CONSUMERISM AND WASTE GENERATION AND ITS MANAGEMENT

WASTE MANAGEMENT

WHAT IS A WASTE? (Trash, Garbage, Rubbish, Refuse)

Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary
use, or is worthless, defective and of no use. These include liquid waste, solid rubbish, organic waste,
recyclable rubbish and hazardous waste. These includes :
• Solid waste from Residential areas, Institutional/ Community areas
• Solid waste from vegetables markets (retail and wholesale)
• Solid waste from Hotels, and restaurants
• Solid waste from commercial areas
• Biomedical waste from hospitals and dispensaries
• Waste from domestic / stray animals /dairies
• Solid waste from Industries
• Waste from street cleansing

The increasing amount of waste being produced around the world is a serious problem and a major threat to the
environment. Animals are losing their homes to make room for landfills, and disease-ridden vermin like rats are
moving in. Trash incinerators emit carbon dioxide, adding to the already critical buildup of greenhouse gases
and exacerbating global warming. We’re polluting water sources and wild environments with our careless litter,
making once natural habitats hostile for our precious wildlife. This is only part of the problem.

Basically, it comes down to this: we’re producing more garbage than the Earth can handle, and we’re running
out of places to put it. If we continue with our careless lifestyle, we’re doomed to pay the price. When rainwater
falls on landfills, it collects chemicals and other hazardous materials that will end up polluting lakes, streams,
and groundwater sources. Carbon dioxide produced when transporting the trash, whether to the city dump or
across the globe, is released into the atmosphere and increases global warming.

Sources of Waste

Sources of waste can be broadly classified into four types: Industrial, Commercial, Domestic, and Agricultural.

FIGURE SHOWING TWO SOURCES OF WASTES

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1. Industrial Waste
These are the wastes created in factories and industries. Most industries dump their wastes in rivers and seas
which cause a lot of pollution.
Example: plastic, glass, etc.
We have millions of factories, mills, industries, mining plants, etc. around the world. These industries use raw
materials to produce finished goods for consumers. But in the manufacturing process, there are materials which
are rendered useless. They constitute the industrial waste. Some examples of industrial wastes are metals,
paints, sandpaper, slag, ash, radioactive wastes, etc. In this article, we will discuss different types of industrial
wastes and their disposal.

I. Commercial Waste
Commercial wastes are produced in schools, colleges, shops, and offices.
Example: plastic, paper, etc.
Commercial waste is defined as any waste product that is created from commercial activity. So whether you’re
a builder needing to clear construction waste, an office discarding paper documents, or you need to dispose of
plastic created from your business, it’s all categorised in the same way.
This also applies for any business waste you produce from a home-based company. For example, this could be
the food waste created if you run a cake-making business.
Again, the official definition is clear: whatever waste is produced from commercial activity is considered as
business waste and must be disposed of as such. It can’t go in your domestic refuse bins – you have to register
for a commercial waste bin. So that’s something else to consider when starting a business from home.

II. Domestic Waste

The different household wastes which are collected during household activities like cooking, cleaning, etc. are
known as domestic wastes.
Example: leaves, vegetable peels, excreta, etc.
The problem of Domestic Waste is drawing increasing attention of the people as huge garbage is lying down
uncollected beside the roads, streets dustbins and on the ground which is causing threat to the environment as
well as endangering public health.
This waste is generated as consequences of household activities such as the cleaning, cooking, repairing empty
containers, packaging, huge use of plastic carry bags. Many times these waste gets mixed with biomedical
waste from hospitals and clinics. There is no system of segregation of organic, inorganic and recyclable wastes
at the household level.

Door-to-door collection is rarely practiced community collection bins are poorly managed and are usually no
more than open dumps on the roadside.
The improper handling and management of Domestic Waste from households are causing adverse effect on the
public at large and this deteriorates the environment.

III. Agricultural Waste

Various wastes produced in the agricultural field are known as agricultural wastes.
Example: cattle waste, weed, husk, etc.
Agricultural wastes are defined as the residues from the growing and processing of raw agricultural products
such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products, and crops. They are the non-product outputs of
production and processing of agricultural products that may contain material that can benefit man but whose
economic values are less than the cost of collection, transportation, and processing for beneficial use.

Types of Waste
Commonly waste is classified into two types: Biodegradable and Non-biodegradable waste. These two kinds of
wastes are explained below:
 Biodegradable waste
These are the wastes that come from our kitchen and it includes food remains, garden waste, etc. Biodegradable
waste is also known as moist waste. This can be composted to obtain manure. Biodegradable wastes decompose
themselves over a period of time depending on the material.

 Non-biodegradable waste
These are the wastes which include old newspapers, broken glass pieces, plastics, etc. Non-biodegradable waste
is known as dry waste. Dry wastes can be recycled and can be reused. Non-biodegradable wastes do not
decompose by themselves and hence are major pollutants.

Waste Management

Waste management is the managing of waste by disposal and recycling of it. Moreover, waste management needs
proper techniques keeping in mind the environmental situations. Waste management involves processes of
collection, transportation and disposal of wastes.

For instance, people living in slums are very close to the waste disposal area. Therefore there are prone to various
diseases. Hence, putting their lives in danger. In order to maintain a healthy life, proper hygiene and sanitation are
necessary. Consequently, it is only possible with proper waste management.

Importance of Waste Management

Waste management is aimed at protection of the environment and to enhance the safety of surrounding
environment for humans and animals. Hazardous wastes are disposed far from reach of humans and animals to
prevent harm. Environmental pollution is a major public health issue that is prevented by proper waste
management because fewer wastes end up in the environment. Waste management starts with the collection of
waste from the source itself. Transportation of such collected waste is another important factor. Once the waste
is carefully transported to appropriate places suitable for disposal, then comes the processing and proper
disposal stage of waste management.

 Waste management is very important to preserve the health of living beings and also to create a strong
environment for the future generation.
  Waste Management helps in reducing pollution and by adapting to efficient waste management
techniques, emission of gases like Carbon dioxide and Methane from wastes can be reduced to a large
extent.
 Waste Management helps in the prevention of contagious diseases.
 When products are recycled, there is no need to produce new products which saves raw materials. The
energy consumption will also be much less.
 Waste management as an industry creates several job opportunities. People with less education and
skilled labor can also be utilized in high number in this sector.

Methods of Waste Management:

However, there are many other important aspects of waste management. One of them is the three R’s concept:
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

 Reducing the production of waste by controlling excess use of products, and also by the reduction of
sources while the product is manufactured, will help in the waste management. Use more eco-friendly
items so that they can be disposed of easily without polluting our environment.
 Reuse is another concept of waste management in which the product instead of being disposed of should
be reused in a more creative way. Waste management also means using a product till it completely
becomes unusable to avoid excess waste disposal.
 Recycle is the concept of converting the waste into the raw material so that they can be used again for
the manufacturing process. This method of waste management will reduce the cost of production,
pollution and will be of better quality.

The following are the common methods of waste management:

 Incineration:
Under this method of waste management, public solid wastes get buried for converting them into heat, residue,
steam, ash, and gases. It decreases the amount of solid waste by around 31% of the actual quantity.

 Landfills:
Discarding garbage and waste inside the landfills is one of the most known methods of waste management.
Under this method, the problems like dangers and odor of the garbage are eradicated. The compost is buried on
the locations of the landfill. Today the landfills are also considered as the reason for global warming and that is
the reason that numerous nations are thinking again about the use of landfills.

 Composting:
Composting is a process of bio-degradation of waste management in which the organic waste i.e., leftovers of
floras and pantry waste are transformed into the nourishment for floras. This technique is utilized for organic-
agriculture which also increases the productiveness of the soil.

 Recycling:
In this method of waste management, the waste items are reprocessed for using again. The waste things are
reprocessed for taking out the resources or transforming into energies like heat, electricity, fuel.
  Waste Minimization:
It is the simplest way of waste management that helps in creating less amount of waste. The declination of
waste can be performed by anybody by decreasing the waste formation and reprocessing and recycling the old
resources. The usage of ecological products and decreasing the usage of paper, plastic, etc., is essential. The
public contribution has a straight influence on the system of waste management.

 Waste to Energy:
Under this procedure of waste management, non-biodegradable wastage is transformed into the sources of
energy like fuel, heat, or electricity. All of these are renewable energy sources since the non-biodegradable
wastage might be utilized for creating energy repeatedly.

Consumerism

 Consumerism is related to the constant purchasing of new goods, with little attention to their true need,
durability, product origin, or the environmental consequences of their manufacture and disposal.

 Consumerism interferes with the sustainable use of resources in a society by replacing the normal
common sense desire for an adequate supply of life’s necessities, with and insatiable quest for things
that are purchased by larger and larger incomes to buy them.

 Especially in developed countries, landfills are being rapidly filled with cheap discarded products that
fail to work within short time and cannot be repaired.

 The inordinate amount of waste that is generated by consumer-oriented societies around the world is
now a serious environmental issue.

 Most human activities are related to production and consumption cycle which produce excessive
amounts of waste in the form of solid, liquid and gaseous waste products.

 With the rapid increase in population, the amount of waste in terms of quantity and quality has
increased waste management pressure.

 Our health will be affected by dangerous industrial effluents, and be will be smothered by clouds of
smoke and unhealthy gases.
Therefore, the reuse of goods and waste utilization should become a part of the production-consumption
cycle.

CASE STUDY ON WASTE GENERATION AND ITS MANAGEMENT:

SOURCES : [Link]
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In Delhi, Waste management is the responsibility of three municipal bodies - the Municipal Corporation of
Delhi (MCD), the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and the Delhi Cantonment Board (DCB). MCD
alone manage almost 95 % of the total area of the city. The above authorities are supported by a number of
other agencies. Citing and allotment of land to MCD for sanitary land filling is responsibility of the Delhi
Development Authority (DDA).

Solid waste utilization projects are responsibility of the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources
(DNES) and Delhi Energy Development Agency (DEDA) under the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(MoEF), Government of India. The Department of Flood Control of Delhi Administration looks after the supply
of soil to be used as cover for sanitary landfills by the MCD. Delhi is divided into 12 Zones by MCD :

1. City Zone
2. Central Zone
3. South Zone
4. Karol Bagh Zone
5. Sadar pahar Ganj
6. West Zone
7. Civil Lines Zone
8. Shahdra South Zone
9. Shadra North Zone
10. Narela Zone
11. Najafgarh Zone
12. Rohini Zone.
Some shocking and some insightful facts came out during the episode of SATYAMEV JAYATE :

-Apparently, the municipal corporation leases garbage collection and garbage dumps to private bodies at a
price.
-India generates a shocking 16 crore kg of garbage every day.
-One garbage truck carries 5-6 tons of garbage at a time. And one ton of garbage is sold at around Rs 500.
-As per SC ruling biodegradable waste and plastic waste should be segregated; Biodegradable waste has to be
compost.
-That garbage can be treated and converted to bio gas is a known fact. But did you know that one ton of
garbage can be made into gas equivalent to 2 LPG cylinders?
-Setting up biogas plants are easy and cost effective.
-Pune based organisation SWACH helps in empowering waste collectors and their families financially.
-Even animals contribute in recycling waste. An organisation in Vellore has adopted this method.
-Bobbili town in Andhra Pradesh boasts of being a zero-waste zone, which simply means that all its garbage is
recycled or reused. None of it reaches the landfill.
- Waste management and collection centres are needed in more numbers across the nation. Bangalore is the
only city in India which has 80 such centres.

If waste is treated as wealth, we can re-use and recycle. Even plastics can be used to make roads. Activists also
insist that waste management should be done in such a way that it is involves and employs thousands of waste
collectors who earn a livelihood by collecting garbage.

Waste generation in India (Research)

SOURCES : [Link] ; [Link]

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macro-analysis
With rapid urbanization, industrialization and an explosion in population in India, solid waste management will
be a key challenge for state governments and local municipal bodies in the 21st century.
 Presently in India, about 960 million tonnes of solid waste is being generated annually as by-products
during industrial, mining, municipal, agricultural and other processes. Of this 350 million tonnes are
organic wastes from agricultural sources; 290 million tonnes are inorganic waste of industrial and
mining sectors and 4.5 million tonnes are hazardous in nature.

 Only 68% of the garbage generated in the country is collected, of which 28% is treated by the municipal
authorities. Thus, the poor collection and treatment of waste leads to dumped garbage on streets clearly
showing up the poor and inefficient system available to tackle waste management in urban areas. If this
issue is not tackled efficiently and better policies and practices for waste management are not adopted,
the total waste generation is projected to be 165 million tonnes by 2031 and 436 million tonnes by 2050.

 E-waste has been defined as "waste electrical and electronic equipment, whole or in part or rejects from
their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to be discarded. At the same time, it is
responsible for the generation of the bulk of E-waste or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE) in India. Developing countries like India, today, is burdened with the colossal problem
of E-waste which is either locally generated or internationally imported, causing serious menace
to human health and environment.

 Forty five per cent of the menstrual waste collected across the country, primarily consisting of sanitary
napkins, is disposed of as routine waste along with other household garbage revealed Menstrual Health
Alliance India.

 Rwanda and Kenya can serve as precedents for India which have introduced stiff penalties for use of
flimsy plastic bags.
In the country itself, Alappuzha in Kerala and Panaji in Goa can serve as good examples because they
do not have any landfills. Both these cities convert their compost or biogas and recycle plastic, glass,
metals and papers.

Recent initiative by Union Government for Successful Waste Management practices:

SOURCES : [Link]
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 National Environment Policy, 2006

It recognises and strengthens the role of informal sector in collecting and recycling of various kinds of
waste. This act passed in 2006 by the MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS.
The principal Objectives of this policy are enumerated below. These Objectives relate to current
perceptions of key environmental challenges.
 Conservation of critical environmental resources: To protect and conserve critical ecological
systems and resources, and invaluable natural and man-made heritage, which are essential for
lifesupport, livelihoods, economic growth, and a broad conception of human well-being.
 Intra-generational equity : livelihood security for the poor: To ensure equitable access to
environmental resources and quality for all sections of society, and in particular, to ensure that
poor communities, which are most dependent on environmental resources for their livelihoods,
are assured secure access to these resources.
 Inter-generational equity : To ensure judicious use of environmental resources to meet the needs
and aspirations of the present and future generations.
  Integration of environmental concerns in economic and social development : To integrate
environmental concerns into policies, plans, programmes, and projects for economic and social
development.
 Efficiency in environmental resource use : To ensure efficient use of environmental resources in
the sense of reduction in their use per unit of economic output, to minimize adverse
environmental impacts.
 Environmental governance : To apply the principles of good governance (transparency,
rationality, accountability, reduction in time and costs, participation, and regulatory
independence) to the management and regulation of use of environmental resources.
 Enhancement of resources for environmental conservation : To ensure higher resource flows,
comprising finance, technology, management skills, traditional knowledge, and social capital,
for environmental conservation through mutually beneficial multistakeholder partnerships
between local communities, public agencies, the academic and research community, investors,
and multilateral and bilateral development partners.

Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs has launched ‘My Home-My Neighborhood’ (Ghar Bi Saaf-Pados Bhi
Saaf) campaign with the following six components:

1. Segregation of waste at source

2. Compost making from wet waste within the premises/ neighbourhood/area
3. Recycling of dry waste
4. Freeing the neighbourhood from open defecation and open urination

5. Motivating the residents of neighbourhood against throwing garbage in open spaces; and
6. Adopting a nearby park or open place for collection and waste segregation.

Swachh Bharat Mission and Solid Waste Management

The Swachh Bharat Mission was launched in 2014 with the goal to clean India. The objective of the mission
was to construct household, community and public toilets to eliminate open defecation and implement proper
solid waste management along with generating information, education, public awareness and capacity building.
As of June 2016, only 53% of wards are covered with door-to-door collection of waste and on an average only
22% of waste is processed in urban centres — which mean 78% of solid waste remains untreated and
contaminates land or makes its way into rivers and lakes.

Right to a healthy environment is a fundamental right under Article -21 of Indian Constitution. Though
the Government plays a significant role in waste management (Art-48A), it should be also the
responsibility of every citizen to improve the quality of the environment around him/her (Art-51A-g)
makes it a fundamental duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment
including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures.
Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011
It helds municipality responsible for plastic waste management in following aspects:
To involve waste pickers and other agencies in waste management
To make sure open burning of plastic waste is not allowed.

WHAT CAN BE DONE FOR THE BETTER FUTURE ?????

• Masses should be educated for behavioural change in storage and disposal of waste.

• Penalty should be strictly awarded similar to developed countries.

• Municipal bodies should probe in media to educate masses in separation of waste.

• Notified safe areas should be allotted for disposal of hazardous waste.

• For dry and wet waste community bins should be allotted.

• Waste from construction and demolition site should be collected on site rather than pilferage in public
places.

• Adequate numbers municipal employees should be recruited and trained.

• NGOs and community participation should be encouraged.

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the term ‘waste’?

2. Why waste management is necessary for environmental stability?
3. Discuss the various types of waste and methods to prevent it.
4. What do you understand by consumerism?
5. Discuss some initiatives led by the government for waste management.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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 [Link]
 [Link]
q=waste+pics&rlz=1C1CHBF_enIN792IN792&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjz7aO
z3a7nAhXEV30KHaLOB8sQ_AUoAXoECAwQAw&biw=1676&bih=833
 [Link]
 [Link]

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘Genetic Modification’

Genetic Modification in simple terms involves changes brought about in the section of the gene which may
affect the phenotype or expression of the gene product. When altered, the organism produces the needed
product newly coded by the gene section or expresses a needed character (phenotype). Thus, Genetically
Modified Crops are produced. Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture,
the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. In most cases, the aim is to introduce
a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. GM crops could contribute to food
production increases and higher food availability.
 Key elements of Genetic Modification

The gene forms the basic unit of our entire genome neatly packed in the nucleus of each cell. The DNA codes
for the gene product and each product is coded by a unique combination of three nucleotides, known as a
codon. In lay man language, these genes govern our characters and how we appear. This is not limited to just
animals; plants too possess these genes and are passed down from generation to generation at different ratios.

Artificial modification of genes has revolutionized modern science and genetics. While many cult groups have
raised their voice against modifying the essence of nature, scientists and researchers have claimed that such
modifications will testify for the betterment of public health and technology.

Source : [Link]
policy/projects/gm-plants/[Link]

Process of Genetic Modification

 The first stage in making a genetically modified plant requires transfer of DNA into a plant cell.
 One of the methods used to transfer DNA is to coat the surface of small metal particles with the relevant DNA
fragment, and bombard the particles into the plant cells.
 Another method is to use a bacterium or virus. There are many viruses and bacteria that transfer their DNA into
a host cell as a normal part of their life cycle.
 For genetically modified plants, the bacterium most frequently used is called Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The
gene of interest is transferred into the bacterium and the bacterial cells then transfer the new DNA to the
genome of the plant cells.
 The plant cells that have successfully taken up the DNA are then grown to create a new plant. This is possible
because individual plant cells have an impressive capacity to generate entire plants.
 On rare occasions, the process of DNA transfer can happen without deliberate human intervention. For example
the sweet potato contains DNA sequences that were transferred thousands of years ago, from Agrobacterium
bacteria into the sweet potato genome.

Before understanding the concept of GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS we need to understand about
[Link] is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products,
or “ any technological application that uses biological system, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for specific use”.
According to EUROPEAN FEDERATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY(EFB) “ the integration of natural
science and organisms,cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services”.

1. Making of bread and curds with the help of micro organisms.

2. Application of fermentation in production of wine and other alcoholic beverages is also a
biotechnological technique.
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE

 Agro-chemical based agriculture

 Organic agriculture
 Genetically modified or genetically engineered crop based agriculture.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply but yet it was not enough to feed the growing
human population. Increased yields have partly been due to the use of improved crop varieties, but mainly
due to the use of better management practices and use of agrochemicals (fertilisers and pesticides).
However, for farmers in the developing world, agrochemicals are often too expensive, and further increases
in yield with existing varieties are not possible using conventional breeding.
The question arises here that is there any alternative path that our understanding of genetics can show so that
farmers may obtain maximum yield from their fields? Is there a way to minimise the use of fertilisers and
chemicals so that their harmful effects on the environment are reduced?
Yes, Use of GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS is a possible solution.

When a scientist performs genetic modification to a plant, they insert a foreign gene (called
„transgene‟) in the plant’s own genes. This could be introduced from one plant to another plant, from a
plant to an animal, or from a microorganism to a plant. For example, this might be a gene from a bacterium
resistant to pesticide. Therefore, the genetically modified plant also is able to withstand pesticides due to the
transgene (Food Standards Agency, 2012).

Crops which are been developed by introducing a new gene from any other source, e.g., bacteria or
any other organism to obtain the desired character is called Genetically Modified (GM) crop. An
example of the genetically modified crop is Golden rice.
It was genetically modified to generate beta-carotene twenty times more than the previous varieties of rice.
Golden rice is intended for Asia. One more rice variety was also created to fight iron deficiency. A gene
from the bean plant is taken and inserted into the rice gene and the resultant rice helps to fight iron
deficiency.

EXAMPLES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

CORN: Almost 85 percent of corn grown in the U.S. is genetically modified. Even Whole Foods's
brand of corn flakes was found to contain genetically modified corn. Many producers modify corn
and soy so they are resistant to the herbicide glyphosate, which is used to kill weeds.

YELLOW CROOKNECK AND ZUCCHINI: Numbers of this GMO veggie are relatively small, but
genetically modified yellow squash and zucchini can be found in two different species in the U.S.
The species contain protein genes that protect against viruses. Just like their other GMO
counterparts, you won't be able to tell the difference between non-GMO and GMO zucchini or
squash.

SUGAR BEETS:A very controversial vegetable, sugar beets were approved in 2005, banned in
2010, then officially deregulated in 2012. Genetically modified sugar beets make up half of the U.S.
sugar production, and 95 percent of the country's sugar beet market.

