IMAGE PRODUCTION &

PRINCIPLES
 • THE STAGES IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE
RADIOGRAPH
• Many dentists who utilize manual processing,
intentionally over expose patients and under process
the radiograph in an attempt to save time resulting in
radiographs that are inferior in diagnostic quality
because of incomplete developing. When an X-ray film
has been exposed, it must be processed in order to
produce a permanent visible radiographic image that
can be kept without deterioration for a number of
years. Processing transforms the latent image into a
visible image. The term for the several procedures that
collectively produce the visible, permanent image is
processing and consists of developing, rinsing, fixing,
washing and drying procedures
• 1. Exposure - Latent image created.
• 2. Development - Converts latent image to black
metallic silver.
• 3. Wash [stop bath] - Removes excess developer.
• 4. Fixing and Hardening - Dissolves out
unexposed silver halide crystals.
• 5. Washing - Removes products of processing.
• 6. Dry - Removes water.
For manual processing a floating thermometer, a timer
and the time -temperature chart are essential

• 1. LATENT IMAGE FORMATION.

• The latent (invisible) image formation is the
ionization of the exposed silver bromide
crystals (by photon energy that emerges from
the patient) occurring in the emulsion layer
before processing occurs. The primary
interaction with the bromide crystals is by
Compton and photoelectric interactions,
thereby knocking out electrons.
• Thus, a physical change occurs when the radiograph is
exposed. When X-ray photons [or light photons] strike
the silver bromide crystals in the emulsion, minute
amounts of silver ions are formed on the surface of the
crystal and bromine is liberated and is absorbed by the
gelatin. Crystals are purposely constructed with
electron traps (sensitivity specks) consisting of sulfur
impurities but also because of the addition of silver
iodide. Electrons are trapped by the sulfur in the
sensitivity specks giving it a negative charge. When this
situation is created a latent image is produced in the
film emulsion.
 AgBr + X-ray photons = Ag+ + Br- Silver bromide Silver
ions + Bromine ions

The latent image is formed by deposits of free

(ionized) silver ions that cannot be seen or
detected by any physical test devised as yet. It
remains in the emulsion of the X-ray film until
it is changed into a visible silver image by
chemical processing procedures.
• However, films may be removed from the fixing
solution after five minutes for viewing only in
cases of emergency - this procedure is known as
wet reading \ viewing. The film must then be
placed back in the fixer. If these unwanted silver
bromide crystals are not removed, the resultant
film will discolor after a few months. If the film is
only partially fixed the film will turn brown in
color with age. The gelatin protective coating is
hardened by the potassium alum so the film will
resist abrasion / scratching
 2. PROCESSING THE EXPOSED FILM

