NCERT CLASS 9 HISTORY

India and the Contemporary World – I

Complete Chapter-wise Notes

All 8 Chapters · Key Terms · Important Dates · Extra Info · Exam Q&A; · Quick Revision

Section I Events and Processes Ch 1–3

Section II Livelihoods, Economies and Societies Ch 4–6

Section III Everyday Life, Culture and Politics Ch 7–8

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 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 — The French Revolution

• French Society & Estate System
• Outbreak & Storming of Bastille
• Constitutional Monarchy
• Reign of Terror
• Women & Revolution
• Abolition of Slavery
• Revolution & Everyday Life

Chapter 2 — Socialism in Europe & The Russian Revolution

• Liberals, Radicals, Conservatives
• Coming of Socialism
• Russian Empire 1914
• 1905 Revolution
• February & October Revolutions
• Civil War & Collectivisation
• Global Influence of USSR

Chapter 3 — Nazism and the Rise of Hitler

• Weimar Republic
• Hitler's Rise to Power
• Nazi Worldview
• Racial State & Holocaust
• Youth & Women in Nazi Germany
• Propaganda
• Ordinary People & Crimes

Chapter 4 — Forest Society and Colonialism

• Why Deforestation
• Rise of Commercial Forestry
• Impact on Forest Communities
• Rebellions in the Forest
• Bastar & Java Forests

Chapter 5 — Pastoralists in the Modern World

• Pastoral Nomads & Movements
• Colonial Rule & Pastoral Life
• Pastoralists in Africa
• Maasai Community

Chapter 6 — Peasants and Farmers

• Modern Agriculture in England
• Enclosures & Captain Swing
• USA – Wheat Cultivation & Dust Bowl
• Indian Farmer & Opium Production

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 Chapter 7 — History and Sport: The Story of Cricket
• Historical Development in England
• Spread of Cricket
• Cricket, Race & Religion in India
• Modern Transformation
• Commerce, Media & Cricket Today

Chapter 8 — Clothing: A Social History

• Sumptuary Laws
• Clothing & Beauty Notions
• Changes in England (Wars & Industry)
• Transformations in Colonial India
• Swadeshi & Gandhi

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 Chapter 1 The French Revolution
The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a landmark event that dismantled the feudal order in France,
introducing ideals of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity that reshaped world history. It ended the monarchy,
established a republic, and its ideas influenced anti-colonial movements globally.

■ Important Dates

1774 Louis XVI ascends throne; France has empty treasury.

5 May 1789 Louis XVI calls Estates General to pass new taxes.

20 June 1789 Third Estate forms National Assembly; Tennis Court Oath.

14 July 1789 Storming of the Bastille – marks start of Revolution.

4 Aug 1789 Assembly passes decree abolishing feudal system.

1791 Constitution drafted; France becomes Constitutional Monarchy.

21 Sep 1792 France declared a Republic; monarchy abolished.

21 Jan 1793 Louis XVI executed at Place de la Concorde.

1793–94 Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

July 1794 Robespierre arrested and guillotined; Terror ends.

1804 Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor.

1815 Napoleon defeated at Waterloo.

1848 Slavery finally abolished in French colonies.

1946 Women in France win right to vote.

1. French Society During the Late 18th Century

The Estate System (Old Regime / Ancien Régime):

French society before 1789 was divided into three estates under the feudal system. The term "Old Regime"
refers to the society and institutions of France before 1789.

Estate Who? Privileges Taxes?

1st Estate Clergy (Church) Exempt from taxes; collected tithes No

2nd Estate Nobility Feudal privileges; extracted dues from peasants

No

Everyone else (90% of pop)

3rd Estate Big merchants, lawyers, artisans, None YES – All taxes paid by 3rd estate only
peasants, labourers

Key Economic Details:

■ Peasants made up ~90% of the population but only a small number owned the land they cultivated.
■ ~60% of land was owned by nobles, Church and richer 3rd estate members.
■ Taxes: Direct tax = taille; Church tax = tithe (1/10th of agricultural produce); Indirect taxes on salt, tobacco,
etc.
■ France's debt exceeded 2 billion livres; lenders charged 10% interest.

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 ■ Louis XVI helped American colonies gain independence from Britain — added 1 billion livres more debt.

1.1 Subsistence Crisis:

Population of France rose from 23 million (1715) to 28 million (1789). Food production couldn't keep pace →
bread prices rose rapidly → Subsistence Crisis (extreme situation where basic means of livelihood are
endangered).

1.2 The Middle Class & Philosophers:

■ John Locke (Two Treatises of Government) — refuted divine and absolute right of monarch.
■ Jean Jacques Rousseau (The Social Contract) — government based on social contract between people and
representatives.
■ Montesquieu (The Spirit of the Laws) — proposed separation of powers: Legislative, Executive, Judiciary.
■ Ideas spread through salons, coffee-houses, books and newspapers.
■ American Constitution (1776) was an important example for French political thinkers.

2. The Outbreak of the Revolution

■ On 5 May 1789, Estates General was convened at Versailles — first time since 1614.
■ Each estate had 300 representatives except 3rd estate which had 600, but each estate had only ONE vote.
■ 3rd estate demanded vote per member (not per estate) — king rejected → Third Estate walked out.
■ 20 June 1789: 3rd Estate declared itself the National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath (led by
Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès).
■ 14 July 1789: Agitated crowd stormed the Bastille (symbol of despotic royal power) and released its 7
prisoners.
■ Great Fear: Peasants across France attacked chateaux, looted grain, burnt manorial records.
■ 4 August 1789: National Assembly abolished feudal system, tithes, and confiscated Church lands (worth ~2
billion livres).

2.1 France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:

Constitution drafted in 1791. Powers separated into Legislative, Executive, Judiciary. The Constitution began
with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
■ Rights declared as "natural and inalienable": right to life, freedom of speech, equality before law.
■ Active citizens: Men >25 years paying taxes equal to 3 days labourer's wage → entitled to vote (only ~4
million of 28 million).
■ Passive citizens: Remaining men, ALL women, children — no voting rights.
■ Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793): Wrote "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen" (1791) addressing
queen and assembly; was executed by the Jacobins in 1793.

3. France Becomes a Republic

■ National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria.
■ Marseillaise composed by poet Roget de L'Isle — now France's national anthem.
■ Jacobin Club: Named after former convent of St Jacob, Paris. Led by Maximilian Robespierre. Members =
small shopkeepers, artisans, servants, daily-wage workers.
■ Sans-culottes = "those without knee breeches" — wore long striped trousers; men wore red cap of liberty.
■ 10 August 1792: Jacobins stormed Palace of Tuileries, massacred king's guards.
■ 21 September 1792: Convention abolished monarchy → France declared a Republic.
■ 21 January 1793: Louis XVI executed at Place de la Concorde. Marie Antoinette executed shortly after.

3.1 Reign of Terror (1793–94):

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 Robespierre's Policies:
● All "enemies of the republic" arrested and guillotined.
● Guillotine named after Dr Guillotin who invented it.
● Maximum ceiling on wages and prices; meat and bread rationed.
● Peasants forced to sell grain at government-fixed prices.
● White flour (expensive) forbidden → everyone ate "pain d'égalité" (equality bread).
● Traditional titles "Monsieur/Madame" replaced by "Citoyen/Citoyenne" (Citizen).
● Churches shut and converted into barracks/offices.
● Robespierre arrested in July 1794 and sent to the guillotine.

3.2 Directory Rules France:

After Jacobins: A Directory (executive of 5 members) + 2 elected legislative councils. Political instability of
Directory paved way for Napoleon's rise.

4. Did Women have a Revolution?

■ Women of 3rd estate worked as seamstresses, laundresses, flower/fruit sellers, domestic servants.
■ Wages were lower than men's; no access to education or job training.
■ ~60 women's clubs formed across France; most famous: Society of Revolutionary and Republican
Women.
■ Constitution of 1791 made women passive citizens — no right to vote.
■ Gains: Compulsory schooling for girls, marriage became civil contract, divorce made legal, women could train
for jobs.
■ Loss: During Terror, women's clubs closed, political activity banned, many women executed.
■ Women finally got voting rights in France in 1946.

5. Abolition of Slavery
■ French Caribbean colonies (Martinique, Guadeloupe, San Domingo) provided tobacco, indigo, sugar, coffee.
■ Labour shortage solved by triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and Americas (began 17th century).
■ French merchants sailed from Bordeaux and Nantes → bought African slaves → sold in Caribbean.
■ Port cities like Bordeaux and Nantes prospered from slave trade.
■ Convention in 1794 legislated to free all slaves in French colonies.
■ Napoleon reintroduced slavery 10 years later (1804).
■ Slavery finally abolished in French colonies in 1848.

6. The Revolution and Everyday Life

■ Abolition of censorship after Bastille — Declaration proclaimed freedom of speech and expression as natural
right.
■ Newspapers, pamphlets, books and prints flooded France.
■ Napoleon Bonaparte (1804): Introduced uniform weights and measures (decimal system), protection of
private property, modernized laws.
■ Napoleon defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
■ French Revolutionary ideas influenced anti-colonial movements in India (Tipu Sultan, Raja Rammohan Roy)
and globally.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

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 Taille Direct tax paid to the French state by 3rd estate.

Tithe Church tax = 1/10th of agricultural produce paid by peasants.

Livre Unit of currency in France (discontinued 1794).

Old Regime Society and institutions of France before 1789.

Subsistence Crisis Extreme situation where basic means of livelihood are endangered.

National Assembly Political body formed by 3rd estate on 20 June 1789.

Tennis Court Oath Vow not to disperse until France got a constitution (20 June 1789).

Guillotine Device with two poles and a blade for beheading; named after Dr Guillotin.

Sans-culottes Jacobins who wore long trousers instead of knee breeches; "those without knee
breeches".

Directory Executive body of 5 members that ruled France after the Terror.

Suffrage Right to vote.

Treason Betrayal of one's country/government.

Emancipation The act of freeing (especially from slavery).

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ The French Revolution inspired the Indian National Movement. Bal Gangadhar Tilak popularized the
slogan "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity."
★ Robespierre's period (1793-94) saw ~17,000 official executions and ~40,000 deaths in prison during
the Terror.
★ The Bastille, when stormed, held only 7 prisoners — its importance was symbolic, not practical.
★ The Declaration of Rights of Man is considered a precursor to the UN Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (1948).
★ Raja Rammohan Roy was so excited by the July Revolution (1830) in France that he visited French
warships flying the tricolor flag.
★ The word "Liberty" is symbolized by the broken chain in French revolutionary imagery.
★ The Marseillaise was originally a war song composed in 1792 but later became France's national
anthem.
★ Napoleon's Code Civil (1804) influenced legal systems worldwide and is still the basis of law in
Quebec, Louisiana, and many former French colonies.
★ The storming of the Bastille is celebrated as Bastille Day — a national holiday in France on July 14
each year.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ Describe circumstances leading to revolutionary protest in France.

Empty treasury, heavy debt, expensive wars, extravagant court at Versailles, unfair tax system (only
3rd estate paid), subsistence crisis due to population growth and bad harvests, influence of
philosophers (Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu) who advocated equality and freedom, anger at
privilege, and Louis XVI's plan to impose more taxes led to protests.
■ Which groups benefited from the Revolution?

