CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS

1. Passive Components
➢ Passive components do not require an external energy source to perform their function.
➢ They store, dissipate, or control electrical energy.
➢ Eg: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor

[Link] Components
➢ Active components require an external energy source to control the flow of electrical current.
➢ They amplify, switch, or modulate electrical signals.
➢ Eg: Vacuum Tube, Junction Diode. BJT, FET, SCR etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPONENTS
Parameter Active Component Passive Component
Nature of Active component delivers Passive component utilizes
Source power/energy to the circuit power / energy in the circuit
Function of the Devices that produce energy in the Devices which store energy in the
component form of voltage or current form of voltage or current

Power Gain They are capable of providing Power They are incapable of Providing
Gain Power Gain
Requirement of They require an external source for They do not require any external
External Source Operation source for the operation

Nature of Passive components are Energy

Energy Active components are Energy donor
Acceptor
Examples Diodes, Transistors, Integrated Resistor, Capacitor, inductor etc.
Circuits etc.
RESISTOR
• Resistors are electronic components used to oppose the flow of current.
• Resistance is the property of material which opposes the flow of current
through it.
• The value of resistance is expressed in Ohm (Ω)
• The resistance of given material is directly proportional to its length L and
inversely proportional to its area of cross section A
• R =𝞀l
A
• ρ (Row is a constant called specific Resistance / Resisitivity)
RESISTOR SYMBOL
CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTOR

Fixed Resistors Variable Resistor

These are resistors where the
These are resistors with a specific
resistance value can be changed
value
manually
• Carbon Composition • Potentiometer
• Carbon Film • Rheostat
• Metal Film • Presets
• Wire wound
CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR

• The main resistive element with in carbon composition resistor is made from a mixture of
finely ground or powdered carbon and an insulating material which was normally ceramic and
a resin to bond the mixture together. The mixture was pressed into small rods under heat.
CARBON FILM RESISTOR

• Carbon film resistors are constructed by depositing a carbon film over an insulating core.
• A Helical Groove is cut in it to create a long narrow resistive path.
• The thickness of the helical groove a decided according to required resistance.
METAL FILM RESISTOR

• Metal film resistors are used when more accurate value is needed.
• Nichrome is most commonly used as the resistive material of these resistors.
• The thickness of the helical groove is decided according to required assistance.
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR

• They are made of metal resistance wire such as Nichrome and they can be manufactured to
precise values.
• The wire is wound around ceramic or plastic core.
• The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps or rings attached to the end of the
core.
POTENTIOMETER

• Potentiometer is also called pot, is a special form of variable resistor with three terminal.
• Two terminals are connected at two end points of a resistive element and third connect to
sliding contact.
RHEOSTAT

• Rheostat is a variable resistor to control current.

• It is a wire wound variable resistor, a resistive wire is wound over an insulating ceramic core
and wiper slides over the winding.
• Rheostats are used in high power applications such as controlling speed of motors, Intensity of
light etc
PRESET

• Presets are used in the applications where the variations of resistance is not done frequently.
• Preset is a kind of potentiometer having a metallic wiper that can be moved with a screw
driver.
• The track on which the wiper moves is carbonized or metallic ceramic.
COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR
• Colour coding is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components.
• The resistance value is printed on the resistor using the same colour bands.
• Colour bands are used because they are easily printed on tiny components.
• The colour code essentially consist of bands of different colours.

• First band :- Most significant figure.

• Second Band :- Second Significant Figure.
• Third Band :- Multipliers (Number of Zeroes).
• Fourth Band :- Indicate Tolerance on Resistive value.
(Tolerance is the allowed variation of resistance value from its normal value)
B B ROY Great Britain has Very Good Wife
Q. Write down the color code for a given resistor of 47-Kilo-ohms with a tolerance of 10%.?
Answer. To represent a resistor with a resistance value of 47 kilo-ohms (47,000 ohms) and a tolerance of
10%, we can use the color code as follows:
First Band (Significant Digit): Yellow, Yellow represents the digit 4.
Second Band (Significant Digit): Violet, Violet represents the digit 7.
Third Band (Multiplier): Orange, Orange represents a multiplier of 1,000.
Fourth Band (Tolerance): Silver, Silver represents a tolerance of ±10%.
So, the color code for a 47-kilo-ohm resistor with a tolerance of 10% is Yellow-Violet-Orange-Silver.
Q. A carbon resistor has colour code violet, grey, yellow and gold. Find the range of resistance
value?
Answer. First Band (Significant Digit): Violet represents the digit 7.
Second Band (Significant Digit): Grey represents the digit 8.
Third Band (Multiplier): Yellow represents a multiplier of 10^4.
Resistance Value = 78 * 10^4
Resistance Value = 780,000 ohms
So, the resistance value of the carbon resistor is 780,000 ohms or 780 kilo-ohms.
Gold represents a tolerance of ±5%.
So, the resistance value of the carbon resistor falls within the range of: 780,000 ohms ± 5%. This means
that the actual resistance value can vary between 741,000 ohms (780,000 ohms - 5%) and 819,000 ohms
(780,000 ohms + 5%).
CAPACITORS

• Capacitors are the electronic components used to store Electric Charge.