BT COTTON:Some strains of BACILLUS THURINGIENSTS produce proteins that kill certain

insets such as lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), coleopterans(beetle) and
lepidopterans (flies mosquitoes).the BT toxin protein exist as inactive protoxins but once an insect
ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin due to the alkaline pH of the
gut which solubilise the crystals .The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells
and create pores that cause cell swelling and lysis and eventually cause death of the insect.
 FOOD SECURITY
Food security exists when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and
nutritious food. Unfortunately, food security does not exist for a significant proportion of the world
population. Around 900 million people are undernourished, meaning that they are undersupplied
with calories . Many more suffer from specific nutritional deficiencies, often related to insufficient
intake of micronutrients. Eradicating hunger is a central part of the United Nations’ Millennium
Development Goals

The role of genetically modified (GM) crops for food security is the subject of public controversy.
GM crops could contribute to food production increases and higher food availability. There may also
be impacts on food quality and nutrient composition. growing GM crops may influence farmers
income and thus their economic access to food. Smallholder farmers make up a large proportion of
the undernourished people worldwide.
There are three possible pathways how GM crops could impact food security.
 In regard to the first pathway, GM technologies could make food crops higher yielding and more
robust to biotic and abiotic stresses. This could stabilize and increase food supplies, which is
important against the background of increasing food demand, climate change, and land and water
scarcity. In 2012, 170 million hectares (ha) – around 12% of the global arable land – were planted
with GM crops, such as soybean, corn, cotton, and canola , but most of these crops were not grown
primarily for direct food use. While agricultural commodity prices would be higher without the
productivity gains from GM technology , impacts on food availability could be bigger if more GM
food crops were commercialized. Lack of public acceptance is one of the main reasons why this has
not yet happened more widely.
 Concerning the second pathway, crops with new traits can be associated with food safety risks,
which have to be assessed and managed case by case. But such risks are not specific to GM crops.
Long-term research confirms that GM technology is not per se more risky than conventional plant
breeding technologies. On the other hand, GM technology can help to breed food crops with higher
contents of micronutrients; a case in point is Golden Rice with provitamin A in the grain . Such GM
crops have not yet been commercialized. Projections show that they could reduce nutritional
deficiencies among the poor, entailing sizeable positive health effects.
 The third pathway relates to GM crop use by smallholder farmers in developing countries. Half of the
global GM crop area is located in developing countries, but much of this refers to large farms in
countries of South America. One notable exception is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton, which is
grown by around 15 million smallholders in India, China, Pakistan, and a few other developing
countries. Bt cotton provides resistance to important insect pests, especially cotton bollworms.
Several studies have shown that Bt cotton adoption reduces chemical pesticide use and increases
yields in farmers’ fields. There are also a few studies that have shown that these benefits are
associated with increases in farm household income and living standard. Higher incomes are
generally expected to cause increases in food consumption in poor farm households. On the other
hand, cotton is a non-food cash crop, so that the nutrition impact is uncertain.
 FACTS/NEWS ABOUT GM CROPS AND FOOD SECURITY

Most food in the U.S. is genetically modified. Surprise! Although GMOs have only been around
since 1996 (commercially), up to 70 percent of the food in our grocery stores contains genetically
engineered ingredients, according to the Grocery Manufacturing Association. Corn, soy, sugar beets,
and canola are the most prevalent GMOs crops. Some states, food manufacturers, and grocery stores,
recognizing people’s concerns about GMOs, are pushing for labeling. Whole Foods Market will label
all its GMO products by 2018.

Genetic engineering and crossbreeding are not the same things. Humans have been crossbreeding
crops and animals for centuries, but genetic engineering (GE) is a relatively new (and more precise)
practice. GE splices new genes directly into an organism’s DNA sequence, rather than waiting for the
offspring to produce a desired trait.

GMOs Save Lives Through Medicine. The same technology used to create GMO crops in the 1990s
started in the medical community in the 1970s. Scientists used genetic engineering to make
biopharmaceutical drugs from bacteria. In fact, the very first GMO approved for use in 1982 was
insulin, which is currently used by
1.25 million Americans today to manage type 1 diabetes. To date, genetic engineering has led to the
development of more than 100 drugs used to treat cancer, arthritis, hemophilia and seizures.

GMO food banned in India. India has, so far, not allowed the use of GM technology in agriculture,
except for Bt cotton, a non-food crop, which was approved for commercial cultivation in 2002.
Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, growing GM crops that are not approved by the
government can lead to a five-years jail term and a hefty ₹1 lakh fine.

Positive impact of Genetically Modified crops

1. Insect Resistance
Some Genetically Modified foods have been modified to make them more resistant to insects and other pests. A
report from the University of California in San Diego states that toxic bacteria (yet safe for human use) can be
added to crops to make them repel insects like beetles and moths. This means the amount of pesticide chemicals
used on the plants are reduced, so their exposure to dangerous pesticides are also reduced.

2. Stronger Crops
Another benefit that Genetically Modified technology is believed to bring about is that crops can be engineered
to withstand weather extremes and fluctuations, which means that there will be good quality and sufficient
yields even under a poor or severe weather condition. As populations across the world grow and more lands are
being utilized for housing instead of food production, farmers are prompted to grow crops in locations that are
originally not suitable for plant cultivation, and culturing plants that can withstand high salt content in soil and
groundwater, not to mention long periods of drought, will help them grow healthy crops. Also, plants that have
been genetically modified can become more resistant to unexpected disease problems. We can just think of the
technology as a vaccine for the species, except that it is encoded into their genes, rather than being shot into
their immune system.
3. Larger Production
It has been easier to raise crops that are classified as genetically modified because all of their examples have the
stronger ability to resist pests. This attribute helps farmers with producing greater amounts of crops or foods.

4. Environmental Protection
According to an Oklahoma State University report, the increase of Genetically Modified crops often requires
less time, tools and chemicals, and may help with reducing greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion and
environmental pollution. This means the general health and beauty of the environment that surrounds farms will
be improved, contributing to the preservation of better water and air quality, which can also indirectly benefit
every person’s well-being.

5. Extensive Protection for Crops

Genetically Modified foods were created with the use of genetic engineering—a technology that was designed
to make sure crops will never be damaged in a fast rate. The method also allows farmers and merchants to
preserve the good quality of foods more efficiently by using special substances.

6. More Nutritious Foods

According to the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, some Genetically Modified foods
have been engineered to become more nutritious in terms of vitamin or mineral content. This not only helps
people get the nutrients they need, but also plays a significant role in fighting against malnutrition in third-
world countries. In fact, the United Nations recommends that rice that is enhanced with vitamin A can help
with reducing deficiencies of such nutrient around the world.

7. Decreased Use of Pesticides

It has been proven that genetically modified crops do not need pesticides to become stronger against various
types of insects or pests that may destroy them.

8. More Income
With genetic engineering, farmers will have more income, which they could spend on important things, such as
the education of their children for example.

9. Less Deforestation
To sufficiently feed the growing population of the world, deforestation is needed. But with genetically modified
animals and crops, the use of this method will be minimized. This would decrease carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, which would, in turn, slow global warming.

10. Decrease in Global Warming

As more plants and crops can be grown and at more areas, including those that were previously unsuitable for
farming, oxygen in the environment is increased, decreasing the proportion of carbon dioxide and, in turn,
reducing global warming. In fact, British economists noted in a study that genetically modified crops have
made significant contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by over 10 million tons, which is
equivalent to removing 5 million cars from the road each year. This means that people would not have to give
up their vehicles.

11. Decrease in Food Prices

Due to higher yield and lower costs, food prices would go down. As people in poorer countries spend over half
of their income on food alone, this means automatic reduction of poverty.

12. New Products

New kinds of crops are being developed to be grown at extreme climates, such as those present in dry or
freezing environments. As an example, scientists have developed a new type of tomato that grows in salty soil.
Another good discovery in genetic engineering of plants is the exclusion of the gene responsible for caffeine in
coffee beans, creating decaffeinated coffee beans, which can then be grown naturally.
Negative impact of Genetically Modified crops

1. Allergic Reactions
According to research by the Brown University, resent genetically modified foods can pose significant allergy
risks to people. It states that genetic modification often adds or mixes proteins that were not indigenous to the
original plant, which might cause new allergic reactions in our body. In some cases, proteins from organisms
that you are allergic to might be added to organisms that you were not originally allergic to. This means your
range of food choices will be lessened.

2. Not 100% Environmentally Friendly

Though it is claimed by many experts that genetically modified foods are safe for the environment, they
actually still contain several kinds of substances that are not yet proven to be such. And what’s worse? These
substances are remained hidden to the public.

3. Lower Level of Biodiversity

One big potential drawback of this technology is that some organisms in the ecosystem could be harmed, which
in turn could lead to a lower level of biodiversity. When we remove a certain pest that is harmful to crops, we
could also be removing a food source for a certain species. In addition, genetically modified crops could prove
toxic to some organisms, which can lead to their reduced numbers or even extinction.

4. Decreased Antibiotic Efficacy

According to the Iowa State University, some genetically modified foods have antibiotic features that are built
into them, making them resistant or immune to viruses or diseases. And when we eat them, these antibiotic
markers will persist in our body and will render actual antibiotic medications less effective. The university also
warns that ingestion of these foods and regular exposure to antibiotics may contribute to the reduced
effectiveness of antibiotic drugs, as noticed in hospitals across the planet.

5. Cross-Pollination
Cross-pollination can cover quite large distances, where new genes can be included in the offspring of organic,
traditional plants or crops that are miles away. This can result in difficulty in distinguishing which crop fields
are organic and which are not, posing a problem to the task of properly labeling non-genetically modified food
products.

6. Gene Spilling
It is unclear what effects, if there are any, the genetic pollution resulting from inadequate sequestering of
genetically modified crop populations would have on the wild varieties surrounding them. However, it is
stressed that releasing pollen from genetically altered plants into the wild through the insects and the wind
could have dramatic effects on the ecosystem, though there is yet long-term research to be done to gauge such
impact.

7. Gene Transfer
Relevant to the previous disadvantage, a constant risk of genetically modified foods is that an organism’s
modified genes may escape into the wild. Experts warn that genes from commercial crops that are resistant to
herbicides may cross into the wild weed population, thus creating super-weeds that have become impossible to
kill. For genetically enhanced vegetation and animals, they may become super-organisms that can out-compete
natural plants and animals, driving them into extinction.

8. Conflicts
Genetically modified foods can cause a lot of issues in the merchants’ daily life. These products might
encourage authorities to implement higher tariffs to merchants, who would be selling them.

9. Exploitations
Some countries may use genetic engineering of foods as a very powerful weapon against their enemies. It is
important to note that some scientists have discovered that these products can kill a lot of individuals in the
world by using harmful diseases.
10. Widening Gap of Corporate Sizes
This disadvantage can possibly happen between food-producing giants and their smaller counterparts, causing a
consolidation in the market. There would be fewer competitors, which could increase the risk of oligopolies and
food price increases. Moreover, larger companies might have more political power and might be able to
influence safety and health standards.

11. New Diseases

As previously mentioned, genetically modified foods can create new diseases. Considering that they are
modified using viruses and bacteria, there is a fear that this will certainly happen. This threat to human health is
a worrisome aspect that has received a great deal of debate.

12. Food Supply at Risk

Genetically modified seeds are patented products and, in order to purchase them, customers have to sign certain
agreements for use with the supplier or creator. As the reliance on these seeds expands around the world,
concerns about food supply and safety also continue to arise. Furthermore, these seeds structurally identical,
and if a problem affects one of them, a major crop failure can occur.

13. Economic Concerns

Bringing a genetically modified food to market can be a costly and lengthy process, and of course, agricultural
bio-technology companies want to ensure a profitable ROI. So, many new plant genetic engineering
technologies and products have been patented, and patent infringement is a big concern within the agribusiness.
Also, consumer advocates are worried that this will raise seed prices to very high levels that third-world
countries and small farmers cannot afford them, thus widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
One way fight against possible patent infringement is introducing a “suicide gene” into genetically modified
plants, which would be viable for only a single growing season and would produce sterile seeds that do not
germinate, prompting farmers to buy a fresh supply of seeds every year. However, this would be financially
disastrous for them, especially those in developing countries, who cannot afford to do this and traditionally set
aside a portion of their harvest to plant in the next growing season.

Genetically Modified Foods: Issues with respect to India

In a major setback to the proponents of GM technology in farm crops, the Parliamentary Committee on
Agriculture in 2012 asked Indian government to stop all field trials and sought a bar on GM food crops such as
Bt. brinjal. Raising the “ethical dimensions” of transgenics in agricultural crops, as well as studies of a long-
term environmental and chronic toxicology impact, the panel noted that there were no significant socio-
economic benefits to farmers.
Countries like India have great security concerns at the same time specific problems exist for small and
marginal farmers. India could use a toxin free variety of the Lathyrus sativus grown on marginal lands and
consumed by the very poor. GM mustard is a variety using the barnase-barstar-bar gene complex, an unstable
gene construct with possible undesirable effects, to achieve male sterile lines that are used to make hybrid
mustard varieties. In India we have good non-GM alternatives for making male sterile lines for hybrid
production so the Proagro variety is of little use. Being a food crop, GM mustard will have to be examined very
carefully. Even if there were to be benefits, they have to be weighed against the risks posed to human health
and the environment. Apart from this, mustard is a cross-pollinating crop and pollen with their foreign genes is
bound to reach non-GM mustard and wild relatives. We do not know what impact this will have. If GM
technology is to be used in India, it should be directed at the real needs of Indian farmers, on crops like
legumes, oilseeds and fodder and traits like drought tolerance and salinity tolerance.
Basmati rice and Darjeeling tea are perhaps India’s most easily identifiable premium products in the area of
food. Basmati is highly prized rice, its markets are growing and it is a high end, expensive product in the
international market. Like Champagne wine and truffles from France, international consumers treat it as a
special, luxury food. Since rice is nutritionally a poor cereal, it is thought that addition of iron and vitamin A by
genetic modification would increase the nutritional quality. So does it make any sense at all to breed a GM
Basmati, along the lines of Bt Cotton? However, premium wine makers have outright rejected the notion of GM
doctored wines that were designed to cut out the hangover and were supposed to be ‘healthier’. Premium
products like special wines, truffles and Basmati rice need to be handled in a special, premium way
(Sahai 2003).
 CASE STUDY

1. As per report of International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, 2018, India ranks 5 th in
global cultivation of Genetically modified crops. Bt. cotton is the only genetically modified crop approved for
commercial cultivation in the Country. The State wise area under Bt. cotton cultivation during last three years is
given below-
o The approval of any new genetically modified crop is given on a case to case basis after thorough scientific
evaluation of health and environment safety as per applicable guidelines made under Environment (Protection)
Act, 1986 and Rules, 1989.

State wise area under Bt. cotton cultivation during last three years:

(Area in lakh hectare)

STATE 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Andhra Pradesh 6.50 4.59 6.41
Telangana 16.61 13.80 18.84
Madhya Pradesh 4.86 5.39 4.82
Gujarat 26.23 20.25 22.49
Maharashtra 34.40 32.35 37.86
Karnataka 4.87 3.03 4.50
Tamil Nadu 0.99 1.08 1.80
Punjab 3.33 2.43 2.86
Haryana 5.27 3.64 6.21
Rajasthan 3.56 2.87 4.96
Total Area 106.62 89.43 110.75
Source: Directorate of Cotton Development, Nagpur

This Information was given by the Minister of State for Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Shri
Gajendra Singh Shekhawat

2. Date: February 25, 2019

Source: Purdue University

Summary: After the Indian government liberalized its economy, shops stocking a previously controlled market
of public agricultural goods were suddenly flooded with new private brands. Rather than relying on data for
seed yields, many farmers make socially motivated purchasing decisions.

India is the world's second largest producer of cotton. The crop, which plays a dominant role in the country's
industrial and agricultural economies, is extremely pesticide intensive. When genetically modified seeds were
being debated in the 1990s, Indian cotton accounted for nearly half of the pesticides sprayed in the country,
despite being planted on only five percent of the farmland. Genetically modified cottonseeds are now widely
available, (which should, in theory, reduce pesticide use), but national yields have largely stagnated and use of
pesticide sprays has increased over the last decade.
Telangana, a state in southern India, is a major cotton producer where most seeds are sown by small farmers.
It's also where the peak of farmer suicides in the 1990s happened, which is one reason many thought
introducing genetically modified seeds would be a good idea.
To figure out how farmers here decide which seeds to plant, Andrew Flachs, an environmental anthropologist at
Purdue University, surveys while living in Indian villages from 2012 to 2018. He talked to members of farming
households about their experience with genetically modified cottonseeds and asked how they rationalized their
purchasing choices in a seed market that's nearly bursting at the seams. The findings were published in the
journal American Anthropologist.
Flachs argues that without help and expertise from government agencies, cotton farmers in Telangana rely on
scripts: socially learned mental maps that reflect local rules, values and expectations. Since 2008, many farmers
in the region have planted one brand of seeds en masse, with some brands being planted by more than half the
cotton farmers in the area. Yet the following year, they abandon these seeds in favor of a new brand, justifying
their choices in hopes of achieving "manci digubadi," or good yield. As a social scientist, Flachs saw this as a
testable question.
"The line that came up constantly was, 'I'm doing this to achieve a good yield,'" Flachs said. "That makes sense
if you don't think about it too much, but four years in, I had data saying actually this decision has nothing to do
with yield."
Yields for the six most popular seeds during the study period were all within the normal range of variation for
cotton as a whole, even as farmers repeatedly abandoned and adopted new seeds. This suggests that farmers
don't have a reliable measure for what constitutes a good yield, or at least that they can't reach their desired
potential because of the inherent variability of external factors such as weather, water and pests.
What, then, drives these farmers' seed choices? Flachs argues that when they say they're pursuing a good yield,
they're actually chasing a piece of India's success story.
"Using genetically modified seeds they see in flashy advertisements is their way of performing their modernity.
It's something they see people doing in the rich villages," he said. "They're using technology to be as successful
as they can so that they can help their families. That's at the core of how people are making these agricultural
decisions -- it doesn't have to do with yields, or economic payoff, or agronomy -- in this particular context,
what's making and breaking Indian agriculture and GMOs in the developing world is people reckoning with
being good farmers, good parents, good members of the community. It's entirely a social decision."
The best thing Indian policy-makers could do to help these farmers, Flachs said, is to slow down or regulate the
influx of new seeds each season. There needs to be a way to reduce anxiety and choice-overload associated
with agricultural decisions.
"But if we understand this as more of an existential question, then this isn't really about seeds at all. We need to
improve the quality of life for Indian cotton farmers, whether that means better roads or more reliable irrigation,
both of which are huge problems in India," Flachs said. "Cotton agriculture has grown with the introduction of
genetically modified seeds, and people have put a lot of money into growing them, which has created a lot of
debt. This is a social problem about justice, not just an agricultural problem about crop pests."

QUESTIOS RELATED TO GMO FOOD

1. Do you support genetically modified foods? why?

2. Which method you find best in terms of food security?

3. Clarify GMO food vs. organic food.

4. List the applications of GMO in medicines.

 5. How GMO benefitting all over the world?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NCERT Book OF BIOLOGY class 12th chapter 12

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
classroom

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
modified-organisms-gmos/31400
 Ethnobotany and its role in the present day world

DEFINITION OF ETHNOBOTANY

Ethnobotany is an interdisciplinary science, which includes aspects of both sciences and

humanities. It is the scientific study of the traditional knowledge and customs of a people
concerning plants and their medical, religious, and other uses.

Ethno + Botany = Ethnobotany

People + study of plants = the study of the interactions of people with plants

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The term ‘Ethnobotany’ was coined by [Link] in 1895. The roots of ethno botanical
science can be traced in ancient India. This science has been emerged from India. The sources of
this science lie in old Indian scripture, e.g. Rigveda, Atharvaveda and Upanishads also. These
ancient sources contain guideline for information regarding ethno medicinal plants. Even from
the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa fossils of Herbal drugs are found. Richard Evans
Schultes is considered the Father of modern Ethnobotany.

Ethno botanical work has its beginning long back in A.D. 77, with the publication of “De
Materia Medica” which is a Catalogue of about 600 medicinal plants in [Link]
relationship between plants and human cultures is not limited to the use of plants for food,
clothing and shelter but also includes their use for religious ceremonies, ornamentation and
health care. The focus of ethnobotany is on how plants have been or are used, managed and
perceived in human societies and includes plants used for food, medicine, divination, cosmetics,
dyeing, textiles, for building, tools, currency, clothing, rituals, social life and music.

Ethnobotany is the systematic study of relationship between plants and people. It is

not simply the study of the human “use” of plants; rather, ethnobotany locates plants within their
cultural context in particular societies, and situations peoples within their ecological contexts
(newworldencyclopedia).It is true that substitutes are now available in advanced economies for
many of the previous uses of plant products. For example, plastics and metals can be used
instead of wood for many purposes, and synthetic fabrics such as nylon instead of plant-
derived textiles such as cotton. Similarly, some medicines are synthesized by biochemists, rather
than being extracted from plants (or from other organisms, such as certain microbes or animals).
However, alternatives have not been discovered for many crucial uses of plants, so we continue
to rely on domesticated and wild species as resources necessary for our survival. Moreover, there
is an immense diversity of potential uses of wild plants that scientists have not yet discovered.
Continued bio-prospecting in tropical rainforests and other natural ecosystems will discover new,
previously unknown uses of plants, as foods, medicines, and materials. A key element of this
prospecting is the examination of already existing knowledge of local people about the utility of
wild plants. This is the essence of the practice of ethnobotany. (science jrank, p.p. 2585)

DEFINITIONS

Alcom(1984) states that Enthobotany is the study of contextualized plant use.

(biologydiscussion, n.d.)

According to Jones, 1941,”Ethnobotany is defined as the study of the interrelations of primitive

man and plants.” (mokol, p.p.169)

According to Schultes (1962), ethno botany is defined as the study of the relationships between
the people of a primitive society and plants. (biologydiscussion, n.d.)