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 The middle class (bourgeoisie), merchants, lawyers — benefited from end of aristocratic privileges.
Women gained some legal rights (divorce, schooling). GAINED: 3rd estate. LOST POWER: Clergy,
Nobility, King. DISAPPOINTED: Working poor (still no political rights); women (still passive citizens);
slaves (abolition reversed by Napoleon).
■ Describe the legacy of the French Revolution.
Ideas of liberty, equality, democracy spread across Europe in the 19th century; feudalism abolished;
inspired anti-colonial movements in Asia, Africa, Latin America; Rights of Man influenced global human
rights; revolutionary symbols (tricolor, Marseillaise) adopted worldwide.
■ Would you agree that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions?
Yes. Despite Declaration of Rights of Man, (1) women were denied equal rights (passive citizens), (2)
slaves in colonies were not freed until 1794 (and re-enslaved under Napoleon), (3) voting rights
restricted to property-owning men — showing deep contradictions between the ideals proclaimed and
the reality implemented.
■ How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?
The Directory was politically unstable and France faced continuous conflict. Napoleon was a military
hero with great victories in Europe. He projected himself as a modernizer who would bring peace and
order. The instability of the Directory paved the way for a military dictator. In 1799 he overthrew the
Directory and in 1804 crowned himself Emperor.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Three estates: Clergy (1st), Nobility (2nd), Everyone else (3rd). Only 3rd estate paid taxes.
● Key philosophers: Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu — influenced ideas of liberty, equality, democracy.
● Bastille stormed: 14 July 1789 — symbol of royal despotism; only 7 prisoners released.
● Tennis Court Oath: 20 June 1789 — 3rd estate vowed to draft constitution.
● France became Republic: 21 September 1792; King Louis XVI executed: 21 January 1793.
● Reign of Terror (1793–94): Robespierre; guillotine used for perceived enemies of republic.
● Marseillaise: National anthem of France, composed by Roget de L'Isle.
● Olympe de Gouges: Wrote Declaration of Rights of Woman (1791); executed 1793.
● Slavery finally abolished in French colonies: 1848; Women get vote in France: 1946.
● Napoleon: Crowned emperor 1804; defeated at Waterloo 1815.

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 Socialism in Europe and the Russian
Chapter 2
Revolution
This chapter traces the rise of socialist ideas in 19th-century Europe and focuses on the Russian Revolution of
1917, which led to the world's first socialist state. The fall of the Tsarist autocracy and the Bolshevik seizure of
power fundamentally transformed Russia and influenced global politics for much of the 20th century.

■ Important Dates

1898 Russian Social Democratic Workers Party founded.

1900 Socialist Revolutionary Party formed in Russia.

22 Jan 1905 Bloody Sunday — Father Gapon's march attacked; 1905 Revolution begins.

1905 Tsar allows creation of Duma (Parliament); Soviet of workers formed.

1914 First World War begins; Russia joins on Allied side.

Feb 1917 February Revolution; Tsar Nicholas II abdicates on 2 March.

Apr 1917 Lenin returns from exile; announces April Theses.

24 Oct 1917 Bolshevik uprising begins in Petrograd.

21 Sep 1792 Actually 21 Sep 1792 for France; here: Nov 1917 elections to Constituent Assembly.

Mar 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk — Russia makes peace with Germany.

1918–20 Civil War in Russia (Reds vs Whites vs Greens).

Dec 1922 Formation of USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).

1927–28 Grain crisis; decision to collectivize farms.

1929 Stalin's Collectivization Programme begins.

1930–33 Devastating famines — over 4 million die.

1. The Age of Social Change

Three Political Tendencies:

Liberals Radicals Conservatives

• Wanted tolerance of all religions • Wanted government based on majority• Opposed to rapid change
• Opposed absolute monarchy • Supported women's suffrage • After French Revolution: accepted some change
• Wanted elected parliament • Opposed privileges of landowners • Believed change should be gradual
• Against universal adult franchise • Accepted private property but opposed• its
Respected
concentration
the past and tradition
• Only men of property should vote • More democratic than liberals
• Did NOT want women's vote

1.3 The Coming of Socialism

■ Socialists were against private property — saw it as the root of all social ills.
■ Robert Owen (1771–1858): English manufacturer; sought to build cooperative community "New Harmony" in
Indiana, USA.
■ Louis Blanc (1813–1882): France; wanted government to encourage cooperatives over capitalist enterprises.

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 ■ Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895): Industrial society was "capitalist" — workers must
overthrow capitalism to create a communist society.
■ By 1870s, socialist ideas spread across Europe; Second International formed to coordinate socialist efforts.
■ In Germany: Associations worked with Social Democratic Party (SPD).
■ By 1905: Labour Party in Britain; Socialist Party in France — but socialists never formed a government in
Europe till 1914.

2. The Russian Revolution

2.1 Russian Empire in 1914:

■ Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire (Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus,
Central Asian states, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan).
■ Majority religion: Russian Orthodox Christianity; also Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, Buddhists.
■ 85% of population earned living from agriculture (vs 40–50% in France/Germany).
■ Industry in pockets: St Petersburg and Moscow; coal doubled, iron/steel quadrupled by 1900s.
■ Women = 31% of factory labour force in 1914, paid 50–75% of men's wages.
■ Russian peasants pooled land in commune (mir) and divided it periodically according to family needs.

2.3 Socialism in Russia:

■ All political parties illegal in Russia before 1914.
■ Russian Social Democratic Workers Party founded 1898 — operated illegally; set up newspaper, mobilised
workers.
■ Socialist Revolutionary Party (1900): Struggled for peasants' rights; wanted nobles' land given to peasants.
■ Party split: Bolsheviks (led by Lenin — disciplined, controlled party) vs Mensheviks (open to all, like
Germany).

2.4 The 1905 Revolution:

■ Real wages declined 20% in 1904; membership in workers' associations rose.
■ 4 workers dismissed from Putilov Iron Works → over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike.
■ Bloody Sunday: Procession led by Father Gapon to Winter Palace attacked by police and Cossacks → 100+
killed, 300 wounded.
■ Universities closed; middle-class professionals established Union of Unions; demanded constituent assembly.
■ Tsar allowed creation of elected consultative Duma (Parliament).
■ Tsar dismissed 1st Duma in 75 days, 2nd in 3 months; 3rd Duma packed with conservative politicians.
■ Jadidists: Muslim reformers within the Russian empire who wanted modernized Islam.

3. The February Revolution (1917)

■ 22 February 1917: Lockout at factory on right bank of River Neva; next day 50 factories strike.
■ Women led the way to strikes on International Women's Day; demonstrators crossed to left bank (Nevskii
Prospekt).
■ 25 February: Government suspended Duma.
■ 27 February: Police Headquarters ransacked; cavalry refused to fire on demonstrators; soldiers mutinied.
■ Workers and soldiers formed Petrograd Soviet.
■ 2 March 1917: Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on advice of military commanders.
■ Provisional Government formed (Soviet leaders + Duma leaders); future to be decided by constituent
assembly.

3.1 After February — Lenin's April Theses:

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 Lenin's Three Demands (April Theses):
1. War to be brought to a close.
2. Land to be transferred to the peasants.
3. Banks to be nationalised.
Also: Bolshevik Party rename itself Communist Party.

3.2 The October Revolution (1917)

■ 16 October 1917: Lenin persuaded Petrograd Soviet + Bolshevik Party to agree to socialist seizure of power.
■ Military Revolutionary Committee appointed under Leon Trotskii to organise the seizure.
■ 24 October 1917: Uprising began — ship Aurora shelled Winter Palace.
■ By nightfall, city under committee's control; ministers surrendered.
■ Note: Russia followed Julian calendar till 1 Feb 1918 — so "February Revolution" = 12 March, "October
Revolution" = 7 November (Gregorian calendar).

4. What Changed After October?

■ Most industry and banks nationalised in November 1917.
■ Land declared social property; peasants could seize nobility's land.
■ Large houses partitioned; old aristocratic titles banned.
■ New uniforms designed; Soviet hat (budeonovka) chosen in 1918 clothing competition.
■ Bolshevik Party renamed Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
■ November 1917: Elections to Constituent Assembly — Bolsheviks failed to gain majority; Lenin dismissed
Assembly in January 1918.
■ March 1918: Peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
■ Russia became a one-party state; trade unions under party control.
■ Secret police: Cheka (later OGPU, then NKVD) punished critics.

4.1 The Civil War (1918–1920):

■ Reds = Bolsheviks; Greens = Socialist Revolutionaries; Whites = Pro-Tsarists.
■ Whites backed by French, American, British, Japanese troops.
■ By January 1920, Bolsheviks controlled most of former Russian empire.
■ December 1922: USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) formed from Russian empire.

4.2 Making a Socialist Society:

■ Centralised planning introduced; Five Year Plans set economic targets.
■ First Two Plans (1927–32 and 1933–38): Government fixed all prices.
■ Industrial production increased 100% (1929–33) in oil, coal, steel.
■ Extended schooling system; factory workers/peasants could enter universities; crèches established.

4.3 Stalinism and Collectivisation:

■ Stalin headed party after Lenin's death; introduced emergency measures for grain crisis.
■ Kulaks: Well-to-do peasants; grain-producing areas raided.
■ From 1929: All peasants forced to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz).
■ Peasants resisted → destroyed livestock; cattle fell by one-third (1929–31).
■ Bad harvests (1930–33): One of most devastating famines in Soviet history — over 4 million died.
■ By 1939, over 2 million in prisons or labour camps on false accusations.

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 ■ Key Terms & Definitions

Suffragette Movement A movement to give women the right to vote.

Soviet Council of workers and soldiers (e.g., Petrograd Soviet).

Bolsheviks Disciplined faction of Russian Social Democrats led by Lenin; favored closed
party membership.

Mensheviks Faction of Russian Social Democrats who wanted party open to all (like
Germany).

April Theses Lenin's three demands: end war, transfer land to peasants, nationalize banks.

Duma Russian Parliament (consultative) created after 1905 Revolution.

Bloody Sunday January 22, 1905 — Father Gapon's workers' march attacked at Winter Palace.

Jadidists Muslim reformers within the Russian empire who wanted modernised Islam.

Kulaks Well-to-do peasants targeted during Stalin's collectivisation.

Kolkhoz Collective farms under Stalin's collectivisation programme.

Comintern International union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties (formed 1919).

Deported Forcibly removed from one's own country.

Real Wage Reflects actual quantities of goods that wages can buy (adjusted for prices).

Autonomy Right of a group or region to govern themselves.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ The Communist Manifesto (1848) by Marx and Engels declared "Workers of the world, unite!"
★ Lenin's real name was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov; "Lenin" was a pseudonym.
★ The Romanov dynasty (which included Tsar Nicholas II) ruled Russia for 300+ years before the
revolution.
★ Leon Trotskii organized the Red Army and was instrumental in winning the Civil War, but was later
exiled by Stalin and assassinated in Mexico (1940).
★ The Russian Communist Party is the only ruling party that has governed from October 1917 to 1991
without interruption.
★ India formed its Communist Party in the mid-1920s. Jawaharlal Nehru visited USSR and was greatly
influenced; India adopted Five Year Plans.
★ Rabindranath Tagore visited the USSR in 1930 and was amazed by the social transformation but later
expressed reservations about totalitarianism.
★ M.N. Roy — Indian revolutionary — was in Central Asia during the Civil War and wrote about the
Revolution from an Indian perspective.
★ The term "Gulag" refers to the Soviet forced-labour camp system that imprisoned millions under
Stalin.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ Social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