• Exposed radiographs that contain a latent

image should be processed as soon as
possible as they are more sensitive to energy.
Film packets are only to be opened in the
darkroom or under safe-light conditions. [ in a
daylight loader]
• The developer solution is the first solution into
which the films are placed. The developer
chemically reduces the energized ionized
silver bromide crystals by donating electrons,
removing the halides and precipitating
metallic silver in the emulsion layer. The
negative charge attracts positively charged
free silver ions and is reduced to black metallic
atoms. This precipitation corresponds to the
black (radiolucent) areas on the radiograph.
• The concentration of the developer slowly
weakens due to the number of films
processed, [a chemical reaction] and with
time by oxidation of the developer by
exposure to air. Traditionally, the developer
tank is placed on the left side of the other
chemicals solutions
 3. RINSING PROCESS / STOP BATH
(WASHING)
• When the film is removed from the developer
the gelatin emulsion is soft and swollen and
contains chemicals which are removed by
placing the film in a water bath. By rinsing the
film in the water the soluble chemicals are
removed, the development reaction is
stopped, and the alkalinity of the residual
developer is reduced. The unexposed silver
halide crystals are not water soluble and will
not be washed away.
• The film should be rinsed for 10-15 seconds in a bath
of fresh, running water. The temperature of the water
must be as close as possible to the temperature of the
developer and fixer to avoid reticulation - uneven
expansion and contractions of the emulsion layer. If
this step were omitted, the alkaline developer retained
by the film would soon neutralize the acid of the fixer.
The fixing and hardening action of the fixer would be
impaired and as a result, brown stains will be produced
on the radiograph within a few weeks. Because the
emulsion layer (gelatin) is soft when wet, the film
scratches easily.
• Safe-light conditions must be maintained
when transferring the film from the developer
to the wash tank and then to the fixing tank to
avoid fogging. For automatic processing there
are "squeegy" rollers that remove the
chemicals and thus the film goes from the
developer solution straight into the fixer.
 4. FIXING
• . The acidic fixing solution removes the
unexposed and undeveloped silver bromide
crystals from the film emulsion and re-hardens
the emulsion that has softened during the
development process. For manual processing, if
the film is placed in the developer solution for X
amount of time it should be placed in the fixer for
2X and in the final rinse for 3X 3 3 amount of
time. "X" is determined by the time-temperature
chart. The ideal time to process radiographs in
the developer is 68 degree F for 5 minutes.
 5. FINAL WASH.
• The purpose of the final wash is to remove
residual fixer chemicals i.e. acid, thiosulfate and
silver salts from the film. Insufficient washing
results in the film turning brown as all the
chemicals have not been washed away. If the
temperature difference between developer and /
OR fixer and water exceeds 15 F, there is a
possibility of unequal swelling and shrinkage of
the emulsion layer, commonly referred to as
reticulation. Also, prolonged washing tends to
make the emulsion soft, and it then scratches
more easily
 6. DRYING
• . In most offices, films are dried merely by
hanging them on a rack in the darkroom above a
drip tray designed to catch the run-off excess
water. Others use a fan to dry the film. The fan
should not blow directly on the films. Cabinet
dryers are available which are equipped with a
fan and heating elements Wet films are subject to
damage from scratching and abrasion if not
handled properly. If there is dust in the air, dirt
will become easily embedded within the
emulsion. Do not remove wet radiographs from
their hangers until they are completely dry
• An area of less density, say the pulp, will allow greater
penetration of X-rays; therefore more X rays will reach
that part of the film. Thus more silver bromide crystals
will be energized and more silver will precipitate to
give a black or radiolucent outline to the pulp chamber.
Areas that have received smaller amounts of radiation
will have correspondingly less silver precipitated and
will appear gray. Individually if a crystal is energized the
whole crystal turns black. The silver bromide behind a
gold crown, will precipitate no or very little silver as
there was minimal energy reaching that area, and will
appear white, or radiopaque on the radiograph. Gold
and amalgam have high z values.
• The X-ray film is a delicate product, sensitive
to many things, e.g. light photons, X-rays and
gamma rays, pressure, to various gases and
fumes, to heat and moisture and even aging
causes a gradual change in it; known as
fogging.
• The free electrons move through the crystal
until they are attracted to a sensitivity site
where they become trapped and impart a
negative charge to the site.
• In most darkrooms the developer will be in
the left-hand tank as you face the tank, the
water bath in the center and the fixing
solution in the right-hand tank. The developer
can be identified by its soapy feel, (alkali) the
fixer by its vinegary odor when fresh and acid
taste .
• In most darkrooms the developer will be in
the left-hand tank as you face the tank, the
water bath in the center and the fixing
solution in the right-hand tank. The developer
can be identified by its soapy feel, (alkali) the
fixer by its vinegary odor when fresh and acid
taste .
 IMAGE CHARACTERSTICS
• 1. RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY
• 2. RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
• [Link] SPEED
• [Link] LATTITUDE
• [Link] NOISE
• [Link] SHARPNESS AND
RESOLUTION
• 7. IMAGE QUALITY
 [Link] DENSITY
• Radiographic Density - the overall amount /
degree of darkening on a radiograph.
• A film is of greatest diagnostic value when the
structure of interest are imaged between 0.6
to 3.0 density.
• The density below 0.3 is due to the density
produced by the base and by some fog on the
film (base plus fog).
• Density is primarily determined by mA .
 Factors influencing radiographic
density
• 1. Exposure: ↑ mA = ↑ Density
↑ kVp =↑ Density
↑ exposure time =↑ Density
↓ FSFD =↑Density
2. ↑Subject thickness = ↓ Density
3. ↑ Subject density = ↓ Density( various oral
structures has variable densities e.g enamel
,dentin, pulp , bone etc resulting in radiopaque
and radiolucent shadows)
Characterstic curve: A plot of relationship between film optical
density and exposure is called a characterstic curve. It usually is
shown as the relationship between optical density of the film and
the logarithm of the corresponding exposure.
As the exposure of the film increases ,its optical density increases.
RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST. Radiographic contrast is defined as the differences
in densities between various regions on a radiograph. A film that shows very light and
very dark areas has high contrast or a short gray scale as there are few shades of gray
from one extreme to the other. A radiograph that has many shades of gray is referred to
as one with low contrast or long gray scale. [wide latitude]