• They consist of two metal plates separated by dielectric.
• In basic form, a capacitor consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are
electrically separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material such as waxed
paper, mica, ceramic or plastic. This insulating layer between a capacitors plates is commonly
called the Dielectric.
• If the battery is removed , it discharges through available path
• Capacitors Passes AC Signal and block DC Signal
• Unit of Capacitance is Farad (F)
• Since the value is very small Unit such as Micro Farad, Nano Farad and Pico Farad are generally
used.
CAPACITORS

• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area, A in meter square of
the smallest of the two plates and inversely proportional to the distance of separation, d ( i.e. the
dielectric thickness) given in meters between these two conductive plates.
Charge stored in a capacitor
• Capacitor store electrical energy on their plates in the form of electrical charge.
Q=CV
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
• The energy stored in a capacitor is nothing but electrical potential energy.
CAPACITORS

Capacitance is directly proportional to the area of each plate, A in meter² and inversely proportional to the
distance of separation, d (the di electric thickness) given in meters between these two conductive plates.
𝜀0𝜀𝑟𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
C is the capacitance.
A is the area of the plates.
εr is the relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the material.
ε₀ is the vacuum permittivity.
d is the distance between the plates.
CAPACITORS
CHARGE STORED IN A CAPACITOR

• Capacitor stores electrical energy on their plates in the form of electrical charge.

Q=CV

Q = Charge stored in dielectric (Unit Coulombs)

V = Voltage across the Capacitor (Unit Volt)
C = Capacitance of the Capacitor (Unit Farad)
CAPACITORS
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

• The energy stored in a capacitor is nothing but electrical potential energy.

1
• 𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2
W represents the energy stored in the capacitor in joules (J).
C is the capacitance of the capacitor in farads (F).
V is the voltage across the capacitor's terminals in volts (V).
CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITORS
Fixed Capacitors Variable Capacitors

According the dielectric material used in construction of • Gang Capacitor3

Capacitor, They are named as • Trimmer
• Padder
• Electrolytic Capacitors
• Ceramic Capacitors
• Mica Capacitors
• Paper Capacitors
• Tantalum Capacitors
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

• This type of capacitor is constructed using two thin films of aluminum foil, one
layer being covered with an oxide layer as an insulator
• Aluminum plates serves as electrodes and oxide as dielectric
• Electrolytic capacitor are polarized, They possess positive and negative
electrodes
• This capacitor type has a wide tolerance
• This capacitor mainly used in the application where a large value of capacitance
in small volume is required, such as filters in power supply
MICA CAPACITORS

• This type of capacitor use Mica as dielectric

• This type of capacitor consist of number of flat stripes of metal foil separated by
similar shaped mica strips
• Mica capacitors usually rated upto 500V
• Because of their excellent frequency characteristics, they are used in resonance
circuits and high frequency filters
• Mica capacitors do not have high values of capacitance, and they are relatively
expensive
CERAMIC CAPACITORS

• This type of capacitor use Titanium and Barium as dielectric

• These capacitor have the shape of disc
• This type of capacitor consist of ceramic disc with Silver and Copper plating
deposited on opposite faces of the ceramics
• They have no polarity
• They can be used in high frequency applications, they are used in the circuits which
bypass high frequency signal to ground
PAPER CAPACITORS

• This type of capacitor consist of two meal foils separated by stripes of paper
• This paper is impregnated with dielectric material such as wax, plastic or oil.
• They have no polarity
• These capacitors are usually rated from 100V to several thousands volts
• The major limitation of paper capacitor is its larger size
TANTALUM CAPACITORS

• Tantalum capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that use a material called

tantalum as electrode
• They are superior to aluminum electrolytic capacitor in temperature and
frequency characteristics and therefore expensive
• They are used for circuits which demands high in the capacitance values
• These capacitors used in analog signal systems
• They do not normally have high working voltages, 35V is normally the
maximum, and some even have values of only a volt or so
VARIABLE CAPACITORS

• The capacitance of variable capacitor is varied by adjusting some parameters

• Variable capacitors are mainly used for adjustment of frequency
• Gang Capacitor
• Trimmer
• Padder
GANG CAPACITOR