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 SOCIAL: Divided into classes — nobility (controlled land), clergy, merchants, urban workers, and vast
peasantry. Workers had poor conditions, low wages. Peasants deeply religious but resented nobles.
ECONOMIC: 85% agricultural; industry in pockets (St Petersburg, Moscow); coal and steel growing;
foreign investment increasing. POLITICAL: Autocracy — Tsar ruled without parliament; no legal
political parties; Social Democrats operated illegally; peasants wanted land redistribution.
■ How was Russian working population different from other European countries before 1917?
Russia had a much higher agricultural workforce (85%) vs 40-50% in France/Germany. Factory
workers and craftsmen were almost equal in number by 1900s. Workers had strong village links.
Women = 31% of factory labour. Workers divided by skill and urban-rural links. Peasants had
commune system (mir) — unique to Russia. Working day could be 15 hours in small workshops.
Divisions by dress and manner also existed.
■ Why did Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?
The WWI caused massive casualties (7 million by 1917), economic strain, food shortages, railway
breakdown. Tsar refused to consult Duma; Rasputin's influence made autocracy unpopular.
Anti-German feelings (even renamed St Petersburg to Petrograd). February Revolution started as
women's strike on International Women's Day; army refused to fire on protesters; Petrograd Soviet
formed; military commanders advised abdication.
■ Main changes by Bolsheviks after October Revolution?
Banks and industries nationalised (Nov 1917). Land declared social property; peasants could seize
noble lands. Large houses partitioned; aristocratic titles banned. New uniforms designed. Constituent
Assembly dismissed (Jan 1918). Peace with Germany (Brest-Litovsk, March 1918). Russia became
one-party state; trade unions under party control; secret police (Cheka) established.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Three political groups: Liberals (property rights + elected parliament), Radicals (majority rule +
women's vote), Conservatives (gradual change).
● Socialists: Against private property; cooperatives/communes proposed. Marx: Workers must
overthrow capitalism → communist society.
● Russia 1914: Tsar Nicholas II; 85% agricultural; all political parties illegal.
● 1905: Bloody Sunday (Father Gapon) → 100+ killed → Tsar created Duma (dismissed it within
months).
● Feb 1917: Women's strike → International Women's Day → Petrograd Soviet formed → Tsar
abdicates (2 March).
● Lenin's April Theses: End war, land to peasants, nationalise banks.
● Oct 1917: Bolshevik uprising → ship Aurora shelled Winter Palace → 24–25 Oct → Bolsheviks in
power.
● After Revolution: Land and banks nationalised; Russia became one-party state with secret police.
● Civil War (1918–20): Reds (Bolsheviks) defeated Whites (Pro-Tsarists) + Greens (SRs).
● USSR formed: December 1922. Stalin: Collectivisation → Kolkhoz → 4 million famine deaths
(1930–33).

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 Chapter 3 Nazism and the Rise of Hitler
Nazism was not merely a political movement but an elaborate system of beliefs and practices that led to the
Holocaust — the systematic genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others. Understanding how a democratic
republic (Weimar) gave way to Hitler's dictatorship is crucial for understanding the dangers of fascism and
extreme nationalism.

■ Important Dates

1 Aug 1914 First World War begins.

9 Nov 1918 Germany capitulates; WWI ends; Weimar Republic proclaimed.

28 Jun 1919 Treaty of Versailles — harsh peace terms imposed on Germany.

1923 German hyperinflation crisis; Dawes Plan introduced.

1924–28 Years of relative stability; Germany dependent on US loans.

1929 Wall Street Crash → Great Depression; Germany worst hit.

1919 Hitler joins German Workers' Party (renamed Nazi Party).

1923 Hitler's failed "Beer Hall Putsch" in Bavaria.

1928 Nazi Party gets only 2.6% of votes in Reichstag.

1932 Nazi Party gets 37% of votes — largest party.

30 Jan 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.

28 Feb 1933 Fire Decree — suspends civic rights.

3 Mar 1933 Enabling Act — Hitler gets all powers; dictatorship established.

1933–38 Exclusion phase — Jews targeted, Nuremberg Laws (1935).

1938 Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) — Jewish properties destroyed.

1939–45 Second World War; genocide carried out.

1940–44 Ghettoisation of Jews.

1941+ Final Solution — mass killings in gas chambers (Auschwitz etc.)

May 1945 Allied victory; Hitler's suicide in April 1945.

1945–46 Nuremberg Trials — Nazi war criminals prosecuted.

1. Birth of the Weimar Republic

■ Germany fought WWI alongside Austria against Allies (England, France, Russia).
■ US entered war in 1917 → Allies won; Germany surrendered November 1918.
■ Weimar Republic: Democratic constitution with federal structure; deputies elected to Reichstag on equal and
universal votes including women.
■ Republic was unpopular because of harsh terms it was forced to accept after WWI.

Treaty of Versailles (1919) — The "War Guilt Clause":

Germany was forced to:

● Lose overseas colonies and a tenth of its population.

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 ● Give up 13% of territories; 75% of iron and 26% of coal to France, Poland, Denmark, Lithuania.
● Demilitarize; Allied armies occupied resource-rich Rhineland for much of 1920s.
● Accept the War Guilt Clause (held responsible for all war damages).
● Pay compensation of £6 billion.
Germans who supported the Weimar Republic were called "November criminals" by conservatives.

1.2 Political Radicalism & Economic Crises:

■ Spartacist League (modeled on Bolsheviks) revolted in winter 1918–19; crushed with help of Free Corps (war
veterans).
■ Spartacists later founded Communist Party of Germany.
■ 1923 Crisis (Hyperinflation): Germany refused to pay reparations → France occupied Ruhr (industrial area)
→ Germany printed paper currency recklessly.
■ In April 1923: USD = 24,000 marks; by December = trillions of marks → Hyperinflation.
■ Dawes Plan introduced by US to bail Germany out and rework reparation terms.

1.3 The Great Depression (1929–32):

■ Wall Street Exchange crashed; on 24 October 1929, 13 million shares sold in one day.
■ Germany worst hit: Industrial production fell to 40% of 1929 levels; 6 million unemployed.
■ Middle classes feared proletarianisation (sinking to working class level).
■ Weimar Republic's weaknesses: Proportional representation → coalition governments; Article 48 gave
President emergency powers; 20 different cabinets in short lifespan (avg 239 days each).

2. Hitler's Rise to Power

■ Born 1889 in Austria; spent youth in poverty; in WWI served as messenger, became corporal, earned medals.
■ 1919: Joined German Workers' Party; renamed it National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party).
■ 1923: Failed to seize control of Bavaria ("Beer Hall Putsch"); arrested and tried for treason; later released.
■ 1928: Nazi Party got only 2.6% votes in Reichstag.
■ 1932: Nazi Party became largest party with 37% votes.
■ 30 January 1933: President Hindenburg offered Hitler the Chancellorship.

2.1 Destruction of Democracy:

■ Mysterious fire in German Parliament (Reichstag) → Fire Decree (28 Feb 1933) indefinitely suspended civic
rights (speech, press, assembly).
■ Enabling Act (3 March 1933): Established dictatorship — gave Hitler all powers to sideline Parliament and
rule by decree.
■ All political parties and trade unions banned except Nazi Party.
■ Security forces: Gestapo (secret state police), SS (protection squads), SA (Storm Troopers), criminal police,
SD (Security Service).

2.2 Reconstruction:
■ Economist Hjalmar Schacht assigned economic recovery — famous German superhighways (Autobahns)
and Volkswagen (people's car) built.
■ Hitler left League of Nations (1933), reoccupied Rhineland (1936), united Austria-Germany (1938) under
slogan "One people, One empire, One leader".
■ Took Sudentenland from Czechoslovakia, then entire Czechoslovakia.
■ September 1939: Germany invaded Poland → war with France and England.
■ September 1940: Tripartite Pact (Germany, Italy, Japan).
■ June 1941: Germany attacked Soviet Union — historic blunder; Soviets won at Stalingrad.

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 ■ Japan bombed Pearl Harbor → USA entered the war.
■ May 1945: Allied victory; Hitler committed suicide in April 1945.

3. The Nazi Worldview

Racial Hierarchy:
Rank Race Status in Nazi Ideology

Top Nordic German Aryans (blond, blue-eyed) Master race; fit to rule world

Middle Other coloured people Placed by external features

Bottom Jews Anti-race; arch-enemies of Aryans

Sub-human Slavs (Russians, Poles), Gypsies (Sinti, Roma)

Undeserving of humanity; used as slave labour

Key Concepts:
■ Nazi racism borrowed from Charles Darwin (evolution, natural selection) and Herbert Spencer (survival of the
fittest).
■ Lebensraum (Living Space): Hitler wanted new territories for Aryan settlement — expansion eastward into
Poland/Russia.
■ Euthanasia Programme: Germans deemed mentally/physically unfit were killed (70,000 disabled Germans
murdered).

3.2 The Racial Utopia — Three Stages of Persecution of Jews:

Stage 1 — Exclusion (1933–39): "You have no right to live among us as citizens"

● Nuremberg Laws (Sep 1935): Only persons of German/related blood = citizens; Marriages between
Jews & Germans forbidden; Jews forbidden to fly national flag.
● Boycott of Jewish businesses; expulsion from government services; forced selling of properties.
● Kristallnacht (Nov 1938): Jewish properties vandalized, synagogues burnt, men arrested.

Stage 2 — Ghettoisation (1940–44): "You have no right to live among us"

● From Sep 1941: Jews must wear yellow Star of David on breasts.
● Kept in Jewish houses in Germany; Ghettos created in Poland (Lodz, Warsaw) — extreme misery,
starvation.

Stage 3 — Annihilation (1941 onwards): "You have no right to live"

● Jews transported to death factories by goods trains.
● Gas chambers in Poland: Belzek, Auschwitz, Sobibor, Treblinka, Chelmno, Majdanek.
● 6 million Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 1 million Polish civilians, 70,000 disabled Germans murdered.

4. Youth and Women in Nazi Germany

Youth:
■ Schools "cleansed" — Jewish teachers and "politically unreliable" teachers dismissed.
■ Jewish, handicapped, Gypsy children thrown out of schools.
■ Textbooks rewritten; racial science introduced; children taught to hate Jews and worship Hitler.
■ Jungvolk: Nazi youth groups for children below 14 years.
■ Hitler Youth: All boys at 14 had to join → learned to worship war, glorify aggression, hate
Jews/communists/Gypsies.
■ After rigorous training at 18: Labour Service → armed forces → Nazi organisations.

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 ■ Youth League founded 1922; renamed Hitler Youth in 1926.

Women (Nazi Cult of Motherhood):

■ Girls taught to be good mothers and rear "pure-blooded Aryan children."
■ 1933: Hitler declared "In my state the mother is the most important citizen."
■ But NOT all mothers treated equally — women with undesirable children punished; desirable mothers awarded.
■ Honour Crosses: Bronze cross = 4 children; Silver = 6 children; Gold = 8+ children.
■ Women who kept contact with Jews/Poles/Russians were publicly humiliated (shaved heads, blackened faces,
placards).
■ Fight for equal rights condemned as "wrong and destructive of society."

4.2 The Art of Propaganda:

■ Nazis never used "kill" or "murder" — Mass killings = "special treatment," "final solution," "euthanasia,"
"disinfection."
■ Gas chambers called "disinfection areas" — looked like bathrooms with fake showerheads.
■ Propaganda through: visual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans, leaflets.
■ Most infamous film: The Eternal Jew — created hatred for Jews.
■ Jews compared to vermin, rats, pests — depicted with flowing beards in kaftans.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

Weimar Republic Democratic republic established in Germany after WWI in 1919; named after
Weimar where constitution was drafted.

War Guilt Clause Clause in Treaty of Versailles holding Germany responsible for WWI damages;
Germany forced to pay £6 billion.

Hyperinflation Situation where prices rise phenomenally high; in Germany 1923 the mark
became nearly worthless.

Enabling Act Passed 3 March 1933; gave Hitler all powers to sideline Parliament and rule by
decree.

Gestapo Secret state police in Nazi Germany.

SS Protection squads; elite force in Nazi Germany.

Lebensraum Living space — Nazi concept that Germans needed more territory in the east.

Nuremberg Laws September 1935 laws that stripped Jews of citizenship; forbade Jews from
marrying Germans.

Kristallnacht "Night of Broken Glass" — November 1938 pogrom against Jews; synagogues
burnt, properties destroyed.

Euthanasia Nazi programme to kill Germans deemed mentally or physically unfit.