According to Cotton (1996), “Ethnobotany is considered to encompass all studies which concern
the mutual relationship between plants and traditional people.” (mokol, p.p 169)

In the words of Martin (1995), “Ethnobotany is the part of ethnoecology which concerns plants.”
(mokol, p.p. 169)

Plants play an important role in every aspect of our lives and without them life is not possible.
Plants not only regulate the concentration of gases in the air, but also the only organisms
capable of transforming sunlight into food energy on which all other forms of life ultimately
depend upon. Given their extensive range of knowledge of medicinal plants, indigenous people
remain the ultimate resource for retrieving this information for the purpose of application,
particularly in modern medicine.

ETHNOBOTANY- SCIENCE OR ART

Art is doing and science is understanding. The information gathered through understanding of
various principles that govern the function of nature the science of Ethnobotany and are then
applied in the welfare of mankind that becomes the art of Ethnobotany.

Ethnobotany is an art when we use plants for ornamentation, pleasure, unique preparation of
garden, kitchen garden, cosmetics and wood work in toys and other wooden articles.
 Ethnobotany is considered science when we used the plants for herbal drugs and its chemical
contents for healing from diseases. Its relation to other branches like Ethno pharmacy, Ethno
pharmacology, EthnophytochemistI, Ethno toxicology, Ethno medicine etc.

MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ETHNOBOTANY

Today, the field of Ethnobotany requires a variety of skills:

a) Botanical training for the identification and preservation of plants specimens,

b) Anthropological training to understand the cultural concepts around the perception of plants,

c) Linguistic training to be able to transcribe local terms and understand native language
morphology, syntax and semantics.

Ethnobotany is truly multidisciplinary, encompassing not just botany, anthropology and

linguistics but also archaeology, geography, medicine, pharmacology economics and landscape
architecture.

USES OF PLANT PRODUCE

The ethnic plant wealth may be divided into the following groups on the basis of their uses:
(1) Wild edible plants (food plants)
(2) Ethno medicinal plants
(3) Fibre and floss yielding plants
(4) Oil yielding plants
(5) Dye yielding plants
(6) Gum and resin yielding plants
(7) Ethno toxic and fish poison plants
(8) Timber and wood work
(9) Tannin yielding plants
(10) Plants used in basketry and brooms

BRANCHES OF ETHNOBOTANY

DISCIPLINE DEFINITION RELEVANCE TO ETHNOBOTANY

Ecology a branch of science concerned with the How human interactions with plants and
interrelationship of organisms and their ecosystems affect plant ecology
environments.
Chemistry A science that deals with the composition, The study of the composition of
structure, and properties of substances and substances and active chemicals in plants
with the transformations
Agroforestry Land management involving the growing of How humans have managed the land for
trees in association with food crops or pastures the simultaneous production of food,
crops, and trees.
Archaeology The scientific study of material remains of past Paleoethnobotany- how ancient cultures
human life and activities used plants
Religious studies The study of religious faith, practice, and Rituals uses of plants by different
experience cultures and religions
Sociology The systematic study of the development, How humans use plants in various
structure, interaction, and collective behaviour societies
of organised groups of human beings.
Systematics The classification and study of organisms with How different people classify taxonomy
regard to their natural relationships
Medicine Substance or preparation used in treating How humans use plants for medicinal
diseases purposes
Horticulture Science and art of growing fruits, vegetables, Management in home gardens and
flowers and ornamental plants orchards
economics Description and analysis of the production, The economic use of plants
distribution, and consumption of goods and
services
Forestry The science of developing, caring for, or The human management of forests and
cultivating forests forest trees
Linguistics The study of human speech including the units, The terminology of plants and plant parts
nature, structure, and modification of language by people of different language group

STEPS INVOLVED IN ETHNOBOTANICAL ANALYSIS

An initial emphasis on recording vernacular

names and uses

Determining nutritional and chemical analyses

of edible and wild plants

Investigations into the quantities of materials used

and/or the frequency of use

Quantitative studies of human impacts on plant

 resources, particularly those entering
commercial trade

Valuations of plant resources

The primitive societies in India have been dependent on herbal medicines from the time
immemorial. In fact, all traditional systems of medicine had their roots and origin in folk
medicines or ethno medicines. The knowledge of ethno botany plays a vital role in the primary
health care and economy of the tribals and aboriginal populations of our country and has
potential for the discovery of new herbal drugs and new sources of nutraceuticals etc. The study
of ethno botany provides valuable information’s to the scientists, planners and administrators for
the preparation of action plan for the economic emancipation of tribals and Eco development of
tribal areas.

VARIOUS ROLES OF ETHNOBOTANY

 ROLE OF ETHNO-
BOTANY IN
PHARMACEUTICAL
INDUSTRY

ROLE OF ETHNO-
BOTANY IN THE ROLE OF ETHNO-
CONSERVATION OF BOTANY IN
INDIGENOUS AGRICULTURE
KNOWLEDGE
ROLE OF
ETHNO-
BOTANY

ROLE OF ETHNO-
ROLE OF ETHNO-
BOTANY IN THE
BOTANY IN
CONSERVATION OF
RELIGION AND
PLANT
RITUAL
BIODIVERSITY

1. ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY

Plants have been the cornerstone of medicinal therapies for thousands of years and continue to be
an essential part of health care for much of the world. The traditional origins of many current
pharmaceuticals have been obscured by the process of drug development, such as aspirin from
willow bark (Salix spp.), reserpine for hypertension from the Indian Snake Root (Rauwolfia
serpentina) and D-tubocurarine, widely used as a muscle relaxant in surgery, from arrow poisons
(Chondodendron tomentosum, as discussed earlier), but the plants used in traditional medicine
continue to supply the industry with raw materials and new ideas. (climate-policy-watcher. 2019,
25 dec)
Ethnomedicine is a sub-field of medical anthropology that deals with the study of traditional
medicines—not only those with relevant written sources (e.g., Traditional Chinese
Medicine and Ayurveda), but also those whose knowledge and practices have been orally
transmitted over the centuries. While the focus of ethnomedical studies is often the indigenous
perception and use of traditional medicines, another stimulus for this type of research is drug
discovery and development. Major pharmaceuticals such as digoxin, morphine,
and atropine have been traced to foxglove, opium, and belladonna, respectively. Ethnomedical
investigations in this century have led to the development of important drugs such as reserpine (a
treatment for hypertension) podophyllotoxin (the base of an important anti-cancer drug), and
vinblastine (used in the treatment of certain cancers). (newworldencyclopedia, n.d.)

Wild medicinal plants in Indian Folk Life:

Pats of over 3500 wild species are used to cure ailments in man and his domesticated animals :
1. Panicum anidotale or Artemisia maritime is used for wounds and as disinfectant.

2. Bulbs of Urginea indica is used Bronchisl troubles.

3. Mollugo cerviana is used for Blood purification and promoting lochial discharge.
4. Glinus lotoides is used for Urinary troubles.
5. Root paste of Corallocarpus epigaeus is used for swellings.
6. Neurada procumbens and Colchium luteum, seeds of Mimosa hamata root of Asparagus
recemosus are used as tonics.
7. Achyranthus aspera is used for the treatment of Pneumonia.
8. Podophyllum hexandrun; Salvia aegyptiaca are used for treating Diarrhoea.
9. Cuscuta hyaline is used for Chest pain.

Plants in folk medicine of the Himalaya:

The Himalayan ranges are inhabited by a large tribal population, often with their distinct way of
life, traditions, dialects and cultural heritage. The Himalaya have bestowed them with vast,
varied and even endemic plants. The tribals have learnt to utilize local herbs for different
ailments after centuries of trials, often at the risk of loss of human life. Many tribal beliefs forbid
them to unravel the virtues of the plants to outside world. But, it is also true that till recent little
concerted effort had been made to document this knowledge by detailed ethnobotanical surveys.
Some folk medicines of the region have proved efficaceous after detailed pharmacological and
clinical trials. Rauvolfia serpentina roots are a classical example. Coptis teeta is another plant
which has given encouraging results. The oil of seed kernel of Hydnocarpus kurzii, from upper
Assam and Tripura hills, has proved useful in the treatment of leprosy and skin diseases. The
roots of Nardostachys grandiflore have provided a safe sedative.

Use of plants in folk medicine by tribals of Central India:

Use of plants in folk medicine is very prevalent in Central India (Jain, 1963, Jain and Tarafder,
1963). More than one hundred plants were reported to be commonly used in medicine in the
district of Bastar (Jain, 1965). Some plants are used singly, whereas others are used in mixture.
Similarly, certain plants were considered useful in only one disease whereas several had multiple
uses.
Many medicinal uses reported by tribals of Bastar appeared to be unknown or little- known
outside their community. Examples of a few such plants are given below:
Cassia tora (Charota) : Tender leaves eaten to prevent skin diseases.
Combretum decandrum (Ainti) : Oil from seeds applied on eczema.
Flacourtia indica (Kakai) : Bark applied on eczema.
Nyctanthes arbortristis (Harsingar) : The inflorescence and young fruits pounded in water; this is
used for relieving cough.
Polygonum plebejum (Chatibhaji) : The plant eaten as a vegetable to promote lactation.

2. ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture may be defined as the culturally influenced selection of plants with specific genetic
characteristics that are desired by humans to create domesticated plants, or crops.
Ethnobotany contributes to an understanding of agriculture in two ways:
1. By revealing ways to create genetically altered plants for human purposes.
2. By describing and explaining the many different ways the same crop can be raised,
whether for economic gain, a desire for sustained yield, or other culturally specific
purposes.
One example of the mutual influence of plants and human cultures is illustrated by the Irish
potato famine of the mid-nineteenth century. The Irish cultivation of potatoes was an example
of monoculture, the practice of planting crops with the same patterns of growth resulting from
genetic similarity. Monoculture can lead to large scale crop failure when the single genetic
variant (or cultivar) becomes susceptible to a disease. The famine, which resulted in somewhere
between 500,000 and one million deaths, was caused by the cultivar's susceptibility
to Phytophthora infestans. The famine partially triggered widespread Irish immigration to Great
Britain, the United States, Canada, and Australia. (newworldencyclopedia, n.d.)

3. ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN RELIGION AND RITUAL:

An entheogen, in the strictest sense, is a psychoactive substance (most often some plant matter
with hallucinogenic effects) that occasions an enlightening spiritual or mystical experience.
Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for
millennia. One of the founders of modern ethnobotany, Richard Evans Schultes of Harvard
University, documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the Kiowa who live in what has
became Oklahoma in the [[United States). Used traditionally by many cultures of what is
now Mexico, peyote spread to North America in the nineteenth century, replacing
the toxic entheogen Sophora secundiflora (mescal bean). Indigenous peoples of South
America employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include ayahuasca
(Banisteriopsis caapi plus admixtures) among indigenous peoples (such as the Urarina) of
Peruvian Amazonia. Other well-known entheogens include: Borrachero (Brugmansia spp); San
Pedro (Trichocereus spp); and various tryptamine-bearing snuffs. The familiar tobacco plant,
when used uncured in large doses in shamanic contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South
America. (newworldencyclopedia, n.d.)

4. ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN THE CONSERVATION OF PLANT

BIODIVERSITY:

Most species of wild plants can only be conserved in their natural ecosystems. Therefore the
enormous storehouse of potentially useful foods, medicines, and materials available from
plant biodiversity can only be preserved if large areas of tropical forests and other natural
ecosystems are conserved. However, deforestation, pollution, and other changes caused by
humans are rapidly destroying natural ecosystems, causing their potentially invaluable
biodiversity to be irretrievably lost through extinction. The conservation of natural ecosystems is
of great importance for many reasons, including the fact that it conserves ethnobotanical
resources. ([Link], p.p. 2585)

5. ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN THE CONSERVATION OF INDIGENOUS

KNOWLEDGE:

Ethnobotanical studies conducted in many parts of the world have found that local cultures are
fully aware of the many useful species occurring in their ecosystem. This is particularly true of
people living a subsistence lifestyle, that is, they gather, hunt, or grow all of the food, medicine,
materials, and other necessities of their lives. This local knowledge has been gained by trial
and error over long periods of time, and in most cases has been passed across generations
through oral transmission. Indigenous knowledge is an extremely valuable cultural resource that
ethnobotanists seek to understand, because so many useful plants and other organisms are known
to local people. Unfortunately, this local, traditional knowledge is often rapidly lost once
indigenous people become integrated into modern, materialistic society. It is important that local
indigenous peoples be given the opportunity to conserve their own culture. ([Link], p.p.
2585)
ROLE OF ETHNOBOTANY IN THE PRESENT DAY WORLD

Today Ethnobotany has become a part of tradition and culture worldwide. Ethnobotanical work
has gained relevance as the ancient knowledge of the use of plants requires immediate efforts for
the conservation.

The role of ethnobotany in present day world can be summarized as follows:

 Ethnobotany includes the study of indigeneous food production and local medicinal
knowledge which may have practical implications for developing sustainable agriculture
and discovering new medicines.
 Ethnobotany also encourages an awareness of the link between biodiversity and cultural
diversity, as well as a sophisticated understanding of the mutual influence of the plants
and humans (both beneficial and destructive).
 Wild plants have always been the matter of high concern and have always been used for
their potential of human well beings.
 People have been using plants for food, shelter, medicines as well as the materials for
construction and the manufacture for crafts and tools and many other products like fuel,
paints, poison etc.
 Plants often have rituals characters and are used because of their variety of properties.
 In the present world, ethnobotanical studies have facilitated the exploration of genetic
and chemical characters of plants for human benefits.
 Ethnobotany provides information regarding the traditional uses of plant wealth which
can be utilized in integrated tribal development.
 The etnobotanical studies explore certain unknown useful plants and new uses of many
known plants which can be exploited for developing new sources for some plant products
and agro based industries.
 Ethnobotany has become an important and crucial are of research and development in
resource management, sustainable utilization and conservation of biodiversity and
socioeconomic development today.
 Ethnobotany has relevance with problems of nutrition, health care and life support
system, social customs, mythological association or faith in plants, cottage industries,
economic upliftment, conservation of biodiversity and sustainable sue of plant resources.
 (mokol, p.p. 169-170)

RESEARCH ARTICLES FOR REFERENCE

Ethnobotanical Survey of Rajasthan-An Update

K. Choudhary, 2M. Singh and 1U. Pillai

1Department of Botany and Biotechnology,
Lachoo Memorial College of Science and Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan- 342001, India
2Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Science, FASC, MITS - Deemed University,
Lakshmangarh, Sikar, Rajasthan- 332-311, India

Plants have been used both in the prevention and cure of various diseases of humans and their
pets. With the advent of human civilization, many systems of therapy have been developed
primarily based on plants. Ayurveda, Homeopathy, Sidda, Unani, etc. are our traditional systems
of medicines. The plant-based traditional medical systems continue to provide the primary health
care to more than three-quarters of the world’s populace. In India, the use of plants for medicinal
treatment dates back to 5000 years. It was officially recognized that 2500 plant species have
medicinal value while over 6000 plants are estimated to be explored in traditional, folk and
herbal medicine. An important prerequisite for proper utilization of raw materials of the country
is the survey of its natural resources and the preparation of an inventory. It is necessary that we
should have full knowledge regarding the occurrence, frequency, distribution and phenology of
various plants for their proper utilization. The forests and arid regions of Rajasthan have great
potentiality both from the economic and botanical points of view. This paper reviews the work
done so far in the ethnobotany of Rajasthan.

The traditional knowledge system in India is fast disappearing. So there is an urgent need for
inventorying and recording all ethnobotanical information among the diverse ethnic
communities. In this paper work on ethnobotanical uses of plants belonging to Rajasthan
been documented for their food value and their interesting therapeutic properties for various
ailments. Various plants have dual significance; firstly they can be promising future food,
secondly these medicinal tuberous plants can have some active constituent for future
pharmaceutical analysis.

Various results show that gender and age class differ of in their traditional knowledge with
regard to medicinal plants reported. Males above 50 year of age had more traditional
knowledge about medicinal plants and their uses than females. This may be attributed to their
medicinal involvement in trade related activities. In most of the cases the older people were
noted as being better and informants and the vivid reason for this may be their Rajasthan
personal experience of using these plants since old times.
We learned through the survey that local people are still dependent on plant resources for
treatment of various ailments, but this kind of dependence is decreasing. This is likely due to
multiple reasons. One such reason is lack of belief of the young generation in the
t r a d i t i o n a l medicine systems and increasing use of allopathic medicines due to their
availability and efficacy. Another reason likely is the harvest by drug manufacturers
especially in areas near settlements and pastures, leaving behind very little for access by
local communities. Arisaema tortuosum, Costus specious, Eulophia ochreata, Leea
indica, Leea macrophylla, Pureria tuberosa, Corallocarpus epigaeus etc. have medicinal
value belonging to rare category while Ceropegia bulbosa, Ceropegia tuberosa and Pureria
tuberose having food value, but due to overexploitation now they have become rare and
endangered and there is great threat of extinction. Genus Dioscorea which was much abundant
previously has been kept into rare category (Table 1).

Table 1: Plants of Rajasthan with ethnobotanical use

Edible plants Ceropegia bulbosa, Ceropegia tuberosa, Curcuma amada, Colocasia

esculenta, Dioscorea bulbifera, Nelumbo nucifera, Pupalia atropurpuria,
Pureria tuberose, Raphanus sativaus, Trapa natans

Medicinal plants Ampelociessus latifolia, Asparagus racemosus, Arisaema tortuosum,

Costus specious, Curculigo orchioidies, Crinum asiaticum, Ceropegia bulbosa,
Ceropegia tuberosa, Chlorophytum tuberosum, Corallocarpus epigaeus,
Colocasia esculenta, Curcuma amada, Cayratia trifolia, Dioscorea bulbifera,
Dioscorea hispida, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Dioscorea tomentosa, Daucas
carota, Eulophia ochreata, Euphorbia fusiformi, Gloroisa superba, Globba
marantina, Leea indica, Leea macrophylla, Langenandra toxicaria, Momordica
dioica, Momordica balsamina, Mirabilis jalapa, Nelumbo nucifera, Pureria
tuberose, Raphanus sativaus, Ruellia tuberosa, Sauromatum venosum, Tacca
leontopetaloides, Trichisanthes cucumerina, Urginea indica, Withania
somnifera, Zingiber officinale

Spice plants Curcuma amada, Zingiber officinale,

Poisionous plants Crinum asiaticum(Bulb), Gloroisa superba (Tuber), Withania somnifera

(seed), Dioscorea bulbifera (Tuber), Urginea indica (Bulb) Ornamental plants Crinum
asiaticum, Gloroisa superb
It is observed that the dosages and duration of medicine generally depend on the
intensity of the disease and age of patient. It is observed that tribal harvest that plant part used
for medicinal purpose at particular growth period or season e.g. before flowering and fruiting
period etc. presumably to obtain maximum concentration of the active principle. As tuberous
plants remain in dormant phase and have a limited period for completing their life cycle, tribal
preserve the tuber for various remedies, which is harvested in their particular period. Hence,
the tribals have a specified way of collecting the herbs, preparing and applying the medicine.
It is observed that single plant species or a combination of different plant species is used for
curing various diseases.

ANALYSIS:
In this paper work on ethnobotanical uses of plants belonging to Rajasthan been documented for
their food value and their interesting therapeutic properties for various ailments. Various results
show that gender and age class differ of in their traditional knowledge with regard to medicinal
plants reported. Males above 50 year of age had more traditional knowledge about medicinal
plants and their uses than females. This may be attributed to their medicinal involvement in
trade related activities. We learned through the survey that local people are still dependent on
plant resources for treatment of various ailments, but this kind of dependence is decreasing.
This is likely due to multiple reasons. One such reason is lack of belief of the young
generation in the t r a d i t i o n a l medicine systems and increasing use of allopathic
medicines due to their availability and efficacy. It is observed that the dosages and duration of
medicine generally depend on the intensity of the disease and age of patient. It is observed that
single plant species or a combination of different plant species is used for curing various
diseases.

An ethnobotanical study on current status of some medicinal

plants used in Bulgaria

Vanya Koleva, Asya Dragoeva, Zheni Nanova*, Teodora Koynova and Georgi Dashev
Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Shumen, 115 Universitetska
Str., 9712 Shumen, Bulgaria
The present study represents a part of a wider ethnobotanical survey conducted in different
localities of Bulgaria during May-July 2013. The survey was carried out with 255 people by
using the face-to-face interview technique. The participants were asked: 1) to list five used by
them medicinal plants (excluding Achillea millefolium, Hypericum perforatum, Thymus sp.,
Melissa officinalis L., Origanum vulgare L.) and 2) to present a detailed information about local
names of plants listed, ethnobotanical use and the mode of use. Totally, 62 plant species were
listed by respondents. Bulgarian botanical taxa cited included 49 plant taxa from 26 plant
families. Most cited families were Lamiaceae (9 species), Asteraceae (7 species) and Rosaceae
(5 species). The most frequently reported plants are Calendula officinalis L., Tilia sp, Mentha
sp., Rosa sp., Crataegus monogyna Jacq., Cotinus coggygria Scop., Sambucus nigra L., Urtica
dioica L., Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert. These herbs are used mainly for disease treatment
and prevention. The abundant information about Bulgarian botanical taxa reported by the
participants in this study is an evidence for the existence of local knowledge of folk medicine in
Bulgaria. At the same time, the interest and use of non-native plants display the impact of
globalization and socio-cultural development on herbal utilization nowadays.

Materials and Methods

This survey was carried out in different areas of Bulgaria during May-July 2013 by using the
face-to-face interview technique as described in similar studies (Akaydin, 2013; Seid, 2013). The
researchers and Ethnobotany Club student members (Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of
Shumen, Bulgaria) carried out the survey. The students were trained to conduct an
ethnobotanical survey. The interviewed people were chosen randomly. The demographic features
of the people who accepted to participate in the interview were determined. Then the participants
were asked: 1) to list five used by them medicinal plants (excluding Achillea millefolium,
Hypericum perforatum, Thymus sp., Melissa officinalis L. and Origanum vulgare L.) and 2) to
describe the detailed information (local names, ethnobotanical use and the way of preparation).
Descriptive statistic procedures like percentages and frequency distributions are used for
analyzing the data.

