FORM 4 BIOLOGY: GENETICS (KCSE
REVISION NOTES)
Introduction to Genetics
Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation. Heredity is the
transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring, while variation refers to
differences among individuals of the same species.
Important Terms
Gene, allele, chromosome, DNA, genotype, phenotype, dominant and recessive traits,
homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
Structure of DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the hereditary material found in chromosomes. It consists
of nucleotides made of phosphate, deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogenous base. Bases pair
specifically: Adenine with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine.
DNA Diagram
DNA DOUBLE HELIX (Simplified)
Phosphate - Sugar - A === T - Sugar - Phosphate
Phosphate - Sugar - C === G - Sugar - Phosphate
Phosphate - Sugar - G === C - Sugar - Phosphate
Phosphate - Sugar - T === A - Sugar - Phosphate
Labels:
A = Adenine, T = Thymine, C = Cytosine, G = Guanine
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus. Human beings possess 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Genes occur at specific positions called loci.
Mendel's Experiments
Gregor Mendel used pea plants and developed the laws of inheritance. His work laid the
foundation of modern genetics.
Law of Segregation
Alleles separate during gamete formation and each gamete carries only one allele.
Law of Independent Assortment
Genes controlling different characteristics assort independently during gamete formation.
Monohybrid Inheritance
Example:
T = Tall (dominant)
t = Short (recessive)
Parents: TT × tt
F1 Generation:
All offspring = Tt (Tall)
Punnett Square:
T T
----------------
t | Tt | Tt |
----------------
t | Tt | Tt |
----------------
F2 Phenotypic Ratio = 3 Tall : 1 Short
Genotypic Ratio = 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt
Sex Determination
Female = XX
Male = XY
X Y
---------------
X | XX | XY |
---------------
X | XX | XY |
---------------
Probability:
50% Female (XX)
50% Male (XY)
The father determines the sex of the child.
Variation
Variation may be continuous (height, weight, skin colour) or discontinuous (blood group,
tongue rolling, earlobe attachment).
Sources of Variation
Mutation, crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilization and environmental
influences.
Mutation
Mutation is a sudden heritable change in genetic material. It may be gene mutation or
chromosomal mutation. Causes include radiation, chemicals and replication errors.
Genetic Disorders
1. Albinism – absence of melanin pigment.
2. Haemophilia – blood clotting disorder.
3. Sickle Cell Anaemia – abnormal haemoglobin.
4. Down Syndrome – extra chromosome 21.
Meiosis and Genetics
Meiosis produces haploid gametes and promotes variation through crossing over and
independent assortment.
Applications of Genetics
• Selective breeding
• Genetic engineering
• Disease diagnosis
• Biotechnology
• Forensic science
• Agriculture and livestock improvement
KCSE Examination Tips
1. Differentiate genotype and phenotype.
2. Memorize Mendel's laws.
3. Practice Punnett square calculations.
4. Know genetic disorders and their causes.
5. Label DNA and chromosome diagrams correctly.
Summary
Genetics explains inheritance and variation. DNA carries hereditary information, genes
determine characteristics and chromosomes transmit genetic information from one
generation to another.