Programme

Genocide Killing on a large scale leading to destruction of large sections of people.

Propaganda Specific type of message aimed at influencing opinion (through posters, films,
speeches).

Jungvolk Nazi youth groups for children below 14 years of age.

Auschwitz Major Nazi death camp in Poland where millions were gassed.

Proletarianisation To become impoverished to the level of working classes.

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 ■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ The Nuremberg Trials (1945–46) prosecuted 22 leading Nazis; only 11 were sentenced to death. The
concept of "Crimes Against Humanity" was first formally recognized here.
★ Mahatma Gandhi wrote two letters to Adolf Hitler (1939 and 1940) appealing to stop the war and use
non-violence, calling Hitler "Dear Friend."
★ India and Indians were influenced by Nazi ideas in different ways — some leaders like Subhash
Chandra Bose interacted with Germany, while many others were horrified by Nazi atrocities.
★ The swastika — an ancient Indian and Buddhist symbol of good luck — was misappropriated by Hitler
as the Nazi party symbol.
★ Anne Frank's diary, "The Diary of a Young Girl," is one of the most widely read accounts of life hiding
from Nazis during WWII.
★ The term "Holocaust" (from Greek: holos = whole; kaustos = burnt) refers specifically to the genocide
of Jews. The broader term "Shoah" is used in Jewish tradition.
★ Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the President emergency powers, was used 136
times in the years 1919–1932.
★ "Arbeit macht frei" ("Work sets you free") — the infamous slogan placed at the entrance of Auschwitz
death camp.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ Problems faced by the Weimar Republic?

External: Treaty of Versailles (War Guilt Clause, loss of territory, £6 billion reparations). Internal: 1923
hyperinflation, Great Depression (1929), 6 million unemployed, fragile constitution (proportional
representation → coalition govts, Article 48 giving emergency powers). Political: November criminals'
label, constant cabinet changes (20 in its lifetime), loss of public confidence in democracy.
■ How did Nazism become popular by 1930?
Great Depression (1929) caused mass unemployment (6 million), business failures, middle-class fears.
Nazi propaganda offered hope, scapegoated Jews and communists, promised to restore German
dignity and undo Versailles. Hitler's powerful speeches, mass rallies (Nuremberg), swastika, Nazi
salute created sense of unity. Nazi Party grew from 2.6% (1928) to 37% (1932) votes.
■ Peculiar features of Nazi thinking?
Racial hierarchy (Aryans at top, Jews at bottom); Lebensraum (living space — eastern expansion
needed); anti-democracy and anti-Marxism; cult of the Fuhrer (leader worship); glorification of war and
violence; use of social Darwinism (survival of fittest race); anti-Semitism based on pseudoscientific
race theories.
■ Why was Nazi propaganda effective in creating hatred for Jews?
Used all media — films, radio, posters, slogans. Jews portrayed as vermin, rats, parasites. School
textbooks promoted racial stereotypes. The Eternal Jew film spread hatred. Appeals to different
classes: farmers (against capitalism), workers (against Marxism), women (protect race purity). Existing
Christian anti-Semitism provided a base. Constant repetition normalized hatred.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Weimar Republic (1919): Democratic Germany; hated because of Versailles Treaty — lost territory, £6
billion reparation, War Guilt Clause.
● 1923: Hyperinflation — USD = trillions of marks; Dawes Plan helped recovery.
● 1929: Wall Street Crash → Great Depression → 6 million unemployed in Germany.
● Hitler: Born 1889; joined German Workers' Party 1919 → renamed it Nazi Party.

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 ● Enabling Act (3 March 1933): Hitler became dictator; all parties/unions banned.
● Security forces: SA, SS, Gestapo, SD — ruled with impunity.
● Nazi worldview: Racial hierarchy (Aryans top, Jews bottom); Lebensraum; anti-democracy.
● Three stages: Exclusion (1933–39) → Ghettoisation (1940–44) → Annihilation (1941+).
● 6 million Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 1 million Poles, 70,000 disabled killed in gas chambers (Auschwitz
etc.).
● Youth: Jungvolk (under 14) → Hitler Youth (14+). Women: Bear Aryan children; Honour Crosses for
multiple births.
● Propaganda: Never said "kill" — used "special treatment," "final solution," "disinfection."

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 Chapter 4 Forest Society and Colonialism
This chapter explores how colonialism transformed India's forests and their inhabitants. The British established
scientific forestry to exploit timber commercially, undermining the lives of forest communities and leading to
rebellions. The story of Java (Indonesia) provides a parallel case study.

1. Why Deforestation?
Between 1700 and 1995, 13.9 million sq km of forest (9.3% of world's total area) was cleared for industrial
uses, cultivation, pastures and fuelwood. In 1600, approximately one-sixth of India's landmass was under
cultivation; now it is about half.

Causes of Deforestation:
■ 1.1 Land to be Improved: British directly encouraged production of commercial crops (jute, sugar, wheat,
cotton) → cultivation expanded. Between 1880–1920, cultivated area rose by 6.7 million hectares.
■ 1.2 Sleepers on the Tracks: Railway expansion from 1850s created huge demand for timber (wood for fuel)
and sleepers to hold tracks. Each mile of railway track required 1,760 to 2,000 sleepers. By 1890, 25,500 km
of track; by 1946, 765,000 km.
■ By 1850s, in Madras Presidency alone, 35,000 trees were cut annually for sleepers.
■ 1.3 Plantations: Natural forests cleared for tea, coffee, rubber plantations — European planters given vast
areas at cheap rates.

2. Rise of Commercial Forestry

■ British invited German expert Dietrich Brandis — made first Inspector General of Forests in India.
■ Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864; formulated Indian Forest Act of 1865 (amended in 1878
and 1927).
■ Imperial Forest Research Institute set up at Dehradun in 1906 — taught "scientific forestry."
■ Scientific Forestry: Natural diverse forests cut; replaced with single-species plantations in straight rows.
Officials surveyed forests, made working plans, planned how much to cut each year.
■ Forest Act 1878 divided forests into THREE categories:
■ 1. Reserved Forests: Best forests; villagers CANNOT take anything even for personal use.
■ 2. Protected Forests: Some customary rights of villagers allowed.
■ 3. Village Forests: Villagers could take wood for house building/fuel.

2.1 Impact on Village Life:

■ All everyday practices made ILLEGAL: cutting wood, grazing cattle, collecting fruits, roots, hunting, fishing.
■ People forced to steal wood and at mercy of corrupt forest guards.
■ Shifting cultivation (jhum/swidden agriculture) banned: Called "dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu,
khandad, kumri" in India; "lading" in SE Asia; "milpa" in Central America; "chena" in Sri Lanka; "chitemene/tavy"
in Africa.
■ European foresters: Shifting cultivation harmful to forests and made it difficult to calculate taxes.
■ Many communities forcibly displaced; had to change occupations.
■ Hunting: Customary hunting of deer, partridges etc. made ILLEGAL (poaching). But hunting by British (tiger
sports) promoted; Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, 200,000 wolves killed for reward (1875–1925).
■ Maharaja of Sarguja alone shot 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards up to 1957.

3. Rebellion in the Forest — The Bastar Uprising (1910)

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 Bastar:
Located in southernmost part of Chhattisgarh, bordering Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra.
Communities: Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, Halbas. Belief: Earth gave them land; they care for it
through offerings at each agricultural festival.

■ Colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of forest in 1905 → stop shifting cultivation, hunting,
collection of forest produce.
■ Some villages forced to work free for forest department; others displaced without compensation.
■ Villagers suffering increased land rents, demands for free labour, famines of 1899–1900 and 1907–08.
■ Initiative taken by Dhurwas of Kanger forest. Important figure: Gunda Dhur from village Nethanar.
■ 1910: Mango boughs, lump of earth, chillies and arrows circulated between villages as messages to rebel.
■ Bazaars looted; houses of officials, traders, schools, police stations burnt and robbed; grain redistributed.
■ British sent troops; fired upon adivasi leaders' camps; flogged and punished participants.
■ Three months (February–May) to regain control; Gunda Dhur never captured.
■ Major victory: Work on reservation temporarily suspended; area reserved reduced to roughly half.

4. Forest Transformations in Java (Indonesia)

■ Colonial power in Indonesia: Dutch. In 1600, Java population ~3.4 million.
■ Kalangs of Java: Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators — so valuable that when Mataram kingdom split
in 1755, 6,000 Kalang families divided equally between two kingdoms.
■ 1770: Kalangs resisted Dutch by attacking fort at Joana; uprising suppressed.
■ Dutch Scientific Forestry: Wood could only be cut for specific purposes from specific forests; villagers
punished for grazing cattle or transporting wood without permit.
■ 1882: 280,000 sleepers exported from Java alone.
■ Blandongdiensten system: Villagers exempted from rents if they provided free labour and buffaloes for
cutting and transporting timber.
■ Samin's Challenge: Around 1890, Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village questioned state ownership of
forests. By 1907, 3,000 families followed his ideas; Saminists lay down on land when Dutch came to survey,
refused to pay taxes or do labour.
■ War and Deforestation: In Java, Dutch followed "scorched earth" policy before Japanese occupation;
Japanese then exploited forests recklessly.

New Developments (Post 1980s):

■ Asian and African governments recognised need to involve local people in forest conservation.
■ Sacred groves (sarnas, devarakudu, kan, rai) maintained by villages have helped preserve dense forests.
■ Some villages conduct patrol of forests, with each household taking turns.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

Scientific Forestry System where old trees are cut and new ones planted in straight rows; controlled
by forest dept.

Sleepers Wooden planks laid across railway tracks to hold them in position.

Shifting Cultivation Traditional practice of cutting and burning forest patches, cultivating, then
leaving fallow for 12-18 years.

Swidden Agriculture Another name for shifting cultivation; known locally as jhum, podu, bewar, dhya,
kumri etc.

Reserved Forests Best forests from which villagers could not take anything.

Deforestation Disappearance/clearing of forests.

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 Blandongdiensten Dutch system in Java of exempting villages from forest rents in exchange for
free labour.

Taungya System where farmers cultivated temporarily within plantations.

Gunda Dhur Key figure in the 1910 Bastar rebellion who was never captured by British.

Kalangs Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators of Java.

Saminists Followers of Surontiko Samin who challenged Dutch state ownership of forests.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ After Independence, the same policy of keeping people out of forests continued in India until the
Forest Rights Act (2006) which recognized tribal rights over forest land.
★ The Chipko Movement (1973) in Uttarakhand — women hugged trees to prevent felling — was a
major forest conservation movement.
★ Birsa Munda led the Ulgulan (Great Tumult) rebellion in 1899-1900 in Chhotanagpur against British
forest policies and is remembered as "Dharti Abba" (Father of Earth).
★ India's Project Tiger (1973) was the first major wildlife conservation programme to protect tigers
whose numbers had fallen drastically due to colonial hunting.
★ The term "terra nullius" (empty land) was used by British in Australia to justify colonisation, ignoring
aboriginal communities — similar to how "waste land" was used in India.
★ The National Forest Policy of 1988 in India began to shift emphasis from timber production to
ecological sustainability and tribal welfare.
★ Forest cover between 1880 and 1920 in India declined from 108.6 million hectares to 98.9 million
hectares — a loss of 9.7 million hectares.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ How did forest management affect shifting cultivators?