Result and Discussion

Interviews with 255 people were conducted. Among them, 224 were interviewed by Ethnobotany
club members. The whole projects was aimed to 1) to detect current status on herbs and herbal
medicine utilization in Bulgaria and 2) to collect ethnobotanical data on five commonly used
plants (Achillea millefolium, Hypericum perforatum, Thymus sp., Melissa officinalis L. and
Origanum vulgare L.). Then the participants were questioned to list five other medicinal plants
and to describe detailed information (local names,
ethnobotanical use and the way of preparation). This paper is focused on the answers to the last
question. This observation is of importance as an indicative that herbal products, being natural,
are generally considered to be safe. It must be noticed that plants contain a variety of secondary
metabolites used as a chemical defense mechanism (Teixeira et al., 2003).

ANALYSIS:
The present study represents a part of a wider ethnobotanical survey conducted in different
localities of Bulgaria during May-July 2013. The survey was carried out with 255 people by
using the face-to-face interview technique. The observations lead to necessity of estimation of
potential toxicity of medicinal plants. The obtained data must be popularized especially in
populations that rely on traditional medicine. The abundant information about Bulgarian
botanical taxa reported by the participants in this study is an evidence for the existence of local
knowledge of folk medicine in Bulgaria. At the same time, the interest and use of non-native
plants display the impact of globalization and socio-cultural development on herbal utilization
nowadays.

Ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal studies in Baluchi tribes: A case study in Mt. Taftan,
southeastern Iran.

Maleki T, et al. J Ethnopharmacol. 2018.

Abstract

From ancient times, the applied use of herbs has been common among indigenous people
throughout the world. The present survey is a regional ethnobotanical study of Baluchi tribes
living in the Mt. Taftan area, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, southeastern Iran. The aim of this
study was to document all traditional knowledge and analyze the medicinal plants used in area
and also to identify significant plant species for future pharmacological study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Local knowledge was obtained through semi structured and open interviews, in which 51
informants were interviewed. Data were analyzed with Informant Agreement Relative (IAR) and
Frequency of Citation (FC) indices.

RESULTS:
A total number of 106 taxa of medicinal plants were collected from ten villages from the
surrounding plains and highlands of Mt. Taftan, out of 446 plant taxa collected or reported as
native in the area. Most plants belong to the Irano-Turanian phytogeographical region in which
Asteraceae (15%), Lamiaceae (11%), Fabaceae (8%), Rosaceae (7%), Apiaceae (7%) and
Brassicaceae (5%) are those predominantly used. The regression analysis shows that families
Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae and Rosaceae are more highly used as medicinal than species
rich families such as Asteraceae and Fabaceae, which are the richest families in the Iranian flora.
The highest FC was recorded for Artemisia spp. (41) and Berberis integerrima (40). The highest
IAR Index was obtained for stings (0.86), followed by disorders in the circulatory system (0.7),
dental problems (0.70) and injuries (0.69). Comparing our data with major ethnobotanical
references in Iran revealed that medicinal applications of 34 taxa have not been cited, including
Hyoscyamus malekianus, a local endemic plant using for ailments of toothache and worms. The
toxicity of the endemic Semenovia suffruticosa is also reported.

CONCLUSION:

As a result of this study we conclude that Taftan area harbours many plant species for which
indigenous knowledge provides a background of medicinal importance. The high percentage of
medicinal plants proportional to the native flora is 23.8%, compared to the world percentage of
17.1%, is an indication of the rich knowledge and relationship of isolated Baluchi tribes living in
Mt. Taftan to the local flora growing in their surroundings. This rich knowledge should be highly
regarded as a cultural and ethnobotanical heritage. Furthermore, ethnobotanical results show
some weak interrelation between Baluchi tribes living in Iran and Pakistan, probably because of
a different flora and/or unfavourable environmental conditions and perhaps local conflicts which
might have reduced active cultural exchange.

ANALYSIS:

The present survey is a regional ethnobotanical study of Baluchi tribes living in the Mt. Taftan
area, Sistan and Baluchistan Province, southeastern Iran. The aim of this study was to document
all traditional knowledge and analyze the medicinal plants used in area and also to identify
significant plant species for future pharmacological study. Local knowledge was obtained
through semi structured and open interviews, in which 51 informants were interviewed. A total
number of 106 taxa of medicinal plants were collected from ten villages from the surrounding
plains and highlands of Mt. Taftan, out of 446 plant taxa collected or reported as native in the
area. As a result of this study we conclude that Taftan area harbours many plant species for
which indigenous knowledge provides a background of medicinal importance. This rich
knowledge should be highly regarded as a cultural and ethnobotanical heritage.

CONCLUSION

Plant knowledge has been passed around the world since the beginning of time, and frequency,
the actual plants themselves have spread along as well. The investigation of plants and their uses
is one for the most primary human concerns and has been practiced by all cultures since
generations.

Ethnobotany has become a broader discipline, which is interested in all studies about relationship
between people and plants. It is an interdisciplinary science and has relevance to sociology,
anthropology, taxonomy, photochemistry, archaeology, ecology, agriculture, medicine,
linguistics, etc.

Ethnobotany is a field on rise nowadays. It is a field of research of great value and has benefits
for botanists, chemists, socialists, etc, because of its large study areas. It is possible now to
conserve and maintain the biodiversity and indigenous culture with the help of ethnobotanical
studies.

QUESTIONNAIRE
 1) What do you understand by the term Ethnobotany?
2) Who coined the term Ethnobotany?
3) What are the various attributes of Ethnobotany?
4) Explain the various roles of Ethnobotany in present life?
5) Mention the importance of Ethnobotany in our lives?
6) Explain the role of Ethnobotany in the present world scenario?
7) Give examples of use of Ethnobotany you have experienced around yourself?
8) What do you think Ethnobotany can revive our traditional knowledge? Justify with
examples.
9) How can Ethnobotany conserve plant biodiversity? Justify with examples.
10) “India is a country of mega biodiversity.” Can we say India has a vast scope of
Ethnobotany? Yes/No? Explain

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 [Link]
education/45259
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importance/7158
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[Link]
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[Link]
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ethnobotany_role_relation_medicinal_plants_india
 Mokol, Rajesh & Lalita. Environmental Education. Pp. 138-170
 Pandey,AK. (2017). Ethnobotany and its relevance in contemporary research. Journal of
Medicinal Plants Studies, 5(3): 123-129
 Koleva, V et. at. (2015). An ethnobotanical study on current status of some medicinal
plants used in Bulgaria. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied
Sciences, 4(4): 297-305
 University of Benin (2009). Current Trends in Ethnobotany. Tropical Journal of
Pharmaceutical Research, 8 (4): 295-296
 Choudhary, K et. al. (2009). Ethnobotanical Survey of Rajasthan-An Update. American-
Eurasian Journal of Botany, 2 (1): 22-29
 [Link]

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH

INTRODUCTION

The environment is just the natural world that surrounds us. Our environment provides us
with everything we need: air, food, water, and all the natural resources needed to build our
civilization and keep it running. Because human beings are entirely dependent on the
environment for our continued survival, it’s important that we keep it clean and utilize it in a
sustainable way.

Environmental degradation is a decline in the quality of our environment. This can be a result
of pollutants that spoil the air, water or food supply, the over-extraction of resources so that
little remains for future use, or the destruction of habitats so that the resources they once
contained are no longer available. While natural disasters can cause environmental
degradation, more often it is the result of human activities.

DEFINITION - Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through

depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat
destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or
disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental
impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and
increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita
affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T).

Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level
Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations. The United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the
reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and
needs". Environmental degradation comes in many types. When natural habitats are
destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to
counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources
management.

EXAMPLE

There are many examples of environmental degradation throughout the world. A recent
example is the 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires. The Amazon makes up 60% of all
rainforests. It is the earth's lungs and with it getting destroyed is posing a huge threat to the
environment and the whole world. The effects of the deforestation will pose major impacts
on the world around us. The constant cutting down of trees is getting rid of our oxygen
supply as well as the absorption of co2. With the continuation of deforestation we will have
less available oxygen in the world which could be a detrimental problem for human health.
An alternate issue that results from this is the overconsumption and waste of the paper
products that come from those trees. The waste it typically produces does not get recycled,
therefore, immense amount of waste is created. An additional harmful result from this is the
degradation of the soil. The constant deforestation causes the soil to become less nutrient
which will make it harder to be used again.

TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

 Water Land
degradation degradation

Atmosphere
degradation

[Link] degradation

Water degradation or water pollution is mainly caused by the release of harmful materials
into water bodies rendering it unsuitable for the use by animals or humans. A moving water
body serves as a very effective mode of disposal of waste. This is the usual norm for people
living near water bodies. This can be seen in the drainage and sewage systems in various
cities. Many industries dispose off their wastes into many rivers and lakes. These industrial
wastes are often untreated and frequently contain harmful chemicals that can be toxic to
aquatic life forms and to animals and humans when consumed.

The use of chemicals in agriculture as manures, pesticides, and weedicides often result in
chemical contamination of nearby water bodies after rain or connected irrigation systems.
These chemicals are extremely harmful to the aquatic ecosystem as well as for human
consumption.

Water degradation in the oceans and seas is again a major concern. Most ships and steamers
discarded their wastes and refuse into the ocean water which led to the contamination of the
marine ecosystem. Oil spillage from marine vessels, oil tankers and offshore wells has
damaged the ecosystem. Clean up of oil spills on the ocean surface is not an easy task and if
delayed can lead to the death of numerous aquatic life forms.
Off late there have been reports of increasing acidity of the ocean water due to the formation
of carbonic acid as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reacts with the sea water. The higher
acidity of the water hampers with the calcification process that many species depend on like
shells, corals, certain planktons, sea urchins, clams’ mussels and others. These calcifying
species are indispensable for the marine ecosystem. The increasing acidity of the ocean will
result in the melting of the hard exoskeleton of the calcifying species and may lead to local
extinction of many species.

[Link] Degradation

The soil offers a medium for the growth and cultivation of various plant species. It also
serves as the habitat for many animals and microorganisms that contribute substantially to
the ecological balance. When the composition of the soil is contaminated due to the disposal
of harmful waste or the use of chemicals it becomes detrimental to the organisms that depend
on the soil for its sustenance.

One of the major reasons for the degradation of land is due to the disposal of waste that
cannot be degraded naturally like different forms of plastic materials, Styrofoam, metal
scraps etc. These waste remains lodged in the soil and impacts the fertility of the soil.
Irresponsible dumping of biodegradable or organic waste can also lead to pollution resulting
in unusable land patches due to the dirt.

Mining is another reason that has led to the degradation of various areas. Deep mining
creates deep and open shafts that renders the land unsuitable for farming or for dwelling. The
underground empty spaces created post-mining can lead to the creation of various sinkholes
which can in many instances be dangerous. The constant drilling also makes the soil loose
and encourages erosion.

Deforestation is a known cause of land degradation. The cutting or felling of trees leads to
the loosening of soil which aggravates soil erosion. That deforestation leads to loss of habitat
for numerous animals and the extinction of many animal and plant species.

[Link] degradation

Atmospheric degradation is caused by air pollution and it is the main contributor to the
environmental issues that is leading to global warming. The increasing air pollution has led
to various health risks including climatic changes all over the planet. The impact of air
pollution has a chain reaction causing the breakdown of other ecosystems as well.
The main contributor to air pollution is vehicular and industrial emission. The smoke
released from the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles and industries consists primarily of
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. All
these gases are detrimental to the environment. High concentration of Sulphur dioxides in the
air can lead to respiratory diseases in man and animals and can cause the formation of
Sulphur Smog when it is exposed to sunlight. Sulphurous smog is also referred to as London
Smog. Sulphur oxide gases are released upon burning of fossil fuels containing Sulphur coal.

CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

There are many causes of environmental degradation, nearly all of them rooted in human
technology. While some are the result of the unintended consequences of technological
advancement, others are examples of humans becoming too successful and efficient at
resource extraction. Here are some of the ultimate causes of environmental deterioration.

Climate Change

This phenomenon is a result of the unintended consequences of burning fossil fuels and
releasing staggering amounts of carbon dioxide into atmosphere.

In May 2016, Phalodi in Rajasthan recorded a temperature of 51 degrees Celsius – the

highest ever in the country. The increasingly tormenting heat waves in the past years are but
an indication that global warming and climate change are real challenges that the country is
facing now. With the Himalayan glaciers melting at an alarming rate, floods and other such
natural disasters are occurring with increasing frequency. The number of forest fires, floods,
earthquakes and such other calamities over the past five years has been unprecedented.

Use of Plastics

Unrestrained use of plastics is another major concern for the country. According to data from
the Plastindia Foundation, India’s demand for polymers is expected to go up from 11 million
tonnes in 2012-13 to about 16.5 million tonnes in 2016-17. India’s per capita plastic
consumption went up from about 4 kg in 2006 to some 8 kg in 2010. By 2020, this is likely
to shoot up to about 27 kg. To understand the damage that this can cause to the environment,
it is important to understand that plastics are one of the least biodegradable materials. An
average plastic beverage bottle could take up to 500 years to decompose [Link]
produces over 14,000 tonnes of solid-waste daily.

Industrialization

The industrial revolution increased human life expectancy and gave us the affordable
luxuries of the modern world. It has also led to air, water and soil pollution that has direct
affects on human and animal health.

Majority of our industrial plants are using out-dated and population technologies and
makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of cities
and industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and water pollution.

Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their
implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the
people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these
rules.

Deforestation

Deforestation in India is the widespread destruction of major forests in India. It is mainly

caused by environmental degradation by stakeholders such as farmers, ranches, loggers
and plantation corporations. In 2009, India ranked 10th worldwide in the amount of forest
loss, where world annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares (34×106 acres) a
year.

Overpopulation
Rapid population growth puts strain on natural resources which results in degradation of our
environment. Mortality rate has gone down due to better medical facilities which has resulted
in increased lifespan. More population simple means more demand for food, clothes and
shelter.

A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. It puts
considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence,
the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although population
control does automatically lead to development, yet the development leads to a decrease in
population growth rates.

Land Disturbance

A more basic cause of environmental degradation is land damage. Drought-prone areashave

been ever expanding, as a result, some of the districts in U.P. like Tehri and Uttarkashi,
Bankurain West Bengal and large areas of Rajasthan fell to acute scarcity of water. Lakes,
rivers and streamsare drying day by day. The water area of Chilka (Orissa) has been reduced
from 1165 sq km to 900 sqkm. Loktak lake, the largest freshwater inland lake, has been
reduced from 495 sq km to 390 sq kmin ten years causing a serious ecological problem in
Kashmir valley.

Pollution

Pollution, in whatever form, whether it is air, water, land or noise is harmful for the
environment. Air pollution pollutes the air that we breathe which causes health issues. Water
pollution degrades the quality of water that we use for drinking purposes. Land pollution
results in degradation of earth’s surface as a result of human activities. Noise pollution can
cause irreparable damage to our ears when exposed to continuous large sounds like honking
of vehicles on a busy road or machines producing large noise in a factory or a mill.

Most serious type of pollution in our country is water pollution. Many Industries are
functioning in our country. Sewage from these industries are the main cause of water
pollution. These wastes are drained into the water resources. Sewage treatment is the only
solution. Most of the known rivers in India are nasty. This includes the holy rivers Ganges
and Yamuna. Even small rivers like Bharathapuzha are deeply polluted. People living in the
bangs of these rivers are suffering from various contagious diseases. Many unknown diseases
arise due to this. Air pollution is mainly due to burning of fossil fuels like coal and petrol. it
cause respiratory diseases. Usage of lead in petrol was banned in India recently. This shows
the seriousness of the condition. Air pollution is common in the major cities and industrial
areas like Mumbai and Bangalore. Due to emission of various acidic compounds from near
by industries world famous monument Taj Mahal is facing destruction. Imagine the condition
of people in these areas. garbage pollution or solid waste pollution is mainly due to
population growth. When population density increases requirements also increases. So
amount of waste products too increases. This is a puzzling phenomenon. Though fossil fuel
plants comes t the rescue, they are not enough. Population should be controlled initially. it is
almost impossible.

Poverty

India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are directly
dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter
and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line.

Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of
their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment
degradation are two facts of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a
function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner and helper and global
concerns have little relevance for him.

IMPACT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION ON HUMAN HEALTH

Environmental degradation has a host of negative outcomes that effect human beings both
directly and indirectly. The impact of environmental risk factors on health are extremely
varied and complex in both severity and clinical significance. For example, the effects of
environmental degradation on human health can range from death caused by cancer due to air
pollution to psychological problems resulting from noise. Here are just a few.

Some of the Impact on Human Health are :

Air pollution

Air pollution is one of the top 10 killers in the world and is the fifth leading cause of death in
India. It results in about 620,000 premature deaths which are caused by stroke, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease, ischemic heart disease, lower respiratory infections and
trachea, bronchus and lung cancer, among others. The report highlights the heightened
vulnerability of the poor. It calls for stringent actions on air pollution.

The report has gone into areas such as vehicular pollution, industrial pollution, polluting
cook stoves that cause indoor pollution, and related issues. The report states, “Death toll due
to uncontrolled air pollution-related illnesses alone has increased worldwide by a whopping
300 per cent in the last decade: from 800,000 in year 2000 to 3.2 million in [Link] Delhi,
which was named as the most polluted city of the world by World Health Organization
(WHO) in 2014, air pollution is responsible for 10,000 to 30,000 annual deaths.”

“The way forward would be to reduce the source of air pollution—mainly revamping our
transportation systems and forcing the industry to come up with cleaner technologies. But
people are not aware of these linkages and continue to junk public transport,” said Narain.

Water and sanitation

The report informs that about 37.7 million Indians are affected by water-borne diseases
annually. Around 1.5 million children die due to diarrhoea alone, and 73 million working
days are lost due to water-borne illnesses each year. Estimates suggest that India loses Rs
36,600 crore every year due to water-borne diseases.

Referring to the connection between water and sanitation and malnutrition, the report says
that by 2015, the figure of malnutrition should have dropped to 26 per cent as per the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). But, the country fell short of the goal by seven per
cent. Notwithstanding the progress, India still cannot answer why the malnutrition rate
among its children is so high. The country’s economy has doubled since 1991, when the
government started counting the malnourished children. The world’s largest programme to
tackle child malnutrition, the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), has been in
force in the country since 1975, much before any other country, save the US, introduced
measures to tackle the problem, points out the report.

Malnutrition is prevalent in comparatively richer states as well. The survey indicates that
higher income does not necessarily correlate with better health of children. India loses over
US $12 billion in gross domestic product (GDP) due to vitamin and mineral deficiencies
among its population. Malnutrition is not just about access to food. Children who are
constantly exposed to faecal microorganisms demonstrate environmental enteric dysfunction
or EED, where the gut becomes permeable and brings microbial products in contact with
blood. This leads to activation of the immune system which down-regulates the growth
factors in the body and leads to stunting.

States like Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand – where more people defecate in open, have
more malnourished children, comparatively.

According to official data, from 2006-07 to 2010-11, nearly 10 million toilets were
constructed every year across the country under the Total Sanitation Campaign. These toilets
remain largely defunct and are reportedly being used as storerooms. “Researchers are finding
that immediate environmental factors like access to clean drinking water and, most
importantly, access to sanitation for both the mother and the child are decisive in determining
children’s health,” said Narain.

Climate change

Climate change is leading to greater frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.
Simultaneously, India has seen an increase in vector-borne diseases such as dengue and
malaria. The report states that the potential period of spread of malaria has increased to 10-12
months (almost the whole year) which is up from four to six months. In Kolkata, dengue
transmission takes place for 44 weeks in a year. With a 2.4 degree Celsius rise in
temperature, transmission may continue for 53 weeks, increasing the risk of more people
getting affected. Around 600 people died due to heat waves in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha in
2015. The report states that local solutions can help. In Ahmedabad, a maternity ward was
shifted from the top to the ground floor. The move helped in reduction of heat-related
problems in new-born babies.

The report informs of the impact of climate change on agriculture on agriculture, and the
crop loss suffered by farmers in recent years. “We are seeing an increased severity and
frequency of extreme weather events. Farmers in India are facing the double blow of agrarian
distress and extreme weather events as a result of climate change,” said Narain.

Forest degradation

The diseases of animals that were confined to forests are now affecting humans, says the
report. These include zoonotic diseases – as many as 2.7 million people die of these diseases
every year. These diseases cause illnesses among 2.5 billion humans every year. “The
incidence of emerging infectious diseases among both humans and domesticated animals has
increased sharply in the recent past. Over the past 70 years, more than 300 zoonoses –
diseases transmitted from animals to humans – have been observed. They are increasingly
being considered as threats to human society,” says the report. Ebola, the killer virus, is one
such disease-causing virus. It was first reported in 1976 and has exploded into a public health
emergency. Loss of forests is linked to these diseases finding their way into human society.

Body Burden also discusses diseases such as malaria and dengue at length. It reports that
forest cover declined in most Indian states, the highest in Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, among
other states, between 1999 and 2013. The only states where forest cover grew in this period
was in Tripura, Mizoram and Goa. Though India has a huge burden of such emerging
infectious diseases, there is very little data on the number of people affected.
Pesticides

According to the report, WHO estimates that 13.1 million people in India will die of cancer
by 2030. This is 20 times than the current death toll in the country. “Increasing number of
studies are establishing that the risk of getting cancer has more do with the state of one’s
environment than his or her genetic makeup,” says the report, drawing a connection between
cancer and pesticides and other factors. It states that five top five states for pesticide use in
the country are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh and Haryana. It also
cites data which show that cancer is on the increase in urban areas.

