Module 2: Ecosystem Ecology
1. Components of an Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a geographical area where organisms, weather, and landscapes work
together to
form a bubble of life. Every factor depends on every other, directly or indirectly.
Major Components
• Biotic: Producers (autotrophs: photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs), Consumers
(primary/secondary/tertiary), Decomposers (detritivores).
• Abiotic: Climatic (rain, light, wind, temperature) and Edaphic (soil, pH, minerals,
topography).
Every organism belongs to a trophic level. Productivity, energy flow, decomposition, and
nutrient
cycling define ecosystem function.
2. Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Food Chain
Sun → Producers (1st trophic level) → Primary Consumers (2nd) → Secondary Consumers
(3rd)
→ Tertiary (4th) → Quaternary (5th). Every transfer involves heat loss.
Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Persistent toxins (DDT, mercury, PCBs) accumulate in organisms (bioaccumulation) and
concentrate up trophic levels (biomagnification). Top predators can have concentrations 10
million
times higher than water levels.
Lindemann's 10% Law
Only 10% energy transfers per trophic level; 90% lost as heat. Transfer efficiency ranges
1.3% to
56%. This limits chains to 4-5 levels and explains why top predators are few.
3. Ecological Pyramids
Graphical representations of trophic relationships, introduced by Charles Elton.
Type Measures Shape
Pyramid of Number Organism count per
level
Usually upright; can be inverted (tree ecosystems)
Pyramid of Biomass Dry weight per level Upright in terrestrial; inverted in aquatic
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Pyramid of Energy Total energy per level ALWAYS upright; energy decreases upward
Two-thirds of the world survives primarily on wheat, rice, and corn (1st trophic level).
Eating at
lower levels is more efficient.
4. Primary and Secondary Productivity
• GPP (Gross Primary Productivity): Rate at which producers convert solar energy to
biomass.
Only ~1% of solar energy is captured.
• NPP (Net Primary Productivity): NPP = GPP - Respiration. ~40% of GPP supports growth;
NPP limits consumer numbers.
• Most productive: Swamps, tropical rainforests, estuaries. Least: Deserts, arctic, open
ocean.
• Secondary Productivity: Rate of organic matter synthesis by consumers; decreases with
rising trophic level.
Key finding: As primary productivity increases, species richness often declines. Less
productive
environments have patchy resources, reducing competition and allowing species
coexistence.
5-6. Ecological Succession
Primary Succession
Life starts from scratch on new land (volcanic rock, glacier deposits). Stages: Bare rock →
Pioneer
species (lichens, mosses) → Soil formation → Grasses/shrubs → Trees → Climax
community.
Takes hundreds to thousands of years.
Secondary Succession
Occurs where soil remains after disturbance (fire, flood, abandoned farmland). Much
faster: weeds
(2-5 yrs) → pine seedlings (~5 yrs) → pine forest (~30 yrs) → mixed forest (~100 yrs).
Feature Primary Secondary
Starting condition Barren area, no soil Denuded area, soil present
Rate Very slow Fast
Seral stages Many Few
Time 1000+ years Much less
Climax Community: Final stable stage; species composition remains constant until
disturbed (fire,
human activity). Succession increases biodiversity, species richness, food web complexity,
and
energy flow.
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7. Community Interactions
Interaction Effect Example
Competition (-/-) Both harmed Species vying for limited food/territory
Predation (+/-) Predator benefits, prey
harmed
Crocodile consuming prey; grazing
Mutualism (+/+) Both benefit Bees and flowering plants; gut microbiome
Commensalism (+/0) One benefits, other
neutral
Remora on shark
Parasitism (+/-) Parasite benefits, host
harmed
Ticks on dogs; tapeworms
8. Carrying Capacity and Ecological Niche
Carrying Capacity
The number/biomass a habitat can sustainably support. At carrying capacity, birth rate =
death rate.
Exceeding it causes habitat degradation via disease, starvation, and competition. Modeled
with the
logistic function.
Ecological Niche
A species' functional role in the community: where it lives, what it eats, what eats it, and
how it
interacts with abiotic factors.
• Specialist species: Narrow niche (e.g., koala eats only eucalyptus).
• Generalist species: Broad niche (e.g., coyotes, raccoons).
• Competitive exclusion: Overlapping niches lead to reduced 'realized niche' for weaker
competitors.
• Tolerance zones: Zone of intolerance → physiological stress → optimum range → stress
→
intolerance.
9. Ecosystem Regulation
Homeostasis
Ecosystems self-regulate within a homeostatic plateau — the range of tolerance for
stability.
Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Regulation
• Bottom-Up: Resource/nutrient availability controls producers → herbivores →
carnivores.
• Top-Down: Predation controls prey → producers → environment (trophic cascade).
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Example — Trophic Cascade: Orcas preyed on sea otters → sea urchin population
increased →
kelp forests devastated.
10. Keystone Species
A species with disproportionately large ecosystem effect relative to its abundance
(concept by
Robert T. Paine, 1969).
Case Study — Galapagos Giant Tortoises: Population dropped from 10,000 to 14.
Conservation
removed invasive goats/rats, captive-bred ~2,000 tortoises, and reintroduced them.
Tortoises
reduced woody plants, expanded grasslands, spread seeds, and even cleared 'runways' for
endangered albatross.