures
Sources of genetic diversity:
- Meiosis:
 Independent assortment = homologous chromosome
pairs align randomly at the cell equator during metaphase
1, resulting in genetically unique gametes with random
combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes
 Crossing over = during prophase 1, homologous
chromosomes pair up and non-sister chromatids wrap
 around each other, breaking and exchanging DNA at
points called chiasmata
- Mutations  New alleles
- Mate selection
- Random fertilisation
- Conservation
management:
Maintain genetic
diversity – control
who breeds with who
- Biodiversity hotspot:
- The world’s
biodiversity is not
evenly spread
- Some areas have
unexpectedly high
levels of biodiversity
of plants
- E.g. Mediterranean basin
- Region has more than 1250 different plant species
- And more than 0.5% total global plant diversity present as
endemic species = an organism native to a single,
restricted geographical location or habitat and is not found
naturally anywhere else in the world
- E.g. Lemurs in Madagascar, Koalas and Platypuses in
Australia, giant pandas in China, and Galápagos tortoises
Measuring genetic diversity within a species:
- DNA sequencing: To determine the bases in a segment of
DNA
- Gel electrophoresis: Different alleles produce fragments of
different lengths that can then be compared
- Alleles are counted and recorded  A heterozygosity index
is recorded, which shows the amount of genetic diversity.
This is used to decide which species should be conserved
Calculating diversity index:

N = total no. of organisms of all species

n = total no. of organisms of each species
Sigma = sum of

Example:
Managed wood: 100(100-1) / 50(49) + 10(9) + 25(24) + 2(1) +
3(2) + 5(4) + 2(1) + 3(2) = 3.12
Ancient wood: 100(100-1) / 15(14) + 15(14) + 15(14) + 20(19)
+ 8(7) + 9(8) + 10(9) + 8(7) = 7.71

Naming and Taxonomy:

- Carolus Linnaeus: Binomial system
- Each species has a unique, scientific name
- Binomial: 2 Latin names – a genus name and a species
name
- Capital letter = genus name
- Small letter = species name

- Taxonomy = the scientific study of grouping of organisms

(classification) into hierarchical taxa (groups) based on
common features
Kingdoms:

1. Monera: Unicelular, no nucleus, no membrane bound organelles

2. Fungi: Multicellular, saprotrophic (external digestion), chitin in cell
walls
3. Animalia: Multicellular, heterotrophic, has a nucleus
4. Plantae: Multicellular, autotrophic, chloroplasts, cellulose in cell
walls
5. Protoctista: Multi or unicellular, eukaryotes, chloroplasts or
saprotrophic, nucleus

3 domains:

- Woese put forward the theory of organisms being split into 3

domains based on molecular evidence from new technology
1. Bacteria: no unused bits of DNA, no nucleus
2. Eukaryota: Unused bits of DNA, nucleus
3. Archaea: Unused bits of DNA, no nucleus

Phylogenetic tree:
Show evolutionary
relationships based
on molecular
differences
 - How can scientists inform the scientific community about a new
theory?
Publish in a scientific journal – peer review, Scientific conference,
Publish on internet
- What is peer-reviewing?
When scientists evaluate published methods and results by carrying
out similar work to collect evidence to either support or reject the
theory

Convergent evolution:

- Unrelated organisms evolving a similar appearance as they adapt to

the same conditions

4.4: Making use of Biodiversity

Plant cells introduction:

Parenchyma:
- A type of plant tissue found throughout the plant
- These cells fill spaces between more specialised tissues
- They sometimes have different uses in plants (roots: storage,
leaves: contain chloroplast)

Phloem and Translocation:

- Phloem remains alive
- Nucleus breaks down as well as most of the cell contents
leaving a mostly empty lumen
- There is perforated end walls called
sieve plates allowing substances to
flow through continuously  the
transport of organic molecules is
called translocation
- Companion cells: Have a nucleus /
organelle  perform the metabolic
functions for the sieve tubes
- Transfer cells: Help to actively
transport / load sugars, amino acids
etc into the phloem sieve tube
- Why do transfer cells have lots of mitochondria and
infoldings?
Energy for active transport and increase surface area

- Relying on diffusion is too slow, so there is an active

process
- The solutes are actively loaded into the phloem
- This increases solute
concentration
- Water is therefore drawn in from
adjacent xylem by osmosis
- Hydrostatic pressure is therefore
increased at loading end
- At sinks (growing parts) solutes
are unloaded
- Solute concentration lowered at
sink
- Water moves back into xylem by
osmosis
 - Hydrostatic pressure lowered
- The difference in hydrostatic pressure drives mass flow
along the sieve tube

Uses of plant fibres:

More about xylem and sclerenchyma:
- Lignin is also needed to give greater tensile strength
- Both xylem and sclerenchyma are lignified
- Scelerenchyma is also dead and hollow
- Parenchyma becomes fully turgid and supports the plant

- Retting = the process of extracting plant fibres. It uses water

and microbial action to separate the fibres from the xylem
- Cellulose and lignin are resistant to chemical and enzyme
degradation

Water retting:
- Plant stem such as flax are submerged in water and soaked
for a period of approximately 20 days to loosen the fibres
- Bacterial actions attacks pectin and lignin, freeing the
cellulose fibres
- Once retting is complete, the stems are then removed and
washed
- Then they are subjected to mechanical processing, and then
dried so that all that remains are the fibres

Biofibres:
- Many plant fibres are used to absorb heavy metals
- Plastic can be added to plant fibres, which makes them
stronger
- What is an advantage to having fibres are part plastic, part
plant fibre?
More biodegradable

Natural insecticides:
- Members of the daisy family have very few diseases / pests
because they contain a natural insecticide called Pyrethrum

Water movement through plants:

How does xylem become specialised for its job:

- Xylem starts as cells with thick walls

- Cells become waterproofed with lignin that impregnates the
cellulose
- Tonoplast breaks down
- Autolysis of cell contents by enzymes (e.g. cell membranes,
organelles)
- Pits allow movement between tubes
- Cells are now dead and hollow
 How does the xylem’s structure
relate to its function?
- Contain lignin, which waterproofs the cell, preventing water loss lower
down the plant
- Lignin also strengthens the xylem, preventing them collapsing when
under low pressure in the leaves or under high pressure in the roots
- Pits in lignin allow water to move between vessels and out to
surrounding tissues
- Hollow tubes made from dead cells allows continuous water flow
- The end walls of each cell are lost or highly perforates to allow
continuous water flow

Importance of inorganic ions:

- Nitrates are needed for: Amino acids and thus proteins
- Magnesium is needed for: Chlorophyll
- Calcium is needed for: Cell walls – lack of it leads to stunted growth

Water:
- Important component required for photosynthesis
- Provides transport medium for minerals
- Maintains turgidity in plant cells though pressure in cell vacuoles
- Regulates temperature to ensure that enzymes can function at their
optimum rate

Magnesium ions:
- Important requirement to produce chlorophyll
- This provides the green colour of stems and leaves and is essential for
photosynthesis

Nitrate ions:
- Without nitrate ions, the plant would be unable to synthesis DNA,
proteins and chlorophyll
Cellulose:
- Present in plant cell walls
- Has a slow decomposition rate (we don’t digest it)
- It is the most abundant organic molecule on the plan
- It is mechanically very strong
- It is a polymer of beta-glucose
- It has 1,4-glycosidic links
- Formed via condensation reactions
- To form C1 and C4 glycosidic links, alternate glucose molecules flip
through 180 degrees (invert)
- This means side groups stick out in alternate directions

- H bonds can then form and cross link the chains

- The angle between the glucose molecules is cancelled out to
produce a straight chain
 - 70 cross linked beta glucose chains combined to form a microfibril.
H bonds hold them together
- The combined effect of the H-bonds give strength
- Lots of microfibrils are held together to form fibres
- Layers of fibres are laid down at different angles in hemicelluloses
and pectin’s which act as glue

The combined effect of the:

- H-bonds
- Hemicelluloses
- Pectin’s (found in the middle lamella)
- Many microfibrils being wound into fibres gives
STRENGTH and FLEXIBILITY

Drugs from plants and testing:

- Many plants contain or can produce poisons
- Relates to dose
 - If it can kill pathogens or cancer cells without killing humans, they
can be used as a medicine
- WHO estimate that 75-80% world’s population use extracts from
plants as medicines

Natural antibacterials:

- Mint: menthol and carvone – toxic to micro-organisms and some

insects, not to humans
- Garlic: extracts toxic to Campylobacter and Helicobacter which
cause intestinal infections
- Active ingredient allicin: Interferes with lipid synthesis and RNA
production
- Parts of plant greater antibacterial properties: seed coat, fruit coat,
bub, and roots

Foxgloves and dropsy:

- Foxglove leaves are poisonous

- Strong bitter taste
- Causes dizziness, vomiting, hallucinations and heart failure caused
by irregular heartbeat
- Dropsy (now called oedema)
- Accumulation of fluid in tissues
- Feet, legs, organs swell, patient can drown as fluid fills up lungs
- Caused by heart or kidney problems
- Irregular heartbeat one sign

Withering and Hutton:

- Withering: doctor who published book on foxgloves as medicine in

1775
- First considered based on tea made by Mrs Hutton: foxgloves one
ingredient
- At Birmingham hospital, he studied 163 patients
- Recorded side effects
- Realised correct dose is essential
- The active ingredient in the drug is now known as digitalin
 - What is a placebo?
A treatment without the active ingredient used to measure
effectiveness against
- What is a blind trial?
The patient doesn’t know if they are receiving the treatment or
placebo
- What is the point of a blind trial?
Patient gives a true / accurate information
- What is a double-blind trial?
Neither patient or Dr knows if the drug has been used
- What is the point of a double-blind trial?
Dr isn’t ‘looking’ for the effect / not influenced

Seeds and sustainability:

The point of the seed is to:

- Protect the embryo

- Aid dispersal
- Provide nutrition for the new plant
Sustainability = the use of resources that meets the current needs without
depleting them for the use of future generations

Current unsustainable practices:

1. Burning oil-based fossil fuels: fossil fuels are non-renewable

resource release carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas) which contributes
to global warming
2. Using oil-base plastics: generates non-biodegradable waste. Oil
reserves are non-renewable

- Plants can provide renewable resources (starch and plant fibres)

- Renewable resources are natural resources that are replenished
- The use of these resources is sustainable

 Starch:
- Biodegradable bioplastics
- Starch from seeds can be used to provide sugars for fermentation to
produce alcohols for biofuels
- Starch can also be used in adhesives, paints, toiletries, nappies,
‘sizing’ of paper or cloth, packaging (instead of oil-based plastics)
 Plant fibres:
- Made of xylem and sclerenchyma (cellulose and lignin)
- Long, flexible, strong and resistant to decay
- E.g. Rope, textiles, bio-composites (composite resin mixed with
fibres), building materials
 - Fibres must be pulled out or soft tissue must be broken down

(retting)

4.5: On the bank

Zoos and seedbanks:
The human threat:

- Land development: habitat destruction, fragmentation &

degradation
- Overexploitation
- Introducing alien species
- Pollution

Conservation:

- In situ = on site (in their own habitat)

- Ex situ = off site (zoos, seed banks)
Role of zoos:

- Scientific research
- Captive breeding programmes
- Reintroduction to wild
- Education

- Mountain chickens (Leptodactylus fallax)

- Only found in Montserrat and Dominica
- Hunted for food
- Since 1995, over 75% Montserrat engulfed by volcano activity

Captive breeding programme:

- Needed to research behaviour and needs so could breed them

successfully
- Increase number of individuals in the species (only done when
recognised there is a problem)
- Maintain genetic diversity in captive population
- Reintroduction to wild

Genetic variation:

- Genetic drift: small population, some alleles not passed on through

chance (chance)
- Inbreeding depression: Inbreeding leads to accumulation of
homozygous recessive genotypes, often harmful in offspring
- What can be done?
- Conservation on site
- Keeping studbooks (comprehensive registries documenting the
ancestry, demographic history, and pedigree of specific animal
breeds or species)

Golding lion tamarin:

- Lost all but 2-5% of their original habitat in Brazil

- Bred at Jersey zoo in 1980
- One of the first primate introduction programmes

Methods being used for conservation:

- Reintroductions of captive-bred golden lion tamarins

- Translocation of groups to a safer area
- Studies of them in the wild
 - Local education and training
- Habitat protection and restoration

Reintroduction programmes:

Advantages: Increase numbers in wild and so conserve species, help

other species that rely on them for food or habitat, restoration of lost
habitats

Disadvantages: Bring new diseases, may not behave as if had been

raised in the wild: finding food and mate, more susceptible to predators,
not accepted by wild members of species

Millenium seedbank:

Why do we need to conserve plants?

- Habitat destruction
- Climate change
- Overharvesting
- Aims to collect seed samples from 10% world’s seed plants by 2010
- Criteria for seed collection: Economic, Endangered, and Endemic
- Used for: research, habitat restoration & species reintroduction

Seed storage – ex situ:

- Most plants produce lots of seeds

- Seeds are small and easy to store
- Survive desiccated for many years
- Stored at -20 degrees Celsius to increase lifespan
- After 1 month, check germination
- Germination is tested every 10 years: if <75%, seeds grown to
collect new seed sample

Greenham common:

- 2006: created new population on nature reserve at Greenham

common
- Starfruit seedlings and seed came from MSB
- Advantages: Cheaper than storing plants, large numbers as need
less space, less work, stored anywhere cool enough, less susceptible
to disease, vandalism, natural disaster
- Disadvantages: Testing for viability expensive and time consuming,
too expensive to store and test all seeds, difficult to collect some
seeds from remote location