Noting that Punjab is the cancer capital of India, the report has presented evidence suggesting
rampant use of pesticides in the state, and people’s exposure to these. Pesticides have found
their way into tap water, ground water and food in Punjab, where incidence of cancer is
almost twice the national average. Chemicals present in pesticides can suppress the immune
system, triggering diseases that can be fatal. “Since no doctor will issue a death certificate
saying that the cause is an unknown trigger, the industry is safe,” said Narain. She said the
report has made detailed recommendations on how to regulate pesticide use in the country.
“Globally, the maximum residue limits (MRLs) of pesticides are reviewed periodically to
incorporate changes in dietary pattern and agricultural practices. But in India, MRLs for
registered pesticides are incomplete and have not been reviewed periodically,” said Narain.

The report also devotes space and attention to lifestyle-related diseases which are on the rise
in India.

“There is a very tangible link between our environment and our health. In fact, environmental
degradation’s first assault is on our bodies and this is one of the biggest reasons why we try
to protect the environment. But the linkage is complex and is often disputed. We need to join
the dots. We are often not able to take crucial decisions as we really do not know what is
happening to our health and how is it linked to the environment. We don’t know and so we
don’t care. There is a conspiracy of silence,” said Narain.

Eye Damage
Environmental degradation is a major cause of cataracts which leads to eye damage. Certain
smokes, both indoor and outdoor contain cadmium and leads that are harmful for eyes.

Increased Risk of Kidney Disease

Large amount of chemicals and drugs in the body circulation are delivered to the kidneys. As
kidneys from concentrated urine, they accumulate toxic pollutants in the tubular fluid. Thus,
a pollutant present in the nontoxic levels in the blood can reach toxic levels in the kidney,
increasing the likelihood of tissue injury.

Weakened bones and discolouring of teeth

Carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide exposure is associated with increased risk of
osteoporosis among people. This may decrease bone mineral density with chronic
inflammatory diseases.

Increased risk of obesity

Increased level of environmental pollution are also related with a higher body mass index
among children. Pollutants contain certain chemicals that result in weight gain.

Wrinkles and premature skin aging

Exposure to airborne particles has been correlated with skin aging signs, particularly pigment
spots and wrinkles. Skin damage resulting from pollutant exposure also activates repair
processes that remove collagen, resulting in wrinkles.

Reproductive function and fertility reduction

A high concentration of nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter in environment decrease the
rates of liver births and in environment decrease the rates of liver births and increases the
risk of miscarriage among women. Besides, these pollutants are also hormonal disruptors
and can interface with the action of hormone disruptors and can interface with the action of
hormone that control growth, development and fertility.

CASE STUDY ON AMAZON RAINFOREST BURNING IN BRAZIL

Record-breaking fires are ripping through the Amazon — an ecosystem on which the whole
world depends. The Verge will update this page with news and analysis on the fires and the
effects that could linger once the ash settles.

Amazon Rainforests burning

An unprecedented number of fires raged throughout Brazil in 2019, intensifying in August.

That month, the country’s National Institute for Space Research (INPE) reported that there
were more than 80,000 fires, the most that it had ever recorded. It was a nearly 80 percent
jump compared to the number of fires the country experienced over the same time period in
2018. More than half of those fires took place in the Amazon.

The number of blazes decreased in September, after president Jair Bolsonaro bowed to
mounting pressure to address the flames and announced a 60-day ban on setting fires to clear
land. Some exceptions were made for indigenous peoples who practice subsistence
agriculture and those who’ve received clearance by environmental authorities to use
controlled burning to prevent larger fires.

“THERE IS NO DOUBT THAT THIS RISE IN FIRE ACTIVITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH

A SHARP RISE IN DEFORESTATION”

“These are intentional fires to clear the forest,” Cathelijne Stoof, coordinator of the Fire
Center at Wageningen University (WUR) in the Netherlands, tells The Verge. “People want
to get rid of the forest to make agricultural land, for people to eat meat.” The INPE found that
deforestation in Brazil’s Amazon hit an 11-year high in 2019.
“There is no doubt that this rise in fire activity is associated with a sharp rise in
deforestation,” Paulo Artaxo, an atmospheric physicist at the University of São Paulo, told
Science Magazine. He explained that the fires are expanding along the borders of new
agricultural development, which is what’s often seen in fires related to forest clearing.

President Jair Bolsonaro’s administration, which had pledged to open up the Amazon to more
development, has sought to shift attention away from deforestation. Bolsonaro initially
pointed a finger at NGOs opposing his policies for allegedly intentionally setting fires in
protest, without giving any evidence to back his claim. In August, he fired the director of the
National Institute for Space Research over a dispute over data it released showing the sharp
uptick in deforestation that’s taken place since Bolsonaro took office. On August 20th,
Brazil’s Minister of the Environment Ricardo Salles tweeted that dry weather, wind, and heat
caused the fires to spread so widely. But even during the dry season, large fires aren’t a
natural phenomenon in the Amazon’s tropical ecosystem.

Why is this a big deal?

Everyone on the planet benefits from the health of the Amazon. As its trees take in carbon
dioxide and release oxygen, the Amazon plays a huge role in pulling planet-warming
greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere. Without it, climate change speeds up. But as the
world’s largest rainforest is eaten away by logging, mining, and agribusiness, it may not be
able to provide the same buffer.

“The Amazon was buying you some time that it is not going to buy anymore,” Carlos
Quesada, a scientist at Brazil’s National Institute for Amazonian Research, told Public Radio
International in 2018. Scientists warn that the rainforest could reach a tipping point, turning
into something more like a savanna when it can no longer sustain itself as a rainforest. That
would mean it’s not able to soak up nearly as much carbon as it does now. And if the
Amazon as we know it dies, it wouldn’t go quietly. As the trees and plants perish, they would
release billions of tons of carbon that has been stored for decades — making it nearly
impossible to escape a climate catastrophe.

EVERYONE ON THE PLANET BENEFITS FROM THE HEALTH OF THE AMAZON

Of course, those nearest to the fires will bear the most immediate effects. Smoke from the
fires got so bad, it seemed to turn day into night in São Paulo on August 20th. Residents say
the air quality is still making it difficult to breathe. On top of that, a massive global study on
air pollution found that among the two dozen countries it observed, Brazil showed one of the
sharpest increases in mortality rates whenever there’s more soot in the air.

And because fire isn’t a natural phenomenon in the region, it can have outsized impacts on
local plants and animals. One in ten of all animal species on Earth call the Amazon home,
and experts expect that they will be dramatically affected by the fires in the short term. In the
Amazon, plants and animals are “exceptionally sensitive” to fire, Jos Barlow, a professor of
conservation science at Lancaster University in the UK, said to The Verge in an email.
According to Barlow, even low-intensity fires with flames just 30 centimeters tall can kill up
to half of the trees burned in a tropical rainforest.

This a hot topic [Link] Jair Bolsonaro was campaigning for office as a far-right
candidate, he called for setting aside less land in the Amazon for indigenous tribes and
preservation, and instead making it easier for industry to come into the rainforest. Since his
election in October 2018, Bolsonaro put the Ministry of Agriculture in charge of the
demarcation of indigenous territories instead of the Justice Ministry, essentially “letting the
fox take over the chicken coop,” according to one lawmaker. His policies have been
politically popular among industry and agricultural interests in Brazil, even as they’ve been
condemned by Brazilian environmental groups and opposition lawmakers. Hundreds of
indigenous women stormed the country’s capital on August 13th to protest Bolsonaro’s
environmental rollbacks and encroachment of development on indigenous lands. The hashtag
#PrayforAmazonia blew up on Twitter.

About 60 percent of the Amazon can be found within Brazil’s borders, which gives the
nation a massive amount of influence over the region. Not surprisingly, the fires have called
international attention to the plight of the Amazon and have turned up the heat on
Bolsonaro’s environmental policies.

French President Emmanuel Macron took to Twitter to call for action, pushing for emergency
international talks on the Amazon at the G7 summit. On August 26th, the world’s seven
largest economies offered Brazil more than $22 million in aid to help it get the fires under
control. Bolsonaro promptly turned down the money, accusing Macron on Twitter of treating
Brazil like a colony. Some in Brazil, including Bolsonaro, see the international aid as an
attack on Brazil’s sovereignty, and its right to decide how to manage the land within its
borders.

“LETTING THE FOX TAKE OVER THE CHICKEN COOP”

President Donald Trump, on the other hand, congratulated Bolsonaro on his handling of the
fires. “He is working very hard on the Amazon fires and in all respects doing a great job for
the people of Brazil,” he tweeted on the 27th.

Bolsonaro has since said that he’ll reconsider the deal, as long as Macron takes back his
“insults” and Brazil has control over how the money is spent. On the 27th, Bolsonaro
accepted $12.2 million in aid from the UK.

The fires being fought.

After weeks of international and internal pressure, Bolsonaro deployed the military to help
battle the fires on August 24, sending 44,000 troops to six states. Reuters reported the next
day that warplanes were dousing flames.

“It’s a complex operation. We have a lot of challenges,” Paulo Barroso tells The Verge.
Barroso is the chairman of the national forest fire management committee of the National
League of Military Firefighters Corps in Brazil. He has spent three decades fighting fires in
Mato Grosso, one of the regions most affected by the ongoing fires. According to Barroso,
more than 10,400 firefighters are spread thin across 5.5 million square kilometers in the
Amazon and “hotspots” break out in the locations they’re unable to cover.

“WE DON’T HAVE AN ADEQUATE STRUCTURE TO PREVENT, TO CONTROL,

AND TO FIGHT THE FOREST FIRES”
Barroso contends that they need more equipment and infrastructure to adequately battle the
flames. There are 778 municipalities throughout the Amazon, but according to Barroso, only
110 of those have fire departments. “We don’t have an adequate structure to prevent, to
control, and to fight the forest fires,” Barroso says. He wants to establish a forest fire
protection system in the Amazon that brings together government entities, indigenous
peoples, local communities, the military, large companies, NGOs, and education and research
centers. “We have to integrate everybody,” Barroso says, adding, “we need money to do this,
we have to receive a great investment.”

Barroso and other experts agree that it’s important to look ahead to prevent fires like we’re
seeing now. After all, August is just the beginning of Brazil’s largely manmade fire season,
when slashing-and-burning in the country peaks and coincides with drier weather.

Controlled burns are also a popular deforestation technique in other countries where the
Amazon is burning, including Bolivia. There, the government brought in a modified Boeing
747 supertanker to douse the flames.

Using planes to put out wildfires in the Amazon isn’t a typical method of firefighting in
tropical forests, and is likely to get expensive, Lancaster University’s Jos Barlow tells The
Verge. He says that large-scale fires in areas cleared by deforestation “are best contained
with wide firebreaks created with bulldozers — not easy in remote regions.” If the fires enter
the forest itself, they require different tactics. “They can normally be contained by clearing
narrow fire breaks in the leaf litter and fine fuel,” Barlow says. “But this is labour intensive
over large scales, and fires need to be reached soon, before they get too big.”

Fires that have been intentionally set, as we’re seeing in Brazil, can be even more difficult to
control compared to a sudden wildland fire. “They’re designed to be deliberately
destructive,” says Timothy Ingalsbee, co-founder and executive director of Firefighters
United for Safety, Ethics, and Ecology and research associate at the University of Oregon.
Slashing before burning produces a lot of very dry, very flammable fuel. And at this scale,
Ingalsbee calls the fires “an act of global vandalism.”
Barlow says, “The best fire fighting technique in the Amazon is to prevent them in the first
place — by controlling deforestation and managing agricultural activities.”

WUR’s Cathelijne Stoof agrees: “Fighting the fires is of course important now,” she says.
“For the longer term, it is way more important to focus on deforestation.”

Questions :

[Link] is environmental degradation and explain the types of environmental degradation?

[Link] are the impact of environmental degradation on Human Health?

[Link] is the Amazon burning?

[Link] is this a big deal?

[Link] are the fires being fought?

CONCLUSION

The primary causes of environmental degradation in India are attributed to the rapid growth
of population in combination with economic development and overuse of natural resources.
Major environmental calamities in India include land degradation, Environmental
Degradation in India: Causes and Consequences 1601 deforestation, soil erosion, habitat
destruction and loss of biodiversity. Economic growth and changing consumption patterns
have led to a rising demand for energy and increasing transport activities. Air, water and
noise pollution together with water scarcity dominate the environmental issues in India.
According to World Bank estimate, between 1995 through 2010, India has made one of the
fastest progresses in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and improving its
environmental quality. Still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality
similar to those enjoyed in developed economies.
 REFERENCES

Deforestation and Environmental Degradation in India Paby Hemanta Saikia (Author)

Environmental Education by Dr. M.K. Mangal

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
deforestation-analysis-effects

[Link]
big-health-risk-52153

ECONOMIC GROWTH AND SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development encompasses living within the ecological limits and meeting the
needs of everyone. The concept of green growth and green economy claim to fulfil these two
aspects. But in reality, the outcomes are far from expected. Economic growth neither leads to
reduced environmental aspects nor substantially reduced poverty. Sustainable forms of
consumption should be the foundation of economic growth which includes the resource
consumption in production. The provision of consumption opportunities have to be designed
in a way that they contribute best to the overall well-being of the people.
 Economic growth will be sustainable if the stock of capital assets including land remains
constant or increases over time. It may however be noted that future economic development
and quality of life crucially depends on the natural resource base and quality of the
environment that is the quality of land, water and air.

Economic growth is an increase in the production of economic goods and services,

compared from one period of time to another. It can be measured in nominal or real terms.
Traditionally, aggregate economic growth is measured in terms of gross national product
(GNP) or gross domestic product (GDP).The major economic goal of most Nations of Earth
is to achieve economic growth. With a satisfactory rate of economic growth, the nation can
fulfil the wants of its people and resolve socio-economic problems like poverty. Economic
growth helps in ensuring the well-being of the economy and improving standard of living, by
raising incomes and providing jobs to people.

Sustainable development is the prudent and judicious use of resources in such a way that
even future generations are able to use it. It means development that takes place without
damaging the environment and by using natural resources wisely. In 1987, the Bruntland
commission published its report, our common Future, and in the report provided the oft-cited
definition of sustainable development as:

“development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”.

Sustainable development is essential for the economic growth of any country mainly for two
reasons:

 Firstly, the development and growth of the country will be hampered if the present limited
resources are totally exhausted as in today’s era we have limited quantity of resources.
 Secondly, the exhaustion of natural resources will endanger the lives of humans and many
species if humans do not follow the principle of sustainable development. For example, if
water is overutilized and wasted, then it will not be replenished by the rains. Therefore, we
need to keep the stock of natural resources for future use too.
Sustainable forms of consumption should be the foundation of economic growth which involves
the use of products and services in a way that minimizes the dangerous impact on the
environment, so that human needs can be met not only in the present but also for future
generations.

ECONOMIC GROWTH

Economic growth is the most powerful instrument for improving the quality of life in
developing countries. Economic growth helps in ensuring the well-being of the economy and
improving standard of living, by raising incomes, reducing poverty and providing jobs to
people. Sometimes, it leads to undesirable expenditure on protection of environment by creation
of parks, reserves and implementation of policies by the government. The rapid rate of
economic growth results in overconsumption of resources which leads to more wasteful
production and leads to environmental degradation and exhaustion.

SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION

MEANING: Goal 12 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nation is to
“ensure sustainable consumption and production (SCP) patterns”. It means being mindful about
what, how, and how much we produce and consume so that the earth’s resources are used
judiciously and preserved for future generations. Therefore, sustainable consumption is the
consumption of goods and services that have minimal impact upon the environment, are socially
equitable and economically viable whilst meeting the basic needs of humans, worldwide.

- IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE CONSUPTION:

Sustainable consumption is important because human beings exert extreme stress on the planet
and its resources. Every living being relies on the planet for the basic need of air, food, water and
shelter. It is estimated that the world population will reach 9.5 billion by 2050 which simply,
means more people with greater wants will consume more. If population like this will keep
consuming the finite resources there will come a day when the earth can no longer provide us
with clean water, clean air and food. Therefore, in order to ensure that economic development
addresses the need of all humanity while removing excess stress on planet, adoption of
Sustainable patterns of consumption is an imperative.

*SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH:

Adopting Sustainable Consumption practice is a viable and immediate solution in alleviating

some of our pressure on the planet. Following are some of the ways that can be adopted to
promote economic growth along with Sustainable consumptions:

> AWARNESS- consumers should be made aware about the impacts of products they are
buying and using in their daily life. This can be done through campaigns, advertisements etc.
hence, awareness among consumers helps in modifying their consumption patterns.

> MARKETING STRATEGIES- It involves decrease in undesirable and unnecessary

expenditure on marketing and advertising of useless products. These marketing strategies can
also be in the form of environmental taxes which include pollution charges and user charges.
Thus,ethical marketing strategy facilitates sustainable consumption by reducing over-production
and over-consumption of goods.

>USE OF ADVANCED TECHONOLOGY: New methods and technologies should be

introduced which helps in reducing the wastage of resources.
>PRODUCTION: Producers should be made responsible for their over- production of useless
goods that are harmful for our environment. Therefore, appropriate production strategies for
production of green-goods will facilitate economic growth with sustainable consumption.

> GREEN GOODS AND SERVICES-Government and firms should facilitate green standard in
the production of goods. These standards should be made to improve environmental
performance.

>CONSUMERS PARTICIPATION- consumers suggestions and participation should be given

importance while designing of the product as it will help in meeting standards that is appropriate
for the environment.

> PARTICIPATION OF GLOBAL ENVIORMNENTAL EFFORTS: Participation in global

environmental efforts can help in minimising damaged made by degradation of environment.
Hence, government should make necessary agreements on environmental protection.

CASE STUDY- ZERO WASTE VICTORIA

Zero waste Victoria is a not-for-profit charity. It seeks to address the growing issues of waste,
recycling, and sustainability in the community. Waste is everywhere in our society. The more
waste we produce, the more of the earth’s resources are depleted and the environment polluted.

ZERO WASTE PHILOSOPHY- “It is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resources
life cycle so that all products are reused”. The main aim is waste reduction. This organisation
Educate and Inspire people to minimise their waste in a wide range of opportunities with their
effort to make sustainable changes. Zero waste means designing and managing products and
processes to systemically avoid and eliminate the volume and toxicity of waste and materials,
conserve and recover all resources and not burn and bury [Link] also put educational stall at
the National Sustainability Festival 2017 where they provide people with some ideas to swaps
some of their products in their effort to reduce waste. Some of their ideas are as follow:

a) Shopping- Making a list before you hard to the shop can prevent impulse buying and over
purchasing.
b) You can bring your own shopping bags, coffee cup etc.
c) Replace disposable straw with reusable straw.
d) Buy /cook only necessary portion of foods.
e) Shop second hand and set free of your no- longer-used items to those who needed.
Therefore, Zero waste lifestyle helps to achieve a resource lifecycle that no trash are sent
to landfill. It conserves resources and minimizes pollution and helps to gain
sustainability.
 CONCLUSION

The rapid economic growth and growing population is putting an adverse pressure on
environmental conditions and natural resources. Economic development no doubt, brings
economic welfare by increasing national output of good and services but it also damages the
environment by overuse and misuse of natural resources. The global consumption of natural
resources can be made sustainable through sustainable consumption of goods as there are limited
natural resources. Sustainable consumption refers to the utilisation of products and services that
have a minimal impact on the environment so future generations can meet their needs. It is the
responsibility of government as well as private- public partnership to promote sustainable
consumption along with consumers. Therefore, sustainable consumption aims at creating
sustainable improvements in the quality of life of all people.

BIBLOGRAPHY

*Book: “Environmental education” by Rajesh Makol,Lalita Makol,ed.2019, page no. 182-186

* “My Wonderful Book of Social Science” Cordova Learning Series, Class-8,ch-An introduction
to resources(Geography), page no.127.

*Article: “Sustainable Consumption: Definition and complexities” by Rebecca Gillaspy,

[Link]

*Economic Discussion “7 Policies for Sustainable Development- Explained!” by Pooja Mehta,

[Link]
explained/2123

* Journal: The Druk Journal – A Journal of Thoughts and Ideas, “Sustainable Consumption and
Production: Why is it important?” by Pem Lama , [Link]
and-production-why-is-it-important/.

\
ECONOMIC GROWTH

MEANING

Although economic growth is conducive for every nation, but the rapid rate of economic
growth leads to rapid consumption and use of Natural Capital Resources. It may lead to more
wasteful production and makes us more prone to environmental degradation and exhaustion.
Thus, with economic growth as our goal it is likely to overshadow environmental concerns,
placing the environment in the backseat while focus is towards gaining wealth.

SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION

MEANING

Sustainable consumption is the use of products and services in a way that minimizes the
impact on the environment, so that human needs can be met not only in the present but also
for future generations. When sustainable consumption is practiced, resources are used wisely
and waste products and pollution are minimized. The main way this is achieved is by doing
more and better with less. In other words, we can find ways to meet our needs and desires
without depleting our planet's finite natural resources.
This might include carpooling, using renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power,
developing alternative fuel sources, such as biofuels, for our transportation needs and using
environmentally friendly cleaning products. Practicing sustainable consumption can ensure
that the environment has resources available long into the future.