Shifting cultivation was banned as Europeans believed it harmed forests and made tax calculation
difficult. Communities were forcibly displaced. Some joined the forest department as labourers, others
moved to plantations in Assam (Santhals, Oraons, Gonds) with low wages and bad conditions. Many
resisted through rebellions like Bastar 1910.
■ Similarities between Bastar (India) and Java (Indonesia) forest management?
Both established systematic forest laws restricting villagers' access. Both required free labour from
local communities (begar in India, blandongdiensten in Java). Both used forests commercially for
timber/railways. Both faced local resistance (Gunda Dhur in Bastar; Samin in Java). Both brought in
foreign experts (Brandis from Germany; Dutch managed Java). Both displaced communities without
compensation.
■ Why are forests affected by wars?
During WWI, working plans were abandoned and trees cut freely for British war needs (timber, fuel). In
Java, Dutch followed scorched earth policy before Japanese occupation, then Japanese exploited
forests recklessly. Wars created emergency demand for timber and overrode conservation concerns.
The colonial forests were seen as a resource to be exploited for war effort.

■ Quick Revision Points

● 1700–1995: 13.9 million sq km of forests cleared globally. India: cultivated area grew from 1/6 to 1/2 of
landmass.

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 ● Three causes: Commercial agriculture expansion, railway sleepers (1,760–2,000 per mile),
plantations (tea/coffee/rubber).
● Dietrich Brandis: First Inspector General of Forests; Indian Forest Service (1864); Forest Act (1865,
amended 1878, 1927).
● Three categories: Reserved (no village access), Protected (limited), Village forests.
● Scientific Forestry: Single-species plantations in straight rows; natural biodiversity destroyed.
● Shifting cultivation: Banned; known as jhum, podu, bewar, dhya, kumri etc. in different regions.
● Bastar Rebellion 1910: Led by Dhurwas; Gunda Dhur key figure; 3 months to suppress; reservation
area halved.
● Java (Indonesia): Dutch colonial rule; Kalangs = skilled forest cutters; Samin's resistance (1890);
blandongdiensten system.
● Post-1980s: Sacred groves (sarnas etc.) recognized; community forest management emphasized.

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 Chapter 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World
Nomadic pastoralists were a significant part of pre-colonial societies in India and Africa. This chapter traces how
colonial rule disrupted their movements through forest laws, waste land rules, criminal tribe acts, and grazing
taxes — transforming their lives profoundly. The chapter focuses on India and then the Maasai of East Africa.

1. Pastoral Nomads and Their Movements in India

1.1 In the Mountains:

Community Region Movement Pattern

Gujjar Bakarwals Jammu & Kashmir Winter: Low hills (Siwalik range)
Summer: Kashmir valley
Group movement = Kafila; cross Pir Panjal passes

Gaddi Shepherds Himachal Pradesh Winter: Siwalik hills

Summer: Lahul and Spiti; higher mountain meadows
Harvest crops at Lahul & Spiti on way

Gujjar Cattle Herders Garhwal & Kumaon (UP hills) Winter: Dry bhabar forests
Summer: High bugyals (meadows)
Originally from Jammu

Bhotiyas, Sherpas, KinnaurisHimalayas Similar cyclical seasonal movement between summer and winter pastures

1.2 Plateaus, Plains and Deserts:

Community Region Pattern

Dhangars Maharashtra Monsoon: Central plateau (semi-arid)

October: Move west to Konkan coast
Return with onset of monsoon
~467,000 population in early 20th c.

Gollas Karnataka/Andhra Pradesh Herded cattle on dry central plateau

Dry season: Coastal tracts
Monsoon: Back to plateau

Kurumas & Kurubas Karnataka/Andhra Pradesh Reared sheep and goats; sold woven blankets

Banjaras UP, Punjab, Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra

Long-distance graziers; traded plough cattle; sold goods to villagers for grain and

Raikas Rajasthan (Barmer, Jaisalmer,Monsoon:

Jodhpur, Bikaner)
Home villages
October: Move out for pasture
Maru Raikas = camel herders; another group = sheep/goat herders

2. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

Four Major Blows to Pastoral Life Under Colonial Rule:

1. Waste Land Rules (mid-19th c.): Uncultivated land seen as "waste" → given to select individuals for
cultivation → grazing lands taken over from pastoralists.
2. Forest Acts: Reserved forests closed to pastoralists. Protected forests had restricted access with
permits specifying timing and number of days.
3. Criminal Tribes Act (1871): Many nomadic communities labeled "criminal tribes" — had to register
with police; could not move freely; forced to work in factories, mines, plantations.

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 4. Grazing Tax: Pastoralists had to pay tax for each animal they grazed on forest. Tax collected by
contractors → abuses and extortion.

3. Pastoralists in Africa — The Maasai

Background:
■ Maasai are cattle herders living in East Africa — mainly in present-day Kenya and Tanzania.
■ Pastoralism sustained by careful assessment of pastures, timing of movements, relationships with farmers
along the way.
■ Pre-colonial Maasai territory was vast; cattle represented their wealth.

Impact of Colonial Rule on Maasai:

■ 1885: Maasailand divided between British East Africa (Kenya) and German East Africa (Tanzania). This split
their territory.
■ Best grazing lands taken over by European settlers for farms; Maasai pushed into drier, smaller areas.
■ Hunting banned → Maasai lost access to wild animals for food.
■ Pastoral lands reduced; population grew → pressure on remaining pastures.
■ By early 20th century, Maasai had lost approximately 60% of pre-colonial territory.
■ Drought and disease (rinderpest + smallpox, 1890s) killed cattle and people.
■ Colonial borders stopped traditional migration patterns.
■ Social stratification: Rich elders who could accumulate cattle/wealth benefited; poor young men (ilkiama)
suffered most.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

Kafila Group of households that come together for seasonal migration (e.g., Gujjar
Bakarwals).

Bugyal Vast meadows in the high mountains (above 12,000 feet); summer grazing
ground.

Bhabar Dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaon; winter grazing
area.

Pir Panjal Mountain passes crossed by Gujjar Bakarwals during seasonal migration.

Kharif Autumn crop; usually harvested between September and October.

Rabi Spring crop; usually harvested after March.

Stubble Lower ends of grain stalks left in ground after harvesting (grazed by pastoral
animals).

Customary Rights Rights that people are used to by custom and tradition.

Waste Land Rules Colonial-era rules treating uncultivated land as "waste"; given to individuals for
cultivation.

Criminal Tribes Act 1871 Act labelling many nomadic communities as "criminal" — required to
register, restricted movement.

Nomadism Lifestyle of those who do not live in one place but move from area to area to
earn their living.

Rinderpest A cattle disease that devastated East African herds in the 1890s.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

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 ★ The Banjaras were major traders in medieval India, supplying grain and fodder to Mughal armies.
Akbar relied heavily on Banjara supplies.
★ The Criminal Tribes Act (1871) remained in effect until 1952, when India repealed it. Communities
formerly labeled "criminal" are now called "De-notified Tribes" (DNTs).
★ The Dhangars' relationship with Konkani peasants is a classic example of symbiosis — Dhangars'
sheep fertilized Konkani fields, while Konkan provided grain to Dhangars.
★ Today, Raika camels are facing extinction due to restrictions on their movement and change in land
use. The Raika community is fighting for camel rights in Rajasthan.
★ The Maasai have become one of the most well-known pastoral groups globally through tourism in
Kenya and Tanzania, though this has also brought its own pressures.
★ In India, the Van Gujjar tribe of Uttarakhand still practices transhumance (seasonal migration) and has
been fighting for recognition of forest rights.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ How did Gujjar Bakarwals of J&K; adapt to seasonal changes?

They moved seasonally between low Siwalik hills (winter) and high Kashmir valley (summer). Multiple
households moved together as a kafila, crossing Pir Panjal passes in April. They used the rich grassy
slopes in summer, then returned in September. This cyclical movement allowed pastures to recover
and prevented overuse.
■ Why did the Maasai community lose their grazing lands?
Colonial partition (1885) divided Maasailand between British Kenya and German Tanzania. European
settlers took best pastures for farms. Hunting was banned. Colonial borders stopped traditional
migration. Rinderpest disease (1890s) killed cattle. Population growth increased pressure. By early
20th century Maasai had lost ~60% of pre-colonial territory.
■ Two similarities between Indian pastoralists and Maasai herders?
1. Both lost grazing lands: In India through Waste Land Rules and Forest Acts; in Africa through
European settler farms and colonial borders. 2. Both had their movement restricted: Indian pastoralists
needed permits for forest entry with specified dates; Maasai could not cross colonial borders that cut
through their traditional migration routes.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Gujjar Bakarwals (J&K;): Winter = Siwalik hills; Summer = Kashmir valley. Travel as kafila; cross Pir
Panjal.
● Gaddi Shepherds (HP): Winter = Siwalik; Summer = Lahul & Spiti (harvest crops on way).
● Dhangars (Maharashtra): 467,000+ population; monsoon = central plateau; October = move to
Konkan coast.
● Raikas (Rajasthan): Monsoon = home villages; October = move out; Maru Raikas = camel herders.
● Four colonial blows: Waste Land Rules, Forest Acts, Criminal Tribes Act (1871), Grazing Tax.
● Maasai: East Africa (Kenya + Tanzania); 1885 partition split territory; lost 60% of land to European
settlers.
● Rinderpest (1890s): Cattle disease + smallpox devastated Maasai population.
● Pastoral economy was a complex web of seasonal migration, farmer relationships, and multiple
livelihoods.

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 Chapter 6 Peasants and Farmers
This chapter traces the transformation of rural life in England (enclosures), the USA (wheat cultivation and Dust
Bowl), and India (opium cultivation). It shows how capitalist markets and colonial control radically changed
peasant lives, often with devastating consequences for the environment and the rural poor.

1. Modern Agriculture in England

1.1 Open Fields and Commons:

■ Before 18th century: English countryside was open — not enclosed privately. Peasants cultivated strips of land
around their village.
■ At start of each year, strips allocated at public meetings — varying quality, different locations. Goal: Everyone
gets a mix of good and bad land.
■ Common land: Villagers pastured cows, grazed sheep, collected fuelwood, fished, hunted rabbits. Essential
for survival of the poor.
■ From 16th century (wool price rise): Rich farmers began enclosing common land for sheep farming → drove out
small cottagers.

1.2 Enclosure Movement:

■ Mid-18th century: Enclosure movement accelerated. Between 1750–1850: 6 million acres enclosed.
■ British Parliament passed 4,000 Acts legalising enclosures.
■ New demand: British population expanded 4 times (7 million 1750 → 30 million 1900). Urban population
needed food.
■ France at war with England (Napoleonic Wars) → food imports disrupted → grain prices skyrocketed →
landowners enclosed more land.
■ New farming: Turnip and clover (introduced 1660s) restored nitrogen in soil; four-crop rotation.
■ In 1868, England produced ~80% of the food it consumed.

1.4 & 1.5 Impact on the Poor — Captain Swing:

■ Poor lost customary rights — could not collect firewood, graze cattle, gather berries, hunt.
■ Displaced from Midlands; moved south looking for work; income became unstable.
■ Threshing machines: Farmers bought them during Napoleonic Wars fearing labour shortage; displaced
workers.
■ Captain Swing Riots (1830–32): 387 threshing machines broken. Threatening letters signed by mythic
name "Captain Swing." 9 men hanged, 505 transported (mostly to Australia), 644 imprisoned.
■ Captain Swing was a mythic name symbolising rural labourers' resistance to mechanisation and enclosures.

2. Bread Basket and Dust Bowl (USA)

2.1 Westward Move and Wheat Cultivation:

■ Before 1780s: Forests covered 800 million acres, grasslands 600 million acres in USA. White settlers confined
to eastern coastal strip.
■ After American War of Independence (1775–83): Thomas Jefferson became President 1800 — 700,000 white
settlers on Appalachian plateau.
■ Policy: Drive American Indians westward → beyond Mississippi → further west. Wars fought; Indians signed
treaties and gave up land.
■ Settlers moved in waves: Appalachian plateau (1st decade 18th c.) → Mississippi valley (1820–50) → Great
Plains (after 1860s).