Influencing factors
1. Subject contrast - as the thickness of the anatomic structure, the density and the
atomic number of the subject increases, so the radiopacity of the part increases.
↑kVp=↓contrast
↓kVp=↑contrast
( 60-80 kVp is selected for the optimum contrast, at high kVp exposure time is
reduced but contrast is lost)
FILM CONTRAST - film contrast describes the ability
films to display differences in subject contrast. A
high contrast film will reveal small differences in
subject contrast more clearly. The slope of the
characteristic curve is a measure of contrast; the
greater the slope of the curve, the greater the film
contrast. Properly exposed intra oral films have
more contrast than under exposed films which lacks
density.
Film contrast is influenced by-
1. Film processing: underdeveloped or
overdeveloped films have diminished contrast.
2. storage at too high temperature
3. light leaks degrade
4. exposure to excessively bright lights film
5. Fog contrast
6. Scattered radiation
3. Beam energy / intensity. If the film is excessively light or dark,
contrast is reduced. As kVp is increased, object contrast is
decreased.
4. Fog and Scatter - radiographic density will be increased by fog
and scatter but the contrast will be reduced.
Scatter results mainly from Compton interactions and can be
reduced by –
i. decreasing kVp
ii collimation of the beam - wider beam; more scatter.
iii. use of grids in extra oral radiology.

Common causes of film fog are improper safe-light conditions, storage of film at
excessive temperature, processing at excessive temperatures, or for long periods of
time, using film after the expiration date, or exposed to chemicals [ chemical fog].
3. Film Speed. - Is the amount of radiation required to produce a radiograph
of standard density.
Film speed frequently is expressed as the reciprocal of the exposure (in
roentgens) required to produce an optical density of 1 above base plus fog.
A faster film will require a shorter exposure time to produce the same density
resulting in less exposure to the patient.
•The speed of dental intra-oral x ray film is indicated by a letter designating a
particular group.
5. Radiographic mottle / noise Is the uneven density [darker spots] on an
exposed radiograph; often called graininess. This is seen with high temperature
processing and when intensifying screens are used caused by a fluctuation in the
number of photons [quanta] per unit of the beam are absorbed by the intensifying
screen. Longer exposures required by slower film-screen combinations average out
the beam pattern and reduce the mottle.

Film Speed. - Is the amount of radiation

required to produce a radiograph of standard
density. A faster film will require a shorter
exposure time to produce the same density
resulting in less exposure to the patient.
 Image sharpness / detail – is the ability of a radiograph to define
an edge precisely(e.g. DEJ, or a thin trabeculae plate)

Causes of loss of sharpness.