CONCEPT
As sustainable consumption aims at “doing more and better with less”, net welfare gains
from economic activities can increase by reducing resource use, degradation and pollution
along the whole life cycle, while increasing quality of life. Sustainable consumption can be
promoted by educating consumers on sustainable consumption and lifestyles, providing them
with adequate information through standards and labels and engaging in sustainable public
procurement, etc.
Making consumption patterns sustainable is one of the greatest challenges to humanity in the
present era. There is a need of timely and concerted action of government, firms and
consumers. The final goal of sustainable consumption should be to create a world with a
higher awareness of environmental and social impacts. Consumption needs of population
should be based on self-fulfilment instead of the ever rising levels of consumption.
Figure 2: World Growth Trends
Source: [Link]/connect/economic-growth-and-sustainability- are-they-mutually-
exclusive

This chart shows a snapshot of world growth trends for representative parameters: Economy,
CO2 emissions, oil consumption and production, and population. While population is
doubling about every 43 years, the trend for CO2 (one of the primary greenhouse gases in
global warming) is on a steeper path. From 2000 to 2010 its rate of increase was over 2½
times what it was between 1990 and 2000. The chart also indicates an acceleration of world
GDP, reflective of escalating consumption and growing dependence on economic growth.
Oil consumption and production are stand-ins for all carbon-based energy consumption and
production. Although they do not give a complete picture (which would include other
carbon-based sources such as coal and natural gas, as well as alternative energy and energy
reserves), this representation intends to depict the trend for continuing growth of
consumption and the similar or slowing rate of production for carbon-based sources.
Sustainable consumption and production
Sustainable consumption and production is about promoting resource and energy efficiency,
sustainable infrastructure, and providing access to basic services, green and decent jobs and a
better quality of life for all. Its implementation helps to achieve overall development plans,
reduce future economic, environmental and social costs, strengthen economic
competitiveness and reduce poverty.

There has been considerable work over the past 15 years or so by pioneers in business,
government and civil society on how consumption and production can be made more
sustainable. Much of this thinking was inspired by the concept of sustainable development,
simply defined by the 1987 ‘Brundtland Commission’ of the UN as “development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” The idea of Sustainable Consumption and Production found early expression in
concepts like ‘eco-efficiency’ (promoted by the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development), ‘cleaner production’ (adopted by the United Nations Environment
Programme), and ‘Factor-4 production’ . Sustainable Consumption and Production was
clarified further by businesses, governments and NGOs at the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Earth
Summit and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg.

A POLICY REVIEW IN NATIONAL CONTEXT:

Sustainable consumption and production by UNEP

Economic development over the past 30 years has managed to lift millions out of poverty and
expand the number of countries reaching middle-income status. However, it has also been
accompanied by a wide array of negative environmental and social impacts, which now
threaten to undermine, or even reverse, the progress that has been achieved to date. Our
living environment, health, education, equity and empowerment are all adversely affected.
Consumption of natural resources is continuing to rise globally and will accelerate further if
projected growth rates of the world economy are realised. In parallel, a consequence of our
current production systems is an explosion of waste and pollution further stressing
environmental sinks. This is alarming for both non-renewable and renewable resources that
depend on ecosystems, which can irreversibly collapse after overexploitation.

To address this complex situation a need was felt in the developed world in the early twenty-
first century to rethink holistically the consumption and production system. Europe became
the front runner in this and started a flagship initiative called ‘A Resource Efficient Europe’
in 2011 (European Commission, 2011, Road Map for Resource Efficient Europe). The
initiative provided a long-term framework for actions in many policy areas, supporting policy
agendas for climate change, energy, transport, industry, raw materials, agriculture, fisheries,
biodiversity and regional development. This increased certainty for investment and
innovation and ensured that all relevant policies factor in resource efficiency in a balanced
manner. The objective of Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP) is to create
resource efficient production systems for sustainable goods and services (supply), coupled
with shifts in consumption patterns and consumer behaviour (demand) to achieve sustainable
development, economic growth and societal well-being (UNEP, 2015, A handbook for policy
maker).
Along with the European countries, Government of India also slowly started thinking of
resource efficiency in consumption and production system from the last decade. Indian
Resource Panel (InRP) was set up in 2015 with eminent scientists and experts under the
Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change in the line of International Resource
Panel (IRP) based in Europe (MOEFCC, 2015 report). A number of studies have been
undertaken through different academia, bilateral agencies and government Institutions to
explore the use of resources in different sectors.

TECHNIQUES
Businesses, governments and other groups have developed a variety of techniques and
approaches to encourage more Sustainable Consumption and Production. These techniques
are at varying stages of development and offer no ready-made or complete answer. Many
will develop as businesses themselves apply and improve them. The challenge of Sustainable
Consumption and Production for any organisation is therefore how to use these techniques
and approaches to resolve the specific sustainability challenges it faces.
Resource productivity looks at how you extract added value from natural resources. Doing
this well is resource efficiency. Movement sensitive office lights that switch off when no one
is there; water efficient toilets; and recycling – such resource efficiency is common sense.
Incorporating the environmental cost of natural resources, water, energy, transportation,
extraction or pollution would make many companies far less competitive than they currently
appear. To seriously drive such ‘sustainable competitiveness’, deeper changes will be
needed: for example, switching from fossil fuel-derived commodity solvents in the chemical
industry to biodegradable natural crop starch derived from bio-ethanol; changing company
car fleets to more sustainable models; and altering company policy to minimise the most
environmentally damaging forms of transport.

CASE STUDY
Case study1: Integrated Product Policy for Nokia
In 2004, a Nokia phone was chosen to demonstrate the principles of IPP. In 2005, there were
over 2.2 billion mobile phone subscriptions globally. The sheer quantity magnifies any
environmental impact of this product. The life cycle analysis showed energy consumption is
 the greatest impact, both during manufacture of components and during use – when chargers
left on ‘no-load’ consume electricity constantly. One outcome is that, by the middle of next
year, new phones should have on-screen reminders to unplug the charger once charging is
complete. It is estimated that, if 10% of worldwide subscribers unplug their chargers once
their phone is fully charged, enough energy would be saved to supply 60,000 European
homes for one year.
Case study 2: British Telecom
Over the last 15 years British Telecom has developed a range of measures to increase its
resource efficiency. In 1991, BT has rolled out employee energy awareness programmes,
which saved more than £16 million over five years. BT also began an extended review into
its infrastructure and energy procurement. Most ambitiously, after years of development, BT
became the world’s biggest company to source all its electricity from sustainable sources. As
a result, CO2 emissions are down by 325,000 tonnes annually. But it is accumulated small
actions that make the big differences, BT says. Independent estimates suggest the company
has saved £119 million since 1991 through all such measures, plus £421 million through
greener transport.
Case study 3: Adidas
In 2006, the Adidas Group developed a new football boot, but one whose entire environmental
life cycle has been evaluated – from natural resources to disposal or re-use. Having this complete
picture will allow Adidas to intervene more effectively in the future to reduce the environmental
impacts of its footwear. This is significant since each pair of boots produces 0.057m3 of
wastewater, needs 20.5g of volatile organic compounds, 2.93 KWh of energy and creates a waste
ratio of leather and synthetic materials of 10% and 12% respectively.
Case study 4: London
Access to and availability of water is fast becoming a major challenge for developed economies.
London is the biggest city in the world that depends on groundwater reserves. These have
declined in South-East England over the last 70 years to all-time lows. In summer 2006, water
availability became a controversial issue as UK water companies, regulators, government and
consumers battled to allocate blame for wastefulness. Many of the major water companies have a
range of consumer engagement strategies in place to promote water conservation, but the drought
challenged the extent to which such consumer engagement is ‘fit for purpose’ in a century that
will face major problems associated with water related conflict, water contamination, degraded
landscapes, and the exhaustion of water supplies.

PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION

Governments, consumers and business all have important roles to play in fostering sustainable
consumption. The forces of both supply and demand influence the production and consumption
of products and services. Businesses choose how resources are extracted, processed, sold and
managed at the end of their lives. These choices are influenced by the shopping and lifestyle
choices of consumers, as well as by financial institutions and governments.
 ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND REGULATORS
International agreements ROLE OF CONSUMERS
National policies, laws and regulations Purchasing decisions
Infrastructure and services Lifestyle choices
Guidance for businesses and consumers Political support
Monitoring peer-to-peer influencing
Enforcement

ROLE OF BUSINESSES
Economic development
Legal compliance
ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY(NGOS)
Ethical practices Independent assessment
Sustainable sourcing, production and distribution High profile public campaign
Waste reduction Critique or endorsement
Consumer choice influencing Thought leadership
Recycling Choice influencing
Innovation
Example-setting

Figure 4: The roles of governments, consumers and business in fostering sustainable

consumptionSource: WBCSD, 2008

CONCLUSION

In the context of rising consumption standards both in the developing and developed countries
along with rapid growth of population in developing countries achievement of the goal of
sustainable development is a major challenge facing the world today.

It is evident that meeting the consumption needs of future generations when the world population
is estimated to increase by an additional 3 billion by 2050 requires substantial changes in
consumption and production pattern.

Rio conference held in 1992 where 150 countries participated was an important milestone in
defining the concept of “sustainable development”. This was spelled out in considerable detail in
agenda 21, which set out general principles for sustainable development and framed blueprint for
conservation and use of forests and suggested important steps that are required to be taken to
generate an environmentally stable and sustainable planet. To ensure sustainable development in
the world today both the developed and developing countries have to take appropriate
environment-friendly steps, especially by the developed ones as they have in the past through
reckless industrialisation and use of energy-intensive technology has emitted greenhouse gases to
a larger extent.

QUESTIONS

Q- What do you understand by ‘Sustainable Development’?

Q- what do you mean by ‘Economic Growth’?

Q-Analyse and explain in detail different ways to promote sustainable consumption along with
Economic growth?

Q-How is Economic growth and Sustainable consumption are related to each other? Explain in
your own words?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

 [Link]/economics/importance-of-sustainable-development-for-the-economic-
growth-of-a-country/38417
 Meaning:[Link]/academy/lesson/sustainable-consumption-definition-and-
[Link]
 [Link]/connect/economic-growth-and-sustainability-are-they-mutually-exclusive
 [Link]/sustainable-consumption-production
 [Link]/resources/publication-pdfs/[Link]
 [Link]/newsletter/jun19/[Link]
 [Link]/resources/publication-pdfs/[Link]
 [Link]/resources/publication-pdfs/[Link]
 [Link]/uploads/modules/library/[Link]
 [Link]/economics/importance-of-sustainable-development-for-the-economic-
growth-of-a-country/38417
 ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming, agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and
biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover
crops. Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused
by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has
numerous ecological benefits. With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only
to stabilize agricultural production but to increase it further in sustainable manner. The scientists
have realized that the ‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and is now
sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends. Thus, a natural balance needs to be
maintained at all cost for existence of life and property. The obvious choice for that would be
more relevant in the present era, when these agrochemicals which are produced from fossil fuel
and are not renewable and are diminishing in availability. It may also cost heavily on our foreign
exchange in future.

Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces
soil erosion, decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles animal
wastes back into the farm. These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for
consumers and generally lower yields. Indeed, yields of organic crops have been found to be
about 25 percent lower overall than conventionally grown crops, although this can vary
considerably depending upon the type of crop. The challenge for future organic agriculture will
be to maintain its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce prices while meeting the
challenges of climate change and an increasing world population

CHARACTERSTICS OF ORGANIC FARMING

 Protecting the long term fertility of soils by maintaining organic matter levels,
encouraging soil biological activity, and careful mechanical intervention
 Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are
made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms
 Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen fixation, as
well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and livestock
manures
 Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural predators,
diversity, organic manuring, resistant varieties and limited (preferably minimal) thermal,
biological and chemical intervention
 The extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary
adaptations, behavioural needs and animal welfare issues with respect to nutrition,
housing, health, breeding and rearing
 Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider environment and the
conservation of wildlife and natural habitat.

HISTORY OF ORGANIC FARMING

The concepts of organic agriculture were developed in the early 1900s by Sir Albert
Howard, F.H. King, Rudolf Steiner and others who believed that the use of
animal manures (often made into compost), cover crops, crop rotation, and biologically based
pest controls resulted in a better farming system. Such practices were further promoted by
various advocates—such as J.I. Rodale and his son Robert, in the 1940s and onward, who
published Organic Gardening and Farming magazine and a number of texts on organic farming.
The demand for organic food was stimulated in the 1960s by the publication of Silent Spring,
by Rachel Carson, which documented the extent of environmental damage caused
by insecticides.

Organic food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century. Greater environmental
awareness, coupled with concerns over the health impacts of pesticide residues
and consumption of genetically modified crops, fostered the growth of the organic sector. In the
United States, retail sales increased from $20.39 billion in 2008 to $45.21 billion in 2017, while
sales in Europe reached around $33 billion in 2015.
The price of organic food is generally higher than that of conventionally grown food. Depending
on the product, the season, and the vagaries of supply and demand, the price of organic food can
be anywhere from less than 10 percent below to more than 100 percent above that of
conventionally grown produce.

REGULATION

Organic agriculture is defined formally by governments. Farmers must be certified for their
produce and products to be labeled “organic,” and there are specific organic standards for crops,
animals, and wild-crafted products and for the processing of agricultural products. Organic
standards in the European Union (EU) and the United States, for example, prohibit the use of
synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, ionizing radiation, sewage sludge, and genetically
engineered plants or products. In the EU, organic certification and inspection is carried out by
approved organic control bodies according to EU standards. Organic farming has been defined
by the National Organic Standards of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) since 2000,
and there are many accredited organic certifiers across the country.

certified organic
Although most countries have their own programs for organic certification, certifiers in the EU
or the United States can inspect and certify growers and processors for other countries. This is
especially useful when products grown organically in Mexico, for example, are exported to the
United States.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC FARMING

 Principle of Health: Organic agriculture must contribute to the health and well being
of soil, plants, animals, humans and the earth. It is the sustenance of mental, physical,
ecological and social well being. For instance, it provides pollution and chemical free,
nutritious food items for humans.
  Principle of Fairness: Fairness is evident in maintaining equity and justice of the
shared planet both among humans and other living beings. Organic farming provides
good quality of life and helps in reducing poverty. Natural resources must be
judiciously used and preserved for future generations.

 Principle of Ecological Balance: Organic farming must be modeled on living

ecological systems. Organic farming methods must fit the ecological balances and
cycles in nature.

 Principle of Care: Organic agriculture should be practiced in a careful and responsible

manner to benefit the present and future generations and the environment

❖ FEATURES:-

● Protecting soil quality using organic material and encouraging biological activity
● Indirect provision of crop nutrients using soil microorganisms
● Nitrogen fixation in soils using legumes
● Weed and pest control based on methods like crop rotation, biological diversity, natural
predators, organic manures and suitable chemical, thermal and biological intervention
● Rearing of livestock, taking care of housing, nutrition, health, rearing and breeding
● Care for the larger environment and conservation of natural habitats and wildlife

TYPES OF ORGANIC FARMING:-

1. Pure organic farming

It involves the use of organic manures and biopesticides with complete avoidance of inorganic
chemicals and pesticides.
2. Integrated organic farming

It involves integrated nutrients management and integrated pest management.

It is the type of farming in which development of crops from natural resources having the
complete nutritive value and manages to prevent the crop or plants from the pests.
3. Integration of different farming systems

Integration of different farming systems involves several other components of farming such as
poultry, mushroom production, goat rearing, and fishpond simultaneously with regular crop
components.

❖ TECHNIQUES:-
[Link] Rotation:

It is the technique to grow various kind of crops in the same area, according to the different
seasons, in a sequential manner.
[Link] Manure:

It refers to the dying plants that are uprooted and turned into the soil to make them act as a
nutrient for the soil to increase its quality.
[Link] Pest Control:

With this method, we use living organisms to control pests with or without the use of chemicals.
[Link]:

Highly rich in nutrients, it is a recycled organic matter used as a fertilizer in the agricultural
farms.
[Link] of Soil:

Soil management is the soul of organic farming. It’s a well-known fact that after taking one crop,
the soil of the farm loses most of its nutrients and its fertility goes down.
To process of recharging the soil with all the necessary nutrients is called soil management. In
organic farming the nutrients are recharged in the soil through natural ways to increase the soil
fertility.
For this purpose, animal waste is increasingly used to recharge the soil with the necessary
nutrients. The bacteria present in animal waste make soil fertile once again.
[Link] of Weeds:

Organic farming focuses on removing the weeds from the soil during the crop production. Weeds
are unwanted plants that grow in the agriculture fields simultaneously with the crops and they
suck most of the nutrients present in the soil. As a result the production of the crops gets
affected. To get rid of weeds the farmers follow the below mentioned techniques
Mulching and Cutting or Mowing: Mulching is a process in which the farmers use plant residue
or plastic films on the surface of the soil which blocks the growth of the weed while cutting or
mowing helps in removal of the growth of the weeds in the farms.

BENEFITS OF ORGANIC FARMING

 Better Nutrition: As compared to a longer time conventionally grown food, organic

food is much richer in nutrients. Nutritional value of a food item is determined by its
mineral and vitamin content. Organic farming enhances the nutrients of the soil which
is passed on to the plants and animals.

 Helps us stay healthy: Organic foods do not contain any chemical. This is because
organic farmers don’t use chemicals at any stage of the food-growing process like
their commercial counterparts. Organic farmers use natural farming techniques that
don’t harm humans and environment. These foods keep dangerous diseases like
cancer and diabetes at bay.

 Free of poison: Organic farming does not make use of poisonous chemicals, pesticides
and weedicides. Studies reveal that a large section of the population fed on toxic
substances used in conventional agriculture have fallen prey to diseases like cancer.
As organic farming avoids these toxins, it reduces the sickness and diseases due to
them.
  Organic foods are highly authenticated: For any produce to qualify as organic food, it
must undergo quality checks and the creation process rigorously investigated. The
same rule applies to international markets. This is a great victory for consumers
because they are getting the real organic foods. These quality checks and
investigations weed out quacks who want to benefit from the organic food label by
delivering commercially produced foods instead.

 Lower prices: There is a big misconception that organic foods are relatively
expensive. The truth is they are actually cheaper because they don’t require
application of expensive pesticides, insecticides, and weedicides. In fact, you can get
organic foods direct from the source at really reasonable prices.

 Enhanced Taste: The quality of food is also determined by its taste. Organic food
often tastes better than other food. The sugar content in organically grown fruits and
vegetables provides them with extra taste. The quality of fruits and vegetables can be
measured using Brix analysis.

 Organic farming methods are eco-friendly: In commercial farms, the chemicals

applied infiltrate into the soil and severely contaminate it and nearby water sources.
Plant life, animals, and humans are all impacted by this phenomenon. Organic farming
does not utilize these harsh chemicals so; the environment remains protected.

 Longer shelf–life: Organic plants have greater metabolic and structural integrity in
their cellular structure than conventional crops. This enables storage of organic food
for a longer time.

LIMITATIONS:

❏ Organic manure is not abundantly available and on plant nutrient basis it may be more
expensive than chemical fertilizers if organic inputs are purchased.
❏ Production in organic farming declines especially during first few years, so the farmer
should be given premium prices for organic produce.
 ❏ The guidelines for organic production, processing, transportation and certification etc are
beyond the understanding of ordinary Indian farmer.
❏ Marketing of organic produce is also not properly streamlined.

ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA:-

According to World Organic Agri Report 2018, India is the home, to 30 per cent of the total
organic producers in the world, but accounts for just 2.59 per cent (1.5 million hectares) of the
total organic cultivation area of 57.8 million hectares.
At the same time, most organic farmers are struggling due to poor policy measures, rising input
costs and limited market, says a study by the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of
India (ASSOCHAM) and global consultancy firm Ernst & Young.

WHY INDIA NEEDS ORGANIC FARMING?

The main reason farmers state to farm organically is their concern about working with
agricultural chemicals in conventional farming systems.
As many farm chemicals require energy intensive manufacturing processes that rely heavily on
fossil fuels, there is an issue with the amount of energy used in agriculture. Organic farmers find
their method of farming to be profitable and personally rewarding.

❖ CERTIFIED ORGANIC:-

● It is a term given to products produced according to organic standards as certified by one

of the certifying bodies.
● There are several certification bodies operating in India.
● A grower wishing to be certified organic must apply to a certification body requesting an
independent inspection of their farm to verify that the farm meets the organic standards.
● Farmers, processors and traders are each required to maintain the organic integrity of the
product and to maintain a document trail for audit purposes.
● Products from certified organic farms are labelled and promoted as “certified organic.”

ORGANIC MARKET OF INDIA:-

 ➔ India is the largest exporter of organic cotton worldwide.
➔ More than 30% of world’s organic producers are in India
➔ India exporting over 300 products in 20 different categories.
➔ India Exported 1.35 million metric tons of “certified organic” food in the year of 2015-
16.
➔ Oilseeds comprised half of India’s overall organic food export, followed by processed
food products at 25%.
➔ Current Indian organic market is estimated at more than Rs. 4000 crore and it is likely to
increase to 10,000 to 20,000 crore by 2020.
➔ Indian organic market has a combined annual growth rate of 25% compared to 16%
global growth rate.

ORGANIC SIKKIM:-

India’s first 100% organic state Sikkim has won the ‘Oscar for best policies’, conferred by the
Food and Agriculture Organisation for the world’s best policies promoting agroecological and
sustainable food systems.
Sikkim beat 51 nominations from 25 different countries of the world to win the Future Policy
Award 2018.
The Chief Minister of Sikkim Pawan Kumar Chamling received the award from the Deputy
Director of UN’s FAO Maria Helena Semedo in Rome on October 15th. The Future Policy
Award recognised the state’s leadership and political will to lead by example.

Conclusion:Organic farming can be a viable alternative production method for farmers, but there
are many challenges.

CASE STUDY:- A CASE STUDY OF UTTARAKHAND

There has been a rise in consumer’s demand for safe and healthy food due to chemicals and
healthy food due to increasing concerns over the quality of food, due to contamination due to
chemicals , serious health hazards and environmental [Link] increasing demand has given
way to a new stream of agriculture , popularly known as organic agriculture. This paper attempts
to bring together different issues in the light of recent developments in organic farming in state
of uttarakhand organic commodity board. This paper has reviewed scenario of uttarakhand
organic commodity board with reference to organic farming through critical analysis of
available secondary data. The key issues emerging in organic farming include yield reduction in
conversion to organic farm, soil fertility enhancement, and integration of livestock, certification
constraints ecology, marketing and policy support. This paper discusses the potential for organic
farming is productive and sustainable, but there is a need for strong support to it in the form of
subsidies and research carried out by Public -Private Partnership.
Questions:
 ● What is organic farming?
● Objectives of organic farming
● What are features of organic farming
● What are basic steps of organic farming.?