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 ■ In 1910: 45 million acres under wheat; by 1919: 74 million acres (65% increase).
■ Big farmers = "wheat barons" — controlled 2,000–3,000 acres individually.

2.3 New Technology:

■ New 12-foot ploughs hitched to 6 yokes of oxen/horses devised for prairie sod.
■ By early 20th c.: Tractors and disk ploughs cleared vast stretches.
■ 1831: Cyrus McCormick invented mechanical reaper — could cut in ONE day what 5 men with cradles or 16
men with sickles could cut.
■ Combined harvesters: 500 acres in two weeks. With machinery, 4 men could harvest 2,000–4,000 acres.

2.5 The Dust Bowl:

How it happened:
● 1930s: Black blizzards 7,000–8,000 feet high rolled across the southern plains.
● Early 1930s: Persistent drought, soaring temperatures, fast winds.
● But the main cause: All vegetation recklessly uprooted; tractors turned soil over, broke sod into dust —
nothing held it together.
● Cattle suffocated; fish died; tractors clogged. Entire region became a dust bowl.
● After 1930s: Farmers learned to respect the ecological conditions of each region.
● The Great Agrarian Depression of the 1930s ruined wheat farmers everywhere.

3. The Indian Farmer and Opium Production

3.1 Why Opium?

■ British bought tea and silk from China for sale in England. In 1785: 15 million pounds of tea imported; by 1830:
over 30 million pounds.
■ Problem: England had nothing China wanted; paying in silver meant outflow of treasure.
■ Solution: Opium — Portuguese introduced it to China in 16th century.
■ By early 1820s: 10,000 crates smuggled annually into China; fifteen years later 35,000 crates per year.
■ Lin Ze-xu (Special Commissioner at Canton, 1839): estimated 4–12 million opium addicts in China.
■ Opium War (1837–42): Britain declared war when Lin Ze-xu confiscated 20,000 crates and expelled
merchants; China forced to legalize opium trade.

3.2 Where Opium Came From:

■ British conquered Bengal → forced opium production. Before 1767: no more than 500 chests exported from
India.
■ By 1870: Government exporting about 50,000 chests annually.
■ British monopoly on opium trade from 1773 — no one else legally permitted to trade.

3.3 Why Peasants were Reluctant:

■ Poppy had to be grown on best land near villages (well manured) → meant pulses couldn't be grown there.
■ Cultivators owned no land; had to pay high rent for good land.
■ Delicate plant needing long hours of care → no time for other crops.
■ Government paid very low prices for opium — unprofitable.

3.3 How Peasants were Forced:

■ System of advances: Village headmen (mahato) gave poor peasants money advances.
■ Loan tied the peasant to headman → government opium agents.

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 ■ By taking loan, cultivator was forced to grow opium on specified area and hand over produce at low
government price.
■ By early 18th century, angry peasants agitated for higher prices and refused advances.
■ Some cultivators turned to growing sugarcane and potatoes; some sold to travelling traders (pykars) at higher
prices.
■ By 1820s, opium production declining in British territory but rising in princely states (Central India, Rajasthan)
— British called this "illegal" smuggling.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

Open Field System Pre-enclosure system in England where land was cultivated in strips with access
to common land.

Enclosures Dividing and fencing off common land, turning it into private property of individual
landowners.

Threshing Machine Machine for separating grain from stalks; its use triggered Captain Swing riots.

Captain Swing Mythic name used in threatening letters by rural labourers protesting against
threshing machines and enclosures.

Dust Bowl 1930s environmental disaster in Great Plains, USA, caused by reckless
ploughing and drought.

Cyrus McCormick Inventor of the mechanical reaper (1831) — revolutionized wheat harvesting.

Wheat Barons Large-scale farmers in the USA who controlled 2,000-3,000 acres individually.

Opium War 1837–42 war between Britain and China; Britain won and China was forced to
legalize opium trade.

Mahato Village headman in Bengal/Bihar who gave advances to peasants, forcing them
to grow opium.

Lin Ze-xu Chinese Special Commissioner at Canton who tried to stop the opium trade in
1839; confiscated and destroyed 20,000 crates.

Maund Measure of weight: 1 maund = 40 seers; 1 seer ≈ 1 kg.

Pykars Travelling traders who offered higher prices to peasants for opium than the
government.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ The "Permanent Settlement" of Bengal (1793) under Cornwallis created zamindars as permanent
owners, squeezing peasants for revenue — leading to impoverishment of the rural poor.
★ Indigo was another commercial crop forced on Bengali peasants. The Indigo Revolt (Neel Bidroh) of
1859 was a major peasant rebellion against the indigo planters.
★ The Opium War led to China signing the Treaty of Nanking (1842) — China opened 5 ports, ceded
Hong Kong to Britain, paid huge indemnity.
★ Lin Ze-xu's letter to Queen Victoria is considered one of the most famous documents of early Chinese
diplomacy — a direct moral appeal against the drug trade.
★ The "Dust Bowl" (1930s) displaced 3.5 million Americans from the Plains states — the "Okies"
migration to California is immortalized in John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath (1939).
★ The triangular trade in opium (India → China → England for tea) is a key example of how colonialism
created global commodity chains that enriched Britain while devastating local economies.
★ The first successful mechanical thresher was invented by Andrew Meikle in Scotland in 1786. By
1830, English farmers had widely adopted it, directly triggering the Captain Swing riots.

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 29

 ■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ What did the open field system mean to rural people in 18th c. England?
Rich farmer: System was inefficient — couldn't improve breeds or soil systematically; couldn't enclose
land for profit. Labourer: Common land was essential for survival — grazing cattle, collecting firewood,
gathering food supplemented meagre wages. Peasant woman: Cow keeping, collection of firewood,
gleaning, gathering fruits from commons was mainly women's work — gave them economic role and
food security.
■ Factors leading to enclosures in England?
1. Wool prices rising (16th c.) → rich farmers wanted large enclosed land for sheep. 2. Population
expansion 4x (1750–1900) → demand for foodgrains. 3. Industrial Revolution → urban migration →
market for food. 4. Napoleonic Wars → imports disrupted → grain prices soared → enclosures
profitable. 5. Parliament passed 4,000 Acts supporting enclosures.
■ Captain Swing — who? What did the name symbolise?
Captain Swing was a mythic name used in threatening letters by rural labourers protesting against the
introduction of threshing machines and enclosures. The name had no real person behind it — it
symbolised the collective anger of the rural poor who were being displaced from their livelihoods by
agricultural mechanisation and the loss of common lands.
■ Why were Indian farmers reluctant to grow opium?
1. Poppy needed best land near villages → meant giving up pulses on fertile land. 2. Most cultivators
didn't own land → had to pay high rent for good land from landlords. 3. Delicate plant needing long
care → no time for other crops. 4. Government paid very low prices → unprofitable. 5. Loss of
autonomy — forced to sell only to government agents.

■ Quick Revision Points

● England Open Field System: Strips + common land (essential for poor). Enclosures began from 16th
century.
● 1750–1850: 6 million acres enclosed; Parliament passed 4,000 Acts. Population grew 7 million → 30
million.
● Threshing machines: Bought during Napoleonic Wars; displaced workers after wars ended.
● Captain Swing Riots (1830–32): 387 machines broken; 9 hanged, 505 transported, 644 jailed. Mythic
name of resistance.
● USA: Settlers moved west after 1780s, displaced Native Americans. 1910: 45M acres wheat; 1919:
74M acres.
● Cyrus McCormick invented mechanical reaper (1831). Wheat barons = 2,000–3,000 acres each.
● Dust Bowl (1930s): Black blizzards 7,000–8,000 ft. Caused by reckless ploughing + drought. Great
Agrarian Depression.
● India-China-Opium: Tea trade needed opium as payment. Opium War (1837–42). Britain won; China
legalized opium.
● Peasant reluctance: Best land needed, high rent, delicate crop, low government price.
● Force through advances: Mahato gave loans → peasants tied to government opium production at low
prices.

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 Chapter 7 History and Sport: The Story of Cricket
Cricket is more than a game — it is a lens through which we can understand colonialism, nationalism, caste,
religion, race, and commerce. This chapter traces cricket's evolution from a rural English village game to a
global sport dominated by South Asian nations.

1. Historical Development of Cricket in England

■ Cricket grew out of many stick-and-ball games played in England 500 years ago.
■ By 17th century: Cricket popular enough for fans to be fined for playing on Sunday instead of going to
church.
■ Till mid-18th century: Bats shaped like hockey sticks (ball was bowled underarm along the ground).
■ First written Laws of Cricket: 1744 — stumps 22 inches high, bail 6 inches, ball 5–6 ounces, wickets 22
yards apart.
■ World's first cricket club formed in Hambledon in the 1760s.
■ Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) founded: 1787; published first revision of laws in 1788 — became guardian
of cricket's regulations.

Key Rule Changes in the 1760s–1780s:

■ 1760s–70s: Ball started being pitched through the air (not along ground) → options of length, deception, spin,
swing.
■ Curved bat replaced by straight bat.
■ Weight of ball: 5½ to 5¾ ounces; width of bat: 4 inches.
■ 1774: First leg-before law; third stump became common.
■ 1780: Three-day match became standard; first six-seam cricket ball created.
■ Later: Wide ball rule, exact ball circumference, pads/gloves (1848), boundaries introduced, overarm bowling
became legal.

Why Cricket is Unique (Pre-Industrial Origins):

Curious characteristics explained by history:

No time limit: Cricket was codified before the Industrial Revolution; village life had slower rhythms.
Factory work introduced time-based payment → post-Industrial games (football, hockey) strictly
time-limited. Cricket kept the old tradition.
No fixed ground size: Originally played on country commons (unfenced, variable size). Even after
boundaries were written in, their distance from wicket was not specified — "umpires agree with captains
on boundaries."
Natural materials: Bat (willow wood), stumps/bails (wood), ball (leather, twine, cork) — all handmade,
not industrially manufactured. Rejected plastic, fibre glass, metal.
BUT: Protective equipment evolved with technology — vulcanized rubber → pads (1848), gloves, modern
helmets.

1.1 Cricket and Victorian England:

■ Amateurs (Gentlemen): Rich who played for pleasure/leisure; batsmen; captains of teams were ALWAYS
amateurs.
■ Professionals (Players): Poor who played for a living; fast bowlers; paid by patronage, subscription, gate
money.
■ Not till 1930s was English Test team led by a professional (Yorkshire batsman Len Hutton).
■ Amateurs entered ground from DIFFERENT entrances than professionals.

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 ■ Thomas Arnold: Headmaster of Rugby School; founder of modern public school system; used cricket to teach
discipline, hierarchy, leadership for empire.
■ "Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton" — cricket built imperial character.

2. Spread of Cricket
■ Cricket spread only to countries colonised by Britain — NOT worldwide like football/hockey.
■ Took root via: white settlers (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Australia, New Zealand, West Indies, Kenya) OR local
elites copying colonial masters (India).
■ First record of cricket in India: 1721, English sailors playing in Cambay.
■ First Indian cricket club: Calcutta Cricket Club, established 1792 — all-white.

2.1 Cricket, Race and Religion in India:

■ First Indian community to play cricket: Parsis (Zoroastrians) of Bombay — close contact with British due to
trade.
■ First Indian cricket club: Oriental Cricket Club, Bombay, 1848 — founded by Parsis; funded by Tatas and
Wadias.
■ 1889: Parsi team beat Bombay Gymkhana (whites-only club) at cricket.
■ Precedent set: Hindus and Muslims also established gymkhanas (1890s).
■ Quadrangular Tournament: Four teams — Europeans, Parsis, Hindus, Muslims.
■ Later became Pentangular when a 5th team added: "The Rest" (Indian Christians, like Vijay Hazare).
■ Palwankar Baloo: Greatest Indian slow bowler; born Dalit; played for Hindus in Quadrangular but never made
captain due to caste discrimination. Younger brother Palwankar Vithal became captain and led Hindus to
famous victory in 1923.
■ By late 1930s–40s: Mahatma Gandhi, S.A. Brelvi, A.F.S. Talyarkhan condemned Pentangular as
communally divisive.
■ Ranji Trophy (National Cricket Championship on regional lines) established but only replaced Pentangular
after Independence.