1. Focal spot size - the larger the focal spot the larger the penumbra which
detracts from the detail.
2. Motion - movement of the film, patient or radiation source during the exposure.
The shorter the exposure time the less likely the patient will move. The head of the
X-ray machine must not move when an exposure is made. The head of the patient
must be supported at the same time.
3. Image receptors
i) the larger the silver grains the poorer the outline of the image.
ii) intensifying screens have an adverse affect on sharpness. X-ray photons are
converted to light photons which spread out beyond the point of origin and expose
a larger area of the film causing blurring of detail.
iii) double image receptors - because of the error of parallax. Dental film has a
double coating of emulsion but unimportant
Resolution - The ability to record separate structures that are close together.
Measured in the number of line pairs per millimeter than can be read. It is said that
one can determine 14 line pairs per millimeter. The best digital images give about
10 line pairs per millimeter. Even 10 lines pairs per millimeter can not be seen with
the naked eye.
OPG- 5 l/mm
IOPAR – 20 l/mm
• Latitude - is described as the measure of the range of
exposures that may be recorded as a series of usefully
distinguishable densities on a film. The wider the
latitude of a film, the greater the range of object
densities visualized. Films with wide latitude show
relatively low contrast [long gray scale], because many
densities between totally black and totally clear are
recorded. Such films are useful when both osseous and
soft tissue must be viewed
• Influencing factors - kVp. HIGH kVp will result in images
with WIDE latitude. Different films have different
latitudes
 Image quality
• Image quality describes the subjective judgement
by the clinician of the overall appearance of a
[Link] combines the features of the
density, contrast , latitude, , sharpness, resolution
and perhaps other parameters
• Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) is a basic
measure of the efficiency of the imaging [Link]
encompasses image contrast , blur, speed and
noise.
 PRINCIPLES OF IMAGE PRODUCTION
• THE PRINCIPLES OF projection geometry decribe
the effect of focal spot size and relative position
of the object and the image receptor on image
clarity, magnification and distortion.
• Clinician uses these principles to to maximize
image clarity, minimize distortion, and localize
objects in the image field.
• 1. Image sharpness & resolution
• 2. Image size distortion
• 3. Image shape distortion
 Image sharpness & resolution
• To maximize image sharpness
• 1. Use as small as effective focal spot as
practical.
• 2. Increase the distance between the focal
spot and the object by using
• [Link] the distance between the object
and the image receptor.
 Image Size Distortion

• Image size distortion (magnification) is the increase in size

of the image on the radiograph compared with the actual
size of the object. The divergent paths of photons in an x-
ray beam cause enlargement of the image on a radiograph.
Image size distortion results from the relative distances of
the focal spot-to-image receptor and object-to-image
receptor Increasing the focal spot-to-image receptor
distance and decreasing the object-to-image receptor
distance minimizes image magnification. The use of a long,
open-ended cylinder as an aiming device on an x-ray
machine thus reduces the magnification of images on a
periapical view. As previously mentioned, this technique
also improves image sharpness by increasing the distance
between the focal spot and the object.
 Image Shape Distortion

• Image shape distortion is the result of unequal magnification of different parts of the same object.
This situation arises when not all the parts of an object are at the same focal spot-to-object
distance. The physical shape of the object may often prevent its optimal orientation, resulting in
some shape distortion. Such a phenomenon is seen by the differences in appearance of the image
on a radiograph compared with the true shape. To minimize shape distortion, the practitioner
should make an effort to align the tube, object, and image receptor carefully according to the
following guidelines:
• 1. Position the image receptor parallel to the long axis of the object. Image shape distortion is
minimized when the long axes of the image receptor and tooth are parallel. Figure shows that the
central ray of the x-ray beam is perpendicular to the image receptor, but the object is not parallel to
the image receptor. The resultant image is distorted because of the unequal distances of the
various parts of the object from the image receptor. This type of shape distortion is
called foreshortening because it causes the radiographic image to be shorter than the
object. Fig. shows the situation when the x-ray beam is oriented at right angles to the object but
not to the image receptor; this results in elongation, with the object appearing longer on the image
receptor than its actual length.
• 2. Orient the central ray perpendicular to the object and image receptor. Image shape distortion
occurs if the object and image receptor are parallel,