★ BIBLIOGRAPHY:-
❏ [Link].>crops>facts
❏ WWW. [Link]
❏ [Link]
❏ [Link]
❏ [Link]
[Link]
[Link]
❏ [Link]
❏ [Link]
❏ [Link]
❏ [Link]
 Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater and putting it to good use. There are

different ways in which this task can be accomplished.

Rainwater harvesting refers to the trapping and storing of rainwater so that it can be used at a
later time when the need arises. As the rain falls, water is directed to a suitable collection point.

Surface water collection system

Rooftops system

Dams

Underground Tanks

Rain Saucer

COMPONENTS

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 ● Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured Rainwater.

● Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested water from the catchment to the

recharge zone.
● Flush- It is used to flush out the first spell of rain.

● Filter – Used for filtering the collected Rainwater and remove pollutants.

Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water which is ready to use.

Need and importance of rainwater harvesting

Rain water can be utilised alone or together with other supplier resources in residential,
commercial and industrial projects where pure water is desired.

1. Rainwater harvesting is required to conserve and supplement existing water resources

2. Rainwater harvesting make water resources available for capturing and storage in most
Global locations.
3. Rainwater harvesting provides improve quality of water.
4. Rainwater harvesting makes it possible to supply water at one of the most lowest possible
for a supplemental supply sources.
5. Rainwater harvesting enables capturing and directing storm water and beneficial using it.
6. Rainwater harvesting has become a public mandate in India.
7. Rainwater harvesting strengthens the commitment as a corporate citizen by showcasing
environmental concerns.
8. Rainwater harvesting helps in replenishing local groundwater acquifers where lowering
of water table has been observed.

Rainwater harvesting techniques:-

Rainwater harvesting Technology consists of simple system to collect, convey and store
rainwater. Rainwater capture is accomplished family from raw of rooftop, surface runoff and
others offices. Rainwater harvesting either captures stored rain for rainwater for direct use or is
recharged into the local groundwater and is also called artificial recharge.

Various methods can be used for collection of rainwater. Some of the common methods used are
described below:

1. Rain barrels: this is one of the most easiest and economical method of rainwater
harvesting and is generally opted at home. In this method, barrels or water tanks are
installed below the downspouts of the Rope 2 getting system. This barrels of tanks stored
significant amount of water. This cold water is then funneled into tanks and stored. Store
 water in Tank can be connected to water lines of current plumbing system or can be
attached to the pipe for drip irrigation.
2. Dry System: it is an economic and easy method along with a largest storage container. In
this method, the container is usually established at a distance of few metres from the
property. The gutter is redesign to divert water to the large Storage tank.
3. Wet System: under the system, many collection pipes are connected to the downspouts of
the building and diverted into a storage tank which is also underground. The collection
people will always have water in them as they are situated underground. However, the
pipe should be secured and well maintain to protect them from any leakage into the soil.
4. Green Roof: the rainwater harvesting technique is entirely different full stop the water is
standard state in the garden instead of storing in the tank or Reservoir. The drainage
system on a building roof is modified and corrected directly to the backyard. The
maintenance cost of this method is very low.
5. Small bonding around the fields: flow of rainfall water falling on the fields is checked by
building small bounding around the fields. The water that is stored in the field percolates
underneathan increase soil moisture.
6. Step farming: soil moisture of stepfields made along mountain slopes is increased by
checking rainwater of these fields.
7. Check dams on seasonal rivers and drains: rainwater is also stored behind the check dams
constructed over the seasonal rivers and drains with the help of soils, stones and wood.
These dams regulate the water supply and also help in controlling soil erosion to some
extent.
8. Water percolation tanks: rain water is stored in tanks constructed in lands and suitable for
agriculture. This tank serve the purpose of recharging the groundwater reserves as water
stored on these.
Advantages of rainwater harvesting:-

Rainwater harvesting can be done by using proper infrastructure. Storage tanks, reserve ways are
generally used for collection and storage of water. Stored water is generally made for use in
future. Building rules are the best source of obtaining rainwater harvesting. Rainwater harvesting
has several advantages. Some of them are discussed below:

1. Easy installation: rainwater harvesting technologies are simple to install and operate.
Rainwater harvesting systems are based on Simple techniques that are very easy to
maintain. Besides cost of installation and maintenance of rainwater harvesting plants is
also very low as compared to other purifying water pumping methods. As it does not
require very high expenditure, it maintenance is also economical and cost-effective.
2. Easy maintenance: rainwater harvesting techniques and methods are very simple to
operate and maintain. Local people can be changed easy to implement search
Technologies and construction material are also easily available.
3. Reduction in water bills: water collected from roof catchments is usually of acceptable
quality for domestic purposes. Rainwater harvesting can be used for several on drinking
 purpose. This reduces the water bill significantly. It is ideal for both residential and
commercial properties.
4. Provide water for irrigation: rainwater harvesting provides for collection of large amount
of water. Rain water collected from roof tops and other sources is generally free from
harmful Chemicals. Does it makes it suitable for irrigation purposes.
5. Reduced pressure on ground water: water obtained from rainwater harvesting reduces the
demand for Portable water. In areas with low groundwater levels, it provides in extra
supports.
6. Reduced pressure on environment: rainwater harvesting not only saves water but save
money and reduces impact on the environment.

Limitations of rainwater harvesting:-

Although rainwater harvesting has several advantages, yet it is not free from limitations. Some of
the limitations of water harvesting are mentioned below:

1. Rainwater harvesting is not applicable in all climate conditions all over the world.
2. The performance of rainwater harvesting is seriously affected by climate fluctuations that
sometimes are hard to predict.
3. With increasing sophisticated rainwater harvesting systems, the complexities in caused
design, operation, maintenance, size and regulatory permitting have increased.
4. Collected rain water can be degraded with the inculsion of stormwater runoff.
5. Collection systems require monitoring and continuous maintenance and improvement to
maintain desired water quality characteristics for water end use.
6. If rainwater harvesting systems are not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and
cause several waterborne diseases.
7. Certain roof types may seep Chemicals, pesticides and other pollutants into the water that
can harm the plants.

Water resource management

Water is a unique substance. It is one of the few materials on the earth that exist naturally as a
solid, liquid or gas. It is not possible for life on earth exist without water. From a global view
point, freshwater is abandoned and the volume of freshwater renewed by the hydrological cycle
between the oceans, the atmosphere, the sun and the land is more than enough to meet the needs
needs of 5 to 10 times existing world population. Water resource management is the control of
water usage and also the quality of water. Many cities have departments that will test the quality
of water at treatment of plants.

With Rapid rate of population growth, it is estimated that by 2030 there will be shortage of
around 40% between forecast demand and available supply of water. Besides, chronic water
scarcity, hydrological uncertainty and extreme weather events like floods and droughts are
considered as the potential threats to the Global prosperity. Proper and judicious water resource
management is required for better allocation, Regulation and conservation of water resources.
Latest information systems are to be developed for resource monitoring decision making under
uncertainty, systems analysis and hydro-meteorological forecasting and warning.

Attributes of water resource management

Water resource management includes assessing and disseminating water resources optimally to
fulfil the requirements of all the best possible level. The main attributes of water resource
management are:

1. Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and

managing the optimum use of water resources.
2. Water resource management is a subset of water cycle management.
3. Water resource management deals with all the competing demands for water.
4. The main objective of water resource management is to allocate water on an equitable
basis to satisfy all uses and demands.
5. Water resource management is very important issue with regard to the conservation and
protection of water. Water demand management is meant to manage the available water
resource is wisely and to deliver the necessary amount for sustainable development.
6. Water resource management is an international, multi-disciplinary for him for the
publication of original contributions and the exchange of knowledge and experience on
the management of water resources.
Issues in water resource management

Water as already have been scared as compared to the rising demands. Water resource
management has been a tedious task force stop some of the major issues in water resource
management are discussed below:

1. Very low levels of water storage by world standards.

2. Frequent flood impose a high economic and social crisis. Besides, climate changes are
expected to increase the text dreams.
3. Trans boundary management is a particular challenge. Around one third of water is in
international basins, and remainder is mostly in multistate basis.
4. There has been a long history of history of tensions and conflicts between jurisdictions of
water related rights among several regions.
5. Huge irrigation development, rehabilitation and management needs put pressure on water
resources for meeting the growing food and security concerns.
6. Water resource management is under pressure due to huge Dam safety challenge.
7. Cooperative and river basin in planning and management approaches are required to
address growing challenges.
Conclusion:
Water is indispensable for all living beings on Earth. It is one of the most precious natural
resources. However, certain parts of the world have been observing shortage of water regularly.
It becomes obligate tree to control the ever rising rate of water loss. Even I climate has been
observing changes in its path and indicating sever water shortages in times to come. Various
methods and techniques have been deployed for solving this water issue in many regions.
Rainwater harvesting and water resource management have become an indirect necessity for
preservation and conservation of water for sustaining environment and life.

Projects on Rainwater Harvesting

TIDE has designed and implemented rainwater harvesting system in more than 30 areas that
show case its various competencies in the sector. The project areas include – village schools and
anganwadis, independent houses, apartments, industries, institutions and large establishments.

Generally TIDE recommends roof top harvested water for non potable purposes. However, the
harvested water from roof areas can be made potable after treatment, largely for bacterial
contamination.

TIDE has also standardized techniques for artificial recharge of ground water by direct and
indirect methods. Data collected from recharged borewells show an increase in the water yield
and also improvement in the quality of water.
 (source:[Link])

Questions related to the topic

1. Define rain water harvesting.

2. Write a short note on water resource management.
3. Explain five methods of rain water harvesting.
4. How is rain water harvesting important?
5. Are there any disadvantages of rain water harvesting? If yes explain.

Bibliography

1. [Link]
 2. [Link]
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
disadvantages/

BIO MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

BIO-MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)

Bio-medical waste means ‘any solid and/or liquid waste including its container and any
intermediate product, which is generated during the diagnosis, testing, treatment or research
activities or in the production of biological products for humans or animals.

Bio Medical waste consists of:

 Human anatomical waste like tissues, organs and body parts
 Animal wastes generated during research from veterinary hospitals
 Microbiology and biotechnology wastes
 Waste sharps like needles, syringes, scalpels and broken glass
 Discarded medicines
 Soiled waste such as dressing, bandages, plaster casts, material contaminated with blood, tubes
and catheters
 Liquid waste from any of the infected areas
 Incineration ash and other chemical wastes
 Source: [Link]/hazardous-biomedical-waste

The basic principle of good BMW practice is based on the concept of 3Rs, namely, reduce,
recycle, and reuse. The best BMW management methods aim at avoiding generation of waste or
recovering as much as waste as possible, rather than disposing. Therefore, the various methods
of BMW disposal, according to their desirability, are prevent, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover,
treat, and lastly dispose. Hence, the waste should be tackled at source.

SOURCES OF BIOMEDICAL WASTE

The sources of biomedical waste can be divided into two broad categories:

a. MAJOR SOURCES
The prominent places where biomedical waste is generated are:-
i. Government hospitals, private hospitals, nursing homes and dispensaries.
ii. Production units
iii. Biotechnology institutions
iv. Blood banks
v. Mortuaries
vi. Autopsy centers
vii. Primary health centers
viii. Medical colleges and research centers.

b. MINOR SOURCES
The quantum of generation of biomedical waste by these sources is low and not so
dangerous. These include:
i. Blood donation camps
ii. Clinics
iii. Funeral Services
iv. Animal houses
v. Vaccination centres
Bio-medical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or
immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities pertaining in the production or
testing of biologicals, and including categories mentioned in Schedule I, of the BMW rules,
2016.

The basic principle of good BMW practice is based on the concept of 3Rs, namely, reduce,
recycle, and reuse. The best BMW management methods aim at avoiding generation of waste or
recovering as much as waste as possible, rather than disposing. Therefore, the various methods
of BMW disposal, according to their desirability, are prevent, reduce, reuse, recycle, recover,
treat, and lastly dispose. Hence, the waste should be tackled at source.

IMPORTANT FEATURES:

The major important features of BMW Management Rules, 2016 include the following:-

(a) The ambit of the rules has been expanded to include vaccination camps, blood donation
camps, surgical camps or any other healthcare activity;

(b) Phase-out the use of chlorinated plastic bags, gloves and blood bags within two years;

(c) Pre-treatment of the laboratory waste, microbiological waste, blood samples and blood bags
through disinfection OR sterilization on-site in the manner as prescribed by WHO or NACO;

(d) Provide training to all its health care workers and immunize all health workers regularly;

(e) Establish a Bar-Code System for bags or containers containing bio-medical waste for
disposal;

(f) Report major accidents;

(g) The new rules prescribe more stringent standards for incinerator to reduce the emission of
pollutants in environment;

(h) Existing incinerators to achieve the standards for retention time in secondary chamber and
Dioxin and Furans within two years;

(i) Bio-medical waste has been classified in to 4 categories instead of 10 to improve the
segregation of waste at source;

(j) Procedure to get authorization simplified. Automatic authorization for bedded hospitals. The
validity of authorization synchronized with validity of consent orders for Bedded HCFs. One
time Authorization for Non-bedded HCFs;

(k) No occupier shall establish on-site treatment and disposal facility, if a service of `common
bio-medical waste treatment facility is available at distance of seventy-five kilometers.

(l) Operator of a common bio-medical waste treatment and disposal facility to ensure the timely
collection of bio-medical waste from the HCFs and assist the HCFs in conduct of training.
BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN India

BMW (Management and Handling) rule 1998, prescribed by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, came into force on July 28, 1998.

This rule applies to those who generate, collect, receive, store, dispose, treat, or handle BMW,
types of waste and treatment and disposal options under rule 1998.

The BMW should be segregated into containers/bags at the point of generation of the waste. The
label for biohazards symbol and cytotoxic hazard symbol should be prominently visible and
nonwashable.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests has revised the BMW (Management and Handling)
rules promulgated under the Environment Protection Act of 1986. The rules now called the
BMWs (Management and Handling) rules 2011 has been notified.

Challenges in the Implementation of New Biomedical Waste 2016 Rules

1. Lack of Segregation Practices:-
Segregation practice prevents non-infectious waste to get mixed with infectious waste. Lack of
segregation practices significantly increases the quantity of infectious medical waste as mixing
of infectious component with the general non-infectious waste, makes the entire mass potentially
infectious. There is inadequate practice of segregation of the waste starting from generation to
disposal as seen in Indian hospitals. Even if the segregation of waste at the point of generation is
effective, waste handlers are found mixing it together during the collection and results in loss of
ultimate value of segregation.

1. Lack of Proper Operational Strategy :-

Operational plans should include the location and capacity of the storage containers, frequency
of collection for various types of wastes and schedule of activities. Infectious wastes are to be
stored in the designated colour-coded leak-proof containers for safe handling and can be
disinfected / sterilised by the available facility in the hospital. Transportation of waste within the
hospital is to be carried out in closed handcarts to avoid spillage of waste to a disinfection or
treatment facility. After disinfection/sterilisation the waste is transported to a common treatment
facility, such as an incinerator or controlled landfill. In Indian hospitals wastes are collected in
mixed forms, transported in open carts thus allowing spillage to occur, and waste sharps are
discarded without disinfection and mutilation, which may result in their being, re-used thus
spreading an infection.

2. Poor Regulative Measures :-

In India, Central Pollution Control Board and the State Pollution Control Boards, the agencies
responsible to enforce these rules in hospitals are on one hand lacking adequate power and on the
other hand there is no commitment. As a result, most of the large hospitals have not complied
with these rules even after expiry of new deadlines. Even the regulatory authorities have to take
the blame for not doing enough to ensure implementation. There is lack of coordination between
the regulatory authorities (pollution control boards/committees) and Department of Health who
exercise functional control over all healthcare facilities in one way or the other; and lack of will
to enforce implementation. No agency has been assigned the task of spreading awareness.
Moreover the Rules have not been publicized as widely as required. Hence, smaller HCUs may
not be fully aware of them. A number of issues have not been dealt with in detail, such as
standards of collection and storage devices, equipment, etc.

3. Lack of Green Procurement Policy :-

Personnel responsible for procuring health care products and services (materials managers or
purchasing agents) come from varying backgrounds. Environmental background or training is
not a prerequisite for the individuals responsible for securing health care products and services.
Waste minimisation can be achieved by purchasing reusable items made of glass and metals
which can be disinfected and reused. For example, a polyolefin intravenous (IV) bag does not
contain chlorine, so it has less potential to produce dioxins through incineration than an IV bag
containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Similarly mercury thermometers can be replaced with
mercury free thermometers. Health care units should stimulate the purchase of environmentally
preferable products by mandating certain practices in their purchasing policy.

4. Waste-picking and Reusing :-

Reuse of plastic syringes and other plastic material used in the health care is a thriving business
of billions of Indian Rupees. More than one million people are engaged in rag picking (more
than 100,000 in Delhi alone). The estimated figure of business on this score in Delhi alone is
more than 50 million Indian Rupees per year. Lucrative monetary returns and lack of awareness
about the problems associated with biomedical wastes encourage waste-picking and reusing
activities. It would not be fair to blame the rag pickers only for this as the circle of connivance
starts from the hospital staff itself. It thereafter goes to the waste handlers, then to the rag
pickers, to the packaging outlets situated in a decrepit area of a 'basti (slum)', to the medical
shop, and finally sold to the unsuspecting patients or their relatives.

5. Lack of Top Management Commitment :-

Governments and the health care providers have gone in for one type of option for treatment of
the waste. No health care provider wants or has undertaken a base line survey to collect data
regarding quantum of waste and its type being generated, nor about the waste generation points
in its premises. Budgetary support is poor in the government run hospitals, the corporate
hospitals and the nursing homes. Therefore they find it convenient to ignore the rules for
monetary consideration. Top management in most of Indian hospitals is showing inertia in
dealing with the waste problem. The wastes are therefore instead of being segregated, discharged
in a mixed condition to the site of disposal, separating only the saline bottles, which are sent for
auctioning.

6. Lack of Adequate Facilities :-

Efforts to provide facilities for storage, collection, treatment and disposal of health care
wastes as well as appropriate technologies have so far been limited in India. Additionally,
adequate and requisite number of sanitary landfills is lacking in India. Therefore, the
biomedical waste are openly dumped into the open bins on the road sides, low lying area
or they are directed into the water bodies; through which severe disease causing agents
are spread into the air, soil and water. Self contained onsite treatment methods may be
desirable and feasible for large healthcare facilities but are impractical or uneconomical
for smaller institutes. An acceptable common system should be in place which will
provide free supply of colour coded bags, daily collection of infectious waste, and safe
transportation of waste to offsite treatment facility and final disposal with suitable
technology. Moreover available disposal techniques are neither able to meet disposal
requirements nor innovations in disposal options are in pace with the evolution of
complexity of health care waste streams.

7. Lack of Institutional Arrangements :-

Management of health-care waste depends on the input from the administration and
active participation by trained staff in segregation, storage, collection, transportation,
treatment and disposal. In India personnel responsible for these activities are mainly ward
attendants and other supporting staff. A committee consisting of the head of the
establishment, all the departmental heads, hospital superintendents, nursing
superintendents and hospital engineers should be formed with a waste management
officer who would be advised by an environmental control advisor and an infection
control advisor is required for proper waste management purposes. Studies showed lack
of such kind hospital waste management committee or a documented waste management
and disposal policy in Indian hospitals.
 8. Financial Constraints :-

With dedicated systems being installed in most of the HCUs, financial provision is necessary for
capital and recurring expenditure including funds for sufficient manpower, disinfectants, devices
and equipment. Normally, a separate allocation of funds for waste management is not found in
Indian hospitals. It is estimated that INR 3000–4000 (US$ 70–93) per tonne of hospital waste is
required. Additionally funds are required for conducting training and awareness programs for
health care staffs. Smaller HCUs ignore waste management practices due to financial constraints.

9. Inadequate Awareness and Training Programs :-

Awareness of appropriate handling and disposal of health-care wastes among health personnel is
a priority; it is essential that everyone should know the potential health hazards. Regular
programs will help prevent exposure of health-care wastes and related hazards. Poster exhibition,
proper labeling, and explanation by staff are effective methods. Seminars and workshops, and
participation in training courses are also essential. Management in most of Indian hospitals is not
aware of cost savings achieved due to good waste management practices. It has also been
estimated that disposal savings of between 40% and 70% could be realised through the
implementation of a healthcare waste reduction program.

10. Reluctance to Change and Adoption :-

Though now alternative technologies are permitted as per the Biomedical Rules, it takes a long
time to change the mindset of the people. Even now most of the health care providers and
decision making authorities talk of incinerator only although autoclaves and other advanced
waste handling equipments are available. Indiscriminate throwing of the waste is still seen in
most of the hospitals and the waste handlers still are without protective clothing and gears. There
is hardly any change in the applied knowledge and awareness seen in Indian hospitals.

CASE STUDY:-

I. BIOMEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT IN AN INDIAN HOSPITAL ( J.N.

Hospital and Medical Research Center, Belgaum, India).

The objectives of this study were:

 To assess the waste handling and treatment system of hospital Biomedical solid waste
and it’s mandatory compliance with regulatory modifications for Biomedical Waste
(Management and Handling rules), under the environment protection act 1986.

 To quantitatively estimate the amount of non-infectious and infectious waste generated in

different wards/sections.

During the study it was observed that:

 1. The personnel working under the occupier (who has control over the institution to take all
steps to ensure Biomedical Waste is handled without any adverse effects to human health
and environment) were trained to take adequate precautionary measure in handling these
bio-hazardous waste materials.
2. The process of segregation, collection, transport, storage and final disposal of infectious
waste was done in compliance with the standard procedures.
3. The final disposal was by incineration in accordance to EPA rules 1998
4. The non-infectious waste was collected separately in different containers and treated as
general waste.
5. On an average about 520 kg of non-infectious and 101 kg of infectious waste is generated
per day (about 2.31 kg per day per bed, gross waste comprising both non-infectious and
infectious waste).

Alternative Technology for Biomedical Waste Disposal:

The various new technologies for BMW disposal are categorized into four groups- thermal,
chemical, irradiative, and biological processes. Most of these are still under research.