3. Modern Transformation of the Game

■ India entered Test cricket in 1932 — 15 years before Independence. C.K. Nayudu: India's first Test captain.
■ Test cricket from 1877 was organized as contest between different parts of British empire, not sovereign
nations.
■ West Indies 1950: Won first Test series against England — celebrated as proof of racial equality. First black
captain: Frank Worrell (1960).
■ Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC): Renamed International Cricket Conference only in 1965. England and
Australia retained veto rights till 1989.
■ South Africa: Apartheid state; excluded from Test cricket after cancellation of 1970 England tour due to
political pressure.

4. Commerce, Media and Cricket:

■ 1971: First one-day international played between England and Australia in Melbourne.
■ 1975: First Cricket World Cup.
■ 1977: Kerry Packer (Australian TV tycoon) signed 51 world cricketers and staged unofficial World Series
Cricket — introduced coloured dress, helmets, field restrictions, day-night cricket.
■ Television rights became hugely valuable; cricketers became celebrities.
■ Since India has largest viewership for cricket, centre of gravity shifted to South Asia.
■ ICC headquarters moved from London to Dubai (tax-free).

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 ■ Pakistan's innovations: Doosra (off-spin to confuse batsmen) and reverse swing (moving ball on dusty
pitches) — initially greeted with suspicion but now accepted worldwide.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

MCC Marylebone Cricket Club; founded 1787; guardian of cricket's laws.

Hambledon Village in England where world's first cricket club was formed (1760s).

Amateurs Rich players who played cricket for pleasure; called "Gentlemen."

Professionals Poor players who played for wages; called "Players."

Quadrangular Four-team cricket tournament in colonial India — Europeans, Parsis, Hindus,

Muslims.

Pentangular Five-team tournament (Quadrangular + "The Rest" for Indian Christians).

Ranji Trophy National Cricket Championship on regional lines; eventually replaced the
Pentangular.

Kerry Packer Australian TV tycoon who revolutionized cricket in 1977 with World Series
Cricket.

Doosra Bowling technique developed in Pakistan — off-spin delivery that goes the other
way.

Reverse Swing Technique of moving the ball (developed in Pakistan) on dusty wickets.

ICC International Cricket Conference (originally Imperial Cricket Conference); HQ

now in Dubai.

Codified Made into a formalised system with clearly established rules and laws.

Patronage Agreement by wealthy supporter to give financial support for a specific cause.

Mulatto Person of mixed European and African descent.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ India won its first cricket World Cup in 1983 under Kapil Dev — a landmark that transformed cricket's
popularity in India.
★ The first Women's Cricket World Cup was held in 1973 — two years before the men's World Cup.
★ Sachin Tendulkar is the only player to score 100 international centuries and has been called the "God
of Cricket." His popularity shows how cricket became India's national obsession.
★ The Indian Premier League (IPL), launched in 2008 under Lalit Modi, transformed cricket into a
franchise-based T20 league — the richest cricket league in the world.
★ Dhyan Chand, the legendary hockey player, won Olympic gold medals for India in 1928, 1932, and
1936. His career shows how hockey was once India's dominant sport.
★ Pakistan's first Test match was played against India in 1952 — creating one of the world's most
intense cricket rivalries.
★ Don Bradman (Australia) with a Test batting average of 99.94 is considered the greatest batsman in
cricket history — never equaled in over 80 years.
★ The Ranji Trophy was named after Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji (Ranji), an Indian prince who played for
England and was one of the most gifted batsmen of the late 19th century.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ Why is Test cricket unique? How are its peculiarities shaped by village origins?

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 Test cricket is unique: can go on for 5 days and still end in a draw; no time limit; ground size not
specified (only 22-yard pitch). These peculiarities come from village origins: 1. No time limit — codified
before Industrial Revolution when village life had slower rhythms; post-industrial sports (football,
hockey) are time-limited. 2. No fixed ground size — originally played on country commons of variable
size; boundaries were wherever spectators stood.
■ Why did cricket become popular in India and West Indies? Why not South America?
India and West Indies: Cricket spread through British colonialism. Local elites wanted to imitate
colonial masters (India — Parsis first). In West Indies, beating England at cricket became proof of
racial equality and a symbol of decolonisation. Frank Worrell's 1960 leadership became a milestone.
South America: Was colonised by Spain and Portugal, not Britain. They adopted football, which was
spread by their colonisers. Cricket never took root.
■ The shift of ICC headquarters from London to Dubai — explain.
Since India has the largest cricket-viewing market and generates the most revenue through TV rights,
the centre of gravity of cricket shifted to South Asia. Dubai was chosen as it is tax-free and
geographically closer to the major cricket-playing nations (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh).
This shift symbolizes the end of Anglo-Australian dominance and the rise of the South Asian cricketing
nations.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Cricket: Originated in England 500+ years ago. First written laws: 1744. Hambledon club: 1760s. MCC
founded: 1787.
● Unique features: No time limit (pre-industrial), no fixed ground size (village common origins), natural
materials (willow bat, leather ball).
● Victorian England: Amateurs (Gentlemen) = rich; Professionals (Players) = poor. Amateurs always
captained teams till 1930s.
● Cricket spread only to British colonies (not South America). First Indian cricketers: Parsis (Oriental
Cricket Club, Bombay, 1848).
● Quadrangular → Pentangular: Organized by religion/race. Palwankar Baloo = greatest Dalit cricketer;
never made captain due to caste bias.
● India in Test cricket: 1932. First Test captain: C.K. Nayudu.
● West Indies: First Test win vs England 1950; first Black captain: Frank Worrell (1960).
● ICC: Originally Imperial CC; renamed International CC in 1965; veto rights removed 1989; HQ moved
London → Dubai.
● 1971: First ODI. 1975: First World Cup. 1977: Kerry Packer revolution — coloured dress, day-night
cricket, helmets.
● South Asia now dominates: Largest viewership, Pakistan's innovations (doosra, reverse swing), IPL.

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 34

 Chapter 8 Clothing: A Social History
Clothing is not merely about covering the body — it reflects social hierarchy, cultural identity, economic
conditions, and political struggles. This chapter traces changes in clothing in Europe and India during the 19th
and 20th centuries, exploring how the politics of colonialism and nationalism shaped dress codes.

1. Sumptuary Laws and Social Hierarchy

■ Sumptuary laws: Laws in medieval Europe controlling dress of different social classes — from about 1294 to
the French Revolution (1789) in France.
■ In medieval France: Items of clothing per year regulated by both income AND social rank.
■ Only royalty could wear ermine, fur, silk, velvet, brocade.
■ French Revolution ended these distinctions — Jacobins called themselves "sans-culottes" (without knee
breeches).
■ New symbols: Loose clothes, red cap of liberty, long trousers, revolutionary cockade, blue-white-red colours of
France.
■ Simplicity of clothing meant to express equality.
■ Note: Some sumptuary laws protected home production (e.g., 16th c. England law compelling use of English
woollen caps on Sundays — lasted 26 years, boosted English woollen industry).

2. Clothing and Notions of Beauty

Victorian Women's Clothing:

■ Women in Victorian England groomed to be docile, dutiful, submissive; small waist = womanly duty.
■ From childhood: Girls encased in stiff stays; when older, tight-fitting corsets.
■ Corsets caused deformities, restricted body growth, hampered blood circulation, weakened spine.
■ Doctors reported acute weakness, frequent fainting, languid feelings.
■ By 1830s: Women began agitating for democratic rights → dress reform movement.
■ Women's magazines described how tight dresses caused illness.

2.1 Movement for Dress Reform:

■ USA: Traditional feminine clothes criticized — long skirts swept dirt, hampered movement.
■ National Woman Suffrage Association (Mrs Stanton) and American Woman Suffrage Association (Lucy
Stone) — both campaigned for dress reform.
■ Mrs Amelia Bloomer: First dress reformer to launch loose tunics over ankle-length trousers → called
"bloomers/rationals/knickerbockers."
■ Rational Dress Society started in England in 1881.
■ WWI brought most radical changes in women's clothing.

3. New Times

3.1 New Materials:

■ Before 17th c.: Most ordinary women in Britain had few clothes of flax, linen, wool — difficult to clean.
■ After 1600: Trade with India brought cheap, beautiful, easy-to-maintain Indian chintzes.
■ Industrial Revolution: Britain mass-manufactured cotton textiles; clothes became more accessible.
■ Early 20th c.: Artificial fibres made clothes cheaper and easier to wash.
■ By 1870s: Heavy restrictive underclothes gradually discarded. Clothes became lighter, shorter, simpler.
■ Until 1914: Clothes ankle-length. By 1915: Hemline rose dramatically to mid-calf.

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 3.2 The Wars:
■ WWI (1914–18): Over 700,000 women in Britain employed in ammunition factories by 1917.
■ Working uniform: Blouse and trousers with scarves → replaced by khaki overalls and caps.
■ Bright colours faded; sober colours worn; skirts became shorter; trousers became vital part of women's
clothing.
■ Women cut hair short for convenience.
■ By 20th century: Plain austere style reflected seriousness and professionalism.
■ Schools emphasized plain dressing; gymnastics and games entered curriculum for women.

4. Transformations in Colonial India

Three Reactions to Western Dress in India:

Reaction 1: Adopt Western elements

Wealthy Parsis of western India were among the first. Added baggy trousers, phenta (hat), boots, walking
stick to long collarless coats. Western clothes seen as sign of modernity and progress.

Reaction 2: Oppose Western clothing

Believed western culture would lead to loss of traditional identity. Bengali Babu cartoon mocked those
wearing western-style boots and hat with dhoti. Western dress = world turning upside down.

Reaction 3: Compromise / Combine

Many bureaucrats wore western clothes at work, changed to Indian clothes at home. Policemen in Poona
would take their trousers off in the street and walk home in "just tunic and undergarments."

4.1 Caste Conflict and Dress Change — Shanar (Nadar) Community:

■ May 1822: Shanar (later known as Nadar) caste women attacked by Nairs in Travancore for wearing cloth over
upper body.
■ Shanars considered "subordinate caste" — traditionally prohibited from umbrellas, shoes, golden ornaments,
and covering upper body before dominant castes.
■ Under influence of Christian missionaries: Shanar women converts began wearing tailored blouses in 1820s.
■ Government of Travancore 1829: Ordered Shanar women to "abstain from covering upper parts of the body."
■ October 1859: Riots — Shanar women attacked in marketplace, stripped of upper cloths; houses looted,
chapels burned.
■ Government finally issued proclamation permitting Shanar women to wear jacket or cover upper bodies — but
not like women of high caste.

4.2 British Rule and Dress Codes — Turban vs Hat:

■ Europeans = "hat wearers"; Indians = "turban wearers."
■ Turban in India: Sign of respectability — could NOT be removed at will.
■ Western hat: Had to be removed before social superiors as sign of respect.
■ Indians offended when asked to remove turbans before colonial officials; British offended when Indians didn't
remove turbans.
■ "Shoe respect": Under Lord Dalhousie, Indians had to take off shoes when entering government institutions
(only those in European clothes exempted).
■ Famous case 1862: Manockjee Cowasjee Entee, assessor in Surat Fouzdaree Adawlut, refused to take off
shoes in court; barred from entry; wrote protest letter to governor.
■ British insisted: Indians remove shoes as they do in sacred places. Indians said: Public buildings ≠ sacred
spaces — shoes = pollution only at home/sacred places.

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 36

 5. Designing the National Dress
■ By late 19th century: Nationalist feelings led Indians to seek cultural symbols expressing national unity.
■ Tagore family of Bengal: Experiments from 1870s with designs for national dress.
■ Rabindranath Tagore: Suggested combining Hindu and Muslim dress elements; chapkan (long buttoned
coat) most suitable for men.
■ Jnanadanandini Devi (wife of Satyendranath Tagore): Adopted Parsi style of wearing sari pinned to left
shoulder with brooch + blouse + shoes → became known as Brahmika sari.

5.1 Swadeshi Movement:

■ India accounted for one-fourth of world's manufactured goods in 17th century; million weavers in Bengal
alone in mid-18th century.
■ Industrial Revolution in Britain → Indian handlooms declined; weaving centres (Murshidabad, Machilipatnam,
Surat) declined.
■ 1905: Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal → Swadeshi movement developed.
■ People urged to boycott British goods; adopt khadi (though coarser, more expensive, harder to obtain).
■ Women urged to throw away silks and glass bangles; wear simple shell bangles; use rough homespun.
■ Mass protests; khadi use made patriotic duty.
■ BUT: Appealed mainly to upper castes/classes; after 15 years many returned to European dress.

5.2 Mahatma Gandhi's Experiments with Clothing:

Gandhi's Clothing Journey:

1. As boy (Gujarat): Shirt with dhoti/pyjama + sometimes coat.
2. London (1888, age 19): Cut tuft, wore Western suit so not to be ridiculed.
3. Johannesburg, South Africa (1890s): Still in Western clothes as lawyer.
4. Durban 1913: Appeared in lungi and kurta with shaved head — to mourn shooting of Indian coal
miners.
5. India (1915): Dressed like a Kathiawadi peasant.
6. 22 September 1921: Adopted short dhoti (loincloth) — wore it until death.
7. London Round Table Conference (1931): Wore short dhoti before King George V at Buckingham
Palace. When asked if he had enough clothes, joked: "The King had enough on for both of us!"
Khadi = symbol of purity, simplicity, poverty, nationalism, and rejection of Western mill-made cloth.

5.3 Not All Could Wear Khadi:

■ Motilal Nehru: Gave up expensive Western suits → adopted Indian dhoti and kurta (but NOT coarse cloth).
■ Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar: Never gave up Western-style suit; Dalits adopted three-piece suits from early
1910s as political statement of self-respect.
■ Gandhi cap: Transformed Kashmiri cap into cheap white cotton khadi cap after 1919. Gwalior state tried to
prohibit its use during non-cooperation movement (1921).
■ Fez (Turkish tasselled cap): Became symbol of anti-colonialism in India during Khilafat movement; later
identified mainly with Muslims.
■ Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Nehru: Wore coloured saris with designs instead of white homespun.

■ Key Terms & Definitions

Sumptuary Laws Laws controlling the behaviour and dress of those considered social inferiors;
regulated in detail what different classes could wear.

Ermine Type of fur — could only be worn by royalty in medieval France.

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 Corset Closely fitting, stiff inner bodice worn by women to give shape to the figure.

Stays Support as part of a woman's dress to hold the body straight.

Suffrage Right to vote. Suffragettes wanted the right for women to vote.

Bloomers Loose trousers introduced by Mrs Amelia Bloomer; also called "rationals" or
"knickerbockers."

Rational Dress Society Organization started in England in 1881 to reform women's restrictive clothing.

Chintz Cotton cloth printed with designs and flowers; from Hindi word "chint."

Brahmika Sari Style of wearing sari with blouse and shoes, popularized by Jnanadanandini
Devi; adopted by Brahmo Samaj women.

Khadi Coarse cloth made from homespun yarn; symbol of Indian nationalism and
self-reliance.

Swadeshi Movement to use Indian-made goods and boycott British goods; launched in
1905.

Chapkan Long buttoned coat suggested by Rabindranath Tagore as India's national dress
for men.

Cockade Cap usually worn on one side; worn as political symbol during French
Revolution.

Busk Strip of wood, whalebone or steel in front of corset to stiffen it.

■ Extra Information (Beyond the Book)

★ The Nadar/Shanar community's dress reform movement in Travancore is considered a landmark in

the Dalit/lower caste assertion of rights in colonial India.
★ Winston Churchill described Mahatma Gandhi as a "seditious Middle Temple Lawyer posing as a
half-naked fakir" — showing how Gandhi's choice of dress was a powerful political challenge to British
authority.
★ Jijabai, a Dalit woman in Maharashtra, famously presented flowers to Gandhi in 1920 — and Gandhi
observed she was not wearing blouse or upper cloth due to caste norms, which deeply moved him.
★ The bindi, sindoor, and mangalsutra worn by Hindu women in India are cultural markers whose
historical meanings have evolved over centuries.
★ World War II also changed clothing: Women in Britain and USA took to trousers and shorter dresses
in large numbers as they worked in war industries, factories, and military services.
★ The "Gandhi Cap" became such a powerful political symbol that Indian politicians continue to wear it
— even today, Congress workers wear it as a symbol of association with the freedom struggle.
★ Fashionable clothing also reflects economic power: After liberalization in 1991, India's growing middle
class embraced international fashion brands — a post-colonial assertion of global identity.

■ Chapter-End Questions & Answers

■ Reasons for changes in clothing in 18th century?

1. French Revolution ended sumptuary laws; clothing became a symbol of equality and liberty
(sans-culottes). 2. Industrialization: Mass-manufactured cotton textiles made clothes cheaper and
accessible. 3. Trade with India: Indian chintzes became popular in Europe after 1600. 4. Reform
movements: Women agitated against restrictive corsets and long skirts. 5. World Wars: Women
entering workforce required practical clothing.
■ What were sumptuary laws in France?

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 38

 From about 1294 to 1789, sumptuary laws regulated clothing by income and social rank. Only royalty
could wear ermine, fur, silk, velvet, brocade. Items of clothing a person could purchase per year were
legally regulated. They controlled behaviour of social inferiors, prevented wearing of certain clothes,
consuming certain foods. French Revolution abolished these distinctions.
■ Two examples where European dress codes differed from Indian ones?
1. Hat vs Turban: Europeans removed hats before superiors as sign of respect; Indians considered
removing turban as loss of respectability — they could not remove it at will. 2. Shoes: In Indian
tradition, shoes removed at sacred places and homes (linked to pollution/cleanliness concerns);
Europeans wore shoes everywhere including courts. When British demanded Indians remove shoes in
courts, it led to famous conflicts (Manockjee case, 1862).
■ Why did Gandhi's dream of khadi appeal only to some sections?
Khadi was coarser, more expensive, and harder to obtain than mill cloth. Poor peasants couldn't afford
it (it cost more than mill cloth). Different regions and communities had strong traditions of their own
cloth (e.g., silk-wearing communities in South India). Dalits preferred Western dress as political
assertion. Muslim communities had their own dress preferences. North-South differences in sari styles
meant a single national dress was unrealistic.
■ What provoked Churchill's remark about Gandhi as "half-naked fakir"?
Gandhi wore the short dhoti (loincloth) before King George V at Buckingham Palace during the Round
Table Conference (1931), refusing to compromise. This was seen as a direct challenge to British
authority and cultural norms. Churchill's remark showed how clothing had become a political statement
— Gandhi's intentional adoption of the poorest Indian's dress was a rejection of Western cultural
domination and an assertion of Indian dignity.

■ Quick Revision Points

● Sumptuary laws (1294–1789): Regulated clothing by rank. Only royalty wore ermine/fur/silk/velvet.
French Revolution abolished them.
● Victorian corsets: Restricted body growth, caused illness. Women's dress reform movement from
1830s. Mrs Amelia Bloomer introduced "bloomers."
● New materials: Indian chintzes after 1600; mass-manufactured cotton (Industrial Revolution); artificial
fibres (early 20th c.).
● WWI: 700,000 women in British ammunition factories → khaki overalls, shorter skirts, trousers, short
hair.
● India — Three reactions: Adopt western (Parsis), oppose western (Bengali Babu caricature), combine
both.
● Shanar/Nadar conflict (1822–1859): Right to wear upper cloth. Riots in 1859; government finally
permitted covering.
● Turban vs Hat: Turban = respectability (cannot remove); Hat = respect shown by removing. "Shoe
respect" enforced under Dalhousie.
● Swadeshi (1905): Boycott British goods; use khadi. Appealed mainly to upper classes.
● Gandhi's clothing: 1888 (London) = Western suit → 1913 (Durban) = lungi & kurta → 1921 = short
dhoti, worn till death.
● Gandhi cap, fez, Brahmika sari = powerful political symbols. Ambedkar: Western suit as Dalit
assertion of self-respect.

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 39

 Complete Chapter Summary

C Title Secti Key Themes

h on

1 French Revolution I Estate system → Bastille → Republic → Terror → Abolition of slavery → Women's rights

2 Socialism & Russian Revolution I Liberals/Radicals/Conservatives → Marx/Engels → Bolsheviks → Feb/Oct 1917 → USSR

3 Nazism & Rise of Hitler I Weimar Republic → Great Depression → Hitler → Holocaust → Youth/Women → Propaga

4 Forest Society & Colonialism II Deforestation → Scientific Forestry → Bastar Rebellion → Java (Samin's challenge)

5 Pastoralists in Modern World II Seasonal migration → Colonial disruption → Criminal Tribes Act → Maasai in Africa

6 Peasants and Farmers II Enclosures (England) → Captain Swing → Dust Bowl (USA) → Opium in India

7 History of Cricket III Village game → Victorian class → Colonial India (Parsis, Quadrangular) → Modern transfo

8 Clothing: A Social History III Sumptuary laws → Victorian corsets → Swadeshi → Gandhi's khadi → National dress

■ Most Commonly Confused Facts — Stay Alert!

Don't Confuse Fact A Fact B

Active vs Passive Citizens Active: Men >25 yrs, paid 3-day labour tax Passive: All remaining men + ALL women →
(Ch 1) → could vote (~4M of 28M) NO vote (but had other rights)

Bolsheviks vs Mensheviks Bolsheviks (Lenin): Disciplined, closed party Mensheviks: Open party membership (like
(Ch 2) membership Germany's SPD)

Feb vs Oct Revolution (Ch 2) Feb 1917 = Tsar abdicates on 2 March; Oct 1917 = Bolsheviks seize power (24 Oct
Provisional Govt formed Julian = 7 Nov Gregorian)

Enabling Act vs Fire Decree Fire Decree (28 Feb 1933): Suspended civic Enabling Act (3 Mar 1933): Gave Hitler all
(Ch 3) rights — speech, press, assembly powers; established dictatorship

Reserved vs Protected Reserved: Villagers CANNOT take anything Protected: Some customary grazing rights
Forests (Ch 4) — not even for personal use allowed, with restricted movement

Quadrangular vs Quadrangular: 4 teams (Europeans, Parsis, Pentangular: 5 teams (above + "The Rest" =
Pentangular (Ch 7) Hindus, Muslims) Indian Christians e.g. Vijay Hazare)

Amateurs vs Professionals Amateurs (Gentlemen): Rich players, Professionals (Players): Poor players, fast
(Ch 7) batsmen; ALWAYS captained teams bowlers; paid wages; never captained

Bloomers vs Brahmika Sari Bloomers (USA): Mrs Amelia Bloomer's Brahmika Sari (India): Jnanadanandini Devi
(Ch 8) loose tunics + ankle-length trousers — sari + blouse + shoes; Brahmo women

These notes cover all 8 chapters of NCERT Class 9 History (India and the Contemporary World – I)
Sections I, II and III · Prepared for comprehensive exam preparation · Verified and rechecked.

NCERT Class 9 History – India and the Contemporary World I Page 40