 Thermal Process

Thermal processes are grouped into three – low, medium, and high.

i. Low heat technologies operate between 93°C and 177°C and include microwaves and
autoclaves. In autoclave, steam is used as a method for sterilization. Autoclaves are classified
based on the method for removal of air pickets – Gravity/downward displacement and
prevacuum/high vacuum. Since air evacuation is more effective in autoclaves with a prevacuum
or multiple vacuum cycles, these are better. A shredder or grinder should be used if waste is to be
made unrecognizable or reduction in waste volume is needed. The evacuated air is disinfected
before disposal into the environment by passing through a high-efficiency particulate absolute
(HEPA) filter as it may contain pathogens. All infectious waste including cultures, human waste,
laboratory waste, soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns) and sharps, and medical instruments
are sterilized in autoclave. Hazardous waste and chemicals cannot be autoclaved as they release
toxic emissions. Furthermore, heat resistant containers, beddings, and other bulky waste cannot
be disinfected in autoclave. Microwave uses moist heat and steam generated by microwave
energy to disinfect. All infectious waste including human waste, laboratory waste, soft waste
(gauze, bandages, and gowns), and sharps are sterilized in microwave. Volatile, semi-volatile
organic compounds, mercury, and radiological waste should not be put in microwave. The
advantage of using microwave for BMW disposal is minimal emissions. Its disadvantage include
requirement of high capital for setup, problem of odor near the machine, and there is a chance of
leak of microwave energy
ii. Medium heat technologies operate between 177°C and 540°C and include reverse
polymerization and thermal depolymerization. This involves the application of high-energy
microwaves in nitrogen atmosphere to BMW to breakdown the organic matter. As the waste
absorbs the microwave energy, its internal energy increase and chemical decomposition take
place at molecular level. Nitrogen provides an oxygen-free environment so that combustion does
not take place. Then, shredders are used to mutilate the waste.
iii. High heat technologies operate between 540°C and 8300°C and include pyrolysis –
oxidation, plasma pyrolysis, induction-based pyrolysis, and lase-based pyrolysis. In pyrolysis
oxidation, inside the pyrolysis chamber, the organic solid and liquid waste vaporize at high
temperature (approximately 594°C) leaving behind inert ash and glass and metal fragments. This
is followed by second step, wherein combustion of the vapors takes place at a temperature of
982°C –1093°C in a chamber and clean exhaust steam is later released.

 Chemical-based technology

Many chemical used for BMW disposal are currently under development. The type of waste
treated by chemical-based technology includes cultures, sharps, liquid waste, human waste,
laboratory waste, and soft waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns). Volatile, semi-volatile organic
compounds, mercury, and radiological waste should not be treated with chemical-based methods.
The chemical-based technology requires closed system or is operated under negative pressure
and the exhausted air has to be passed through HEPA to safeguard against aerosol formation
during shredding. In chemical-based technology, shredding of BMW is must. The advantages of
chemical-based technology include fully automated technique, easy to use, ease of discharge of
liquid effluent into the sewage, and no by-products of combustion formed. The disadvantages
include toxic by-products due to large-scale chlorine and hypochlorite use, chemical hazards, and
often production of offensive odor. The chemical-based technology can be divided into chlorine-
and nonchlorine-based systems.

The chlorine-based system uses sodium hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide. Sodium hypochlorite
was one of the first chemical disinfectants used to treat BMW. Lately, it has been shown that
toxins such as dioxins, halo acetic acid, and chlorinated aromatic compounds are released where
sodium hypochlorite is used. Chlorine dioxide is unstable, so it is generated and used on-site. It
is a strong biocide. It decomposes to form salt, less toxins are produced with its use, and it does
not react with ammonium or alcohol.

Nonchlorine-based technologies use either gas, liquid, or dry chemical to treat BMW. Many of
such system have come in market and few are discussed here. The Steriecocycle 10 4 uses a
portable chamber for collecting waste into which a peracetic acid-based decontaminant vial is
added. After 10–12 min, peracetic acid disinfects the waste and aerosolized pathogens are
prevented from escaping by use of HEPA filter. The liquid effluent is discharged into sewer and
the waste goes as regular rash.

Waste reduction (WR) technology uses alkaline hydrolysis at high temperature to convert human
and microbial waste into neutral aqueous solution. It is used for human/tissue waste, body fluids,
and degradable bags. In addition, it can handle chemotherapy waste. The alkali also destroys
fixative sin tissues and various hazardous chemicals such as glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde.
This automated system has a steam-jacketed stainless steel container with a retainer for
biodegradable waste such as bone and teeth.

Lynntech's another technology uses ozone for decontamination of BMW. Being a strong oxidant,
ozone destroys microbes and converts into molecular oxygen.

Ionizing radiation cause damage to DNA and by producing free radicals cause further damage
proteins and enzymes of infectious particles. The electron beam technology produces ionizing
radiation in the form of a beam of high-energy electron propelled at high speed to strike the
target. The waste to be treated are infectious waste including human waste, laboratory waste, soft
waste (gauze, bandages, and gowns), and sharps. Volatile, semi-volatile organic compounds,
mercury, and radiological waste should not be treated in electron beam units. The various
advantages of this method are that it does not produce toxic emission, no liquid effluent, no
ionizing radiation after machine is switched off, fully automated, and low operational cost. The
disadvantage include protection from radiation exposure, concrete shield several feet thick
around the system, removal of ozone gas, and there is no decrease in waste volume and need
shredders or grinders.

 Biological Methods

Biological methods for disposal of BMW include an emerging system called “Bio-converter” 9
Biomedical Disposal, Inc.). It uses a solution of enzyme to decontaminate medical waste, and the
resulting sludge is put through an extruder used to remove water for sewage disposal and the
solid waste is sent to landfill. Another method of environmental BMW disposal is the use of
biodegradable plastics. Many biomedical implants built with biodegradable plastics undergo
biological degradation with microbial extracellular enzymes. These microbes utilize these
biodegradable polymers as substrate under starvation and in unavailability of suitable substrate.
Further research needs to be done for large-scale economic manufacture of biodegradable
plastics.

Conclusions

BMWM should be a shared teamwork with committed government backing, good BMW
practices followed by both health-care workers and HCFs, continuous monitoring of BMW
practices, and strong legislature. It is our fundamental right to live in clean and safe environment.
The pillar of BMWM is segregation of waste at source and WR. The current BMWM 2016 rules
are an improvement over earlier rules in terms of improved segregation, transportation, and
disposal methods, to decrease environmental pollution and ensure the safety of the staff, patients,
and public. Moreover, more use of non-PVC medical devices and development of newer novel,
eco-friendly systems for disposal of BMW should be encouraged. All participants in BMWM
should pledge to guarantee a cleaner and greener environment.

Reference:

-Chartier Y, Emmanuel J, Pieper U, Prüss A, Rushbrook P, Stringer R, editors. 2nd. Geneva,

Switzerland: WHO Press; 2014. Safe Management of Wastes from Health-Care Activities; pp.
1–146.

-WHO. Review of Health Impacts from Microbiological Hazards in Health-Care

Wastes. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004. [Google Scholar] WHO. Review of Health
Impacts from Microbiological Hazards in Health-Care Wastes. Geneva: World Health
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health care personnel in Jaipur, India. Oral Health Dent Manag 2013
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Elemental Mercury and Wastes Containing or Contaminated with Mercury 31 October,
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QUESTIONS:

1. DEFINE THE TERM 'BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT'.

2. EXPLAIN THE FEATURES OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT.
3. EXPLAIN THE CHALLENGES FACED IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
THE RULES OF BIO-MEDICAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 2016.
4. NAME THE PRINCIPAL ON WHICH BIO-MEDICAL WASTE
MANAGEMENT IS BASED.

ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND WATER CONSUMPTION

INTRODUCTION- The relation between energy consumption and economic growth in

developing countries has been established by many studies. They have typically found that
increase in energy consumption has positively affected the growth in income level in several
developing countries including India. Over the years, energy consumption in many developing
countries that are transforming into industrial powers has increased many folds and India is no
exception to it. India is the second largest consumer of commercial energy after China in Non-
OECD East Asia. The two key socio-economic indicators that have led to increased demand in
energy in India are population growth and rising gross domestic product (GDP). India has
experienced rapid growth in both the parameters that have driven the pace of energy demand in
the country. The GDP has taken a significant leap since the structural reform that took place in
the country in 1991. The annual GDP growth rate has risen from 4.4% in 2000-01 to 8.1% in
2003-04.
Energy consumption is the amount of energy or power used. All energy is, at bottom, either
derived or captured from the environment around us. Once used, it is eventually returned to the
environment as a harmless by-product or, more often than not, as harmful emissions or waste. As
energy usage has increased around the world, so too have the stresses this usage imposes on the
environment intensified.

Water consumption is defined as the freshwater taken from ground or surface water sources,
either permanently or temporarily, and conveyed to the place of use. If the water is returned to a
surface water source, abstraction of the same water by the downstream user is counted again in
compiling total abstractions. Mine water and drainage water are included. Water used for
hydroelectricity generation is an in-situ use and is excluded.

 “Water use” describes the total amount of water withdrawn from its source to be used.
Measures of water usage help evaluate the level of demand from industrial, agricultural,
and domestic users. For example, a manufacturing plant might require 10,000 gallons of
freshwater a day for cooling, running, or cleaning its equipment. Even if the plant returns
95 percent of that water to the watershed, the plant needs all 10,000 gallons to operate.
 “Water consumption” is the portion of water use that is not returned to the original water
source after being withdrawn. Consumption occurs when water is lost into the
atmosphere through evaporation or incorporated into a product or plant (such as a corn
stalk) and is no longer available for reuse. Water consumption is particularly relevant
when analysing water scarcity and the impact of human activities on water availability.
For example, irrigated agriculture accounts for 70 percent of water use worldwide and
almost 50 percent of that is lost, either evaporated into the atmosphere or transpired
through plant leaves.

CHANGING PATTERNS OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Energy consumption patterns refers to the way and total use of energy. Energy is broadly
classified into two categories: Renewable and Non-Renewable. Renewable energy is the cleanest
source of energy and non-renewable energy is not environmental source of energy.

According to Akhter Hossain (2012),” GDP and energy consumption of developing countries are
increasing exponentially, whereas GDP and energy consumption of developed countries are
increasing linearly”.
Economic growth in India has a high degree of correlation with energy consumption. In India
commercial energy sources fulfil around 60% of total energy needs and fuels are used for
remaining 40% of energy needs.

Household sector consumes energy mainly for lighting and cooking. In agricultural sector,
energy is required for irrigation and other operations. Industrial sector has high energy
requirements for transporting of passengers and freight and fuel input requirements. The
consumption pattern of energy in India can be demonstrated by the following table:

According to the table, India’s commercial energy consumption has increased from 13.7 million
tons of oil equivalenting 1991/92 to 176.08 mtoe in 1997/8. Per capita commercial energy
consumption increased from152.7 kilo grams of oil equivalent to 184.7 kgoe over the same
period. Average annual growth rate for the agricultural GDP is 2.6%, the same figures for
industrial, transport and service sectors are 6.8%,7.6% and 6.4%respectively. Industrial sector
has consistently remained the largest consumer of commercial energy, followed by the transport
sector despite declining share of industrial sector from 50.4% in 1991-92 to 47.8% in 1997-98.
CHANGING PATTERNS OF WATER CONSUMPTION

Water, the need of life, is likely to pose the greatest challenge on account of an increased
demand with population rise and economic development and shrinking supplies due to over-
exploitation and pollution. Although water is an abundant and renewable natural resource
covering two-third of the plant, a very small proportion of this is effectively available for human
use. In India, as a result of development, the demand of water is increasing both in urban and
rural areas. This may increase in tensions and disputes over sharing and command of water
resources. The emerging scarcity of water has also raised a host of issues, related to
sustainability of the present form of the economic development, sustained water supply, equity
and social justice, water financing, pricing, governance and management.

World water demand by the turn of the century is likely to reach almost half of the total global
runoff water annually available. By then, 21 ten-million-plus metropolises the world over will
have to draw fresh water from sources further away or by pumping deeper with adverse
environmental effects. Yet, the efficiency of water use remains abysmally low. An estimated 60
per cent of irrigation water is lost even before it ever reaches a plant. In cities, more than one-
thirds of the treated water never reaches the customer because of wastage and leakage. This
situation cannot continue if development and the environment are to sustain. Demand
management through economic, technical and educational means could greatly improve the
efficiency of water use and reduce consumption.

Seven good ways to reduce water consumption in cities:

1. Introduce water metering and a tariff policy which is fair and which encourages
conservation.
2. Promote the use of water and sanitary fittings which reduce water usage.
3. Initiate a leak detection and repair programme within the city.
4. Encourage water recycling in industries to reduce pressure on freshwater.
5. Explore the possibility of reusing treated wastewater for crop production and fish
farming.
6. Engage the public through appropriate "save water" campaigns through local leaders.
7. Ensure that school children develop respect for water.
FACTORS AFFECTING PATTERNS OF ENERGY AND WATER CONSUMPTION

 General Factors

The quantities of water used in any activity are jointly determined by the supply of water
available to support that activity and the demand for water in that activity. Both the supply and
the demand for water are further determined by variables that tend to be location specific.
Nevertheless, a number of overarching factors influence levels of water use independent of
location. These factors will undoubtedly be critical in determining future levels of water use in
the study area.

 Population Numbers and Distribution

At the most fundamental level, water is needed to supply people's basic domestic needs, in
quantities directly proportional to the number of people. Other uses of water include the various
municipal, industrial, agricultural, environmental, and other uses described elsewhere in this
report. The quantities of water used for these purposes are also related to some degree to the
number and spatial distribution of people in the region, but these quantities are also affected by
many other factors, discussed below. Finally, people residing in urban areas tend to have
different patterns of water use, and they tend to use different quantities of water than people in
rural or agricultural areas.

 Technology

Technology and changes in technology may affect the availability or supply of water, demand
for water and levels of water use. Industrialization, for example, typically increases the demand
for water, at least initially. However, technological developments that permit users to economize
on water—such developments as water-efficient indoor plumbing fixtures, closed-conduit
irrigation systems like drip and micro sprinkler systems, and computerized irrigation
management techniques—frequently result in reductions in water use. Technical improvements
that improve timing and lower costs of supply can also affect water use. For example, the
construction of impoundment facilities permits control and regulation of runoff and allows more
constant levels of supply. Over the last century, pumping technology improvements have made
new sources of ground water available that previously could not be exploited because of their
depth. On the other hand, failure to employ modern technology may mean lower quantities and
higher costs of available supply.

While improvements in technology have sometimes dramatically increased the availability of

water supplies, technology can also produce unwanted and unforeseen side effects.

 Economics
Economic conditions, both within and outside the study area may affect water supply and
demand. Recent declines in the world price for cotton have caused sharp declines in the potential
profits from cultivation of irrigated cotton. In turn, this development has provided both the
political and economic impetus to reduce cotton plantations in Israel and replace those irrigated
plantations with dryland agriculture, significantly reducing water demands. World energy prices
also affect the quantities of water used by boosting the price of water that must be pumped or
treated before it can be used. Changes in economic conditions also affect foreign trade in many
ways whose implications for water use are not always easy to foresee. Finally, economic
conditions within the region will affect water supply and demand by affecting the ability of water
users to pay for water, as well as the ability of producers to purchase capital and labour for
activities in many industries that may directly or indirectly affect water use, including
agriculture.

 Environmental Conditions

Changes in environmental conditions can also significantly influence water supply and demand.
Increased precipitation or decreased evapotranspiration are likely to augment water supplies and
reduce the water demanded by irrigated agriculture. Increases in temperature or decreases in
vegetated area or biological diversity are likely to diminish available supplies and increase the
water demanded in many water using sectors. Water quality deterioration due to increased
contamination levels reduces the available supply of water as surely as drought.

Changes in the environment can be directly or indirectly caused by human activities, or they can
be (apparently) unrelated to human activity. For example, global climate change occurred long
before humans or even living organisms inhabited the planet. Such change is likely to continue,
but will be continued with global change caused by human activity.

 Instream and Withdrawal Uses of Water

In characterizing patterns of water use, one fundamental distinction is that between instream and
withdrawal uses of water. The flowing or fleeting nature of water resources means that in many
instances, certain uses of water do not impair its availability for further use. These uses are
commonly termed instream: they do not notably alter the properties of the water nor thus the
quality or quantity of water to serve subsequent uses. Examples of instream uses include most
recreational uses, support of aquatic habitats and other environmental uses, navigation, and
generation of hydroelectric power.

When water is withdrawn from a surface water body or from an aquifer it may be used either
consumptively or non-consumptively. Consumptive uses occur when water is transformed from a
state or location from which it can be used to one in which it cannot be used. Water used
consumptively is not available for subsequent uses. Examples include uses such as irrigation, in
which transpired water is evaporated and can not be immediately captured to serve new uses, and
industrial uses in which the water is incorporated into a production. For the most part, industrial
and indoor household uses are non-consumptive, however, in almost all cases the quality of the
water is degraded so that some form of treatment is required before it is available for further use.

 Municipal and Industrial Sectors

The amount of water withdrawn and consumed by the municipal sector is in large measure a
function of the population size. The need for water to supply people's basic needs for drinking,
cooking, and sanitation is proportional to the number of people and their standard of living.
Varying quantities of water may be used for other household purposes beyond these fundamental
needs, and these quantities will also be related to the number of people, though less directly so.
Changes in technology or behaviour that alter levels of water withdrawn and consumed may
have significant impacts on the total levels used and the proportion returned as waste. It would
be useful to investigate the effects of drought on water use; reductions on outdoor uses of water
and economizing on indoor uses reduced total domestic water use by 25 percent in California
during the drought of 1987-1993.

 Agricultural Sector

The determinants of agricultural water use are generally quite well known. The greatest factor
influencing evapotranspiration is solar radiation. However, different crops may have different
requirements for evapotranspiration, so that consumptive water use in the agricultural sector also
depends on crop type. Evapotranspiration is also influenced by other climatic variables,
including temperature, humidity, and wind speed. The same crop has different evapotranspirative
requirements in different climatic zones. In addition, different irrigation methods such as drip,
sprinkler, and different techniques of gravity irrigation, and the employment of closed-conduit
irrigation technology may also reduce the quantities of water consumed at the farm level for the
same crop production. water supply and demand will ultimately require a better understanding of
both the patterns of water use and the determinants of those patterns.
 CASE STUDY

By Pradeep Chaturvedi, President of Indian Association for the Advancement of Science

 Introduction
Renewable energy sector growth in India during the last four years has been significant, even for
electricity generation from renewable sources. The grid connected systems with installed
capacities in the MW range indicate a growth of 96% for wind power, 26% in small hydro, 234%
for biomass/co-generation power and 200% for solar photovoltaic power. Even for the
decentralized systems, the growth for solar home lighting systems has been 300%, solar lanterns
99% and solar photovoltaic water pumps 196%. This is a phenomenal growth in the renewable
energy sector mainly for applications that were considered to be supplied only through major
electricity utilities. Renewable energy systems are also being looked upon as a major application
for electrification of 20,000 remote and unelectrified villages and hamlets by 2007 and all
households in such villages and hamlets by 2012. Keywords: renewable energy programmes,
solar, photovoltaic, wind, biomass.

 Functional Groups
The Ministry is broadly organized into six Functional Groups dealing with ‘Rural Energy’,
‘Power from Renewables’, ‘Energy from Urban and Industrial Wastes’, ‘New Technologies’ and
‘Administration and Coordination’.

 Potential of renewable energy use and achievements during (1999-2003)

Following Table reflects potential of renewable energy use in India and installed
systems/capacities by the last quarter of 2003. It will be noticed that the growth of power
generation systems, utilizing renewables has been very high.

 Major Achievements India’s major achievements renewable energy development can be

summarized as follows:
1. Over 4200 MW grid power from wind, small hydro, biomass and solar energy.
2. 3600 remote villages/hamlets, including those in Sundarbans, Baster, Ladakh and the North
East electrified through solar energy.
3. 7 lakh sq. Meter collector area solar water heating systems installed.
4. Largest solar–steam cooking system for 15,000 persons/day set up at Tirupati Tirumala
Devasthanam.
5. 3.5 million biogas plants installed for cooking and lighting applications.
6. 35 million improved wood stoves in rural homes.
7. Integrated Rural Energy Programme Implemented in 860 blocks
 8. Demonstration of the use of ethanol, bio-diesel and hydrogen for vehicles and stationary
applications.
9. Zero emission vehicles including two, three and four wheelers and passenger buses being
promoted under research and development and demonstration programmes.
10. Fuel cell vehicle developed and demonstrated for the first time outside the USA, the
European Union and Japan.
11. Bangalore declared solar thermal city with Thane in Mumbai to follow soon.
12. 30 MW capacity Solar Photovoltaic products exported to various developed and
developing countries.
13. Constitution of Hydrogen Energy Board for drawing up and implementing the National
Hydrogen Energy Roadmap.
14. 280 Energy Parks set-up in educational institutions for demonstration of renewable energy
systems and devices
15. Rs.25,000 million direct subsidies given so far to beneficiaries/users of renewable energy
systems and devices, including subsidy for grid connected renewable power projects.
16. Rs. 32,000 million loan provided so far by Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
Limited for 1600 renewable energy projects.
Conclusions

India has launched a massive programme of renewable energy utilization. Recent successes
through market approach ensure larger applications on a sustainable basis. The level of use will
however, depend on availability of fossil fuels and their price. Recent resolve of SAARC at its
meeting at Islamabad on January 4, 2004 reflects political support for renewable in South Asia
Indian technical inputs can be crucial in such development.

QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC

 1.) How much energy it takes to treat water?
2.) How are the rates of consumption of energy and economic growth connected?
3.) What are environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy?
4.) Analyzing changing patterns of energy consumption from ancient to modern times.
5.) What are the impacts of water insecurity?

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