• Gang Capacitor is a group of capacitors ganged together

• It is a rotor stator type variable capacitor which consist of two sets of metal
plates
• The fixed plate is connected together to form a stator
• The movable plates connected together on shaft to form the rotor
• Capacitance is varied by rotating the shaft
• Gang Capacitors are used in radio receivers to tune the radio frequencies
TRIMMER

• In some Electronic Circuits once the setting are made, it must be kept
undisturbed
• In such application where tuning is not very frequent, trimmer capacitors are
more suitable
• The dielectric may be mica or ceramic
• A screw is mounted so that by turning it, the capacitance can be varied
• Trimmers are very low value capacitors in the order of pF
• They are used in TV, Radio and Other Broadcast receivers
PADDER

• It is a trimmer with comparatively high value of capacitance with air as

dielectric
• It consist two concentrically mounted tiny aluminum cups
• By turning the screw, the gap between the two cups can be varied to vary the
capacitance
• The capacitance of padder can be varied from 5pF to 600pF
NUMBERING OF CAPACITOR
• In small value capacitors like ceramic capacitor, value of capacitance will be written on it in a coded form

Rule 1. If the number written on the capacitor is greater than one, the value will be in picofarads (pF), and
if it's less than one, it will be in microfarads (μF).
For example, if it's marked as 10, it means 10 pF (10 × 10-12 F). If it's marked as 0.1, it means 0.1 μF (0.1
× 10-6 F).

Rule 2. If there are three digits in the number, the third digit indicates how many zeros to add after the
first two digits, and the value will be in pF.
For example, 104 means 100,000 pF.

Rule 3: If you see the letter 'k' after the digits, it means the value is in kilopico farads (kpF).
For instance, 10k means 10 kpF (10 × 10^3 × 10^-12 F).
NUMBERING OF CAPACITOR
Rule 4: If you spot the letters 'n' or 'M' after the digits, it means the value is in nano farads (nF) or micro
farads (μF), respectively.
For example, 47n represents 47 nF, and 47M means 47 μF.

Rule 5: If you see the letters 'n,' 'M,' or 'k' sandwiched between two numerals, replace the letter with a
decimal point and multiply by the corresponding factor (nF, μF, or kpF).
For instance, 4k7 means 4.7 kpF, 2M2 means 2.2 μF, and 4n4 means 4.4 nF.

Rule 6: If the letters 'k' or 'M' follow a three-digit number, it implies the tolerance value: 10% for 'k' and
20% for 'M.'
For example, 105k means 10 × 10^5 pF with a tolerance of ±10%, while 105M means 10 × 10^5 pF with a
tolerance of ±20%.
COLOR CODING OF CAPACITOR
• Different color coding methods are used for representing capacitance values
• Five color band system is very popular
• The first and second band gives first and second significant digits
• Third band gives the Multiplier
• Fourth band give tolerance in Percentage
• Fifth band gives the working voltage
COLOR CODING OF CAPACITOR

Eg: Brown Red Violet White Brown value is 12 x 107 ±10%, with operating voltage 100V.
Yellow Blue Red Black Red value is 46 x 102 ±20%, with operating voltage 250V.
INDUCTORS
• Inductors are the electronic component used to store energy in the form of magnetic field and delivers
it as and when required
• Whenever current passes through a conductor, lines of magnetic flux generated around it. This magnetic
flux opposes any change in current due to induced emf
• This opposition to the change in current is known as inductance and the component producing
inductance is called inductor
• The unit of inductance is called Henry
• The induced emf is actually given by

ⅆ𝜄ሶ
𝐸 = −𝐿 E = induced EMF
ⅆ𝑡
L = inductance in Henry
ⅆ𝑖
= Rate of change of current
ⅆ𝑡
• The negative sign indicates induced emf opposes the cause for the change in current
SELF INDUCTANCE
• Self Inductance or simply inductance is the process by which an emf is induced inside a coil
of wire as a result of an alternating current travelling through that coil.

𝜇 0 𝜇 𝛾 𝐴𝑁 2
• 𝐿=
𝑙

L is the inductance in henrys (H).

μ0 is the permeability of free space, a constant value approximately equal to 4 π x 10-7 H/m
μr relative permeability of the core

A = Area of cross section of the core

l = length of the core

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
When two coils are placed very near to each other Mutual Inductance takes place. When the
current in the neighbouring coil changes, the flux sets up in the coil and because of this, changing
flux, emf is induced in the coil called Mutually induced emf and the phenomenon is known as
Mutual inductance.

M= μ0 μrAN1N2
l
μ0 is the permeability of free space, a constant value approximately equal to 4 π x 10-7 H/m
μr relative permeability of the core
A = Area of cross section of the core
l = length of the core
N1 N2- Number of turns of first and Second coil respectively.
ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
The energy stored in a magnetic field in an inductor is given by

W=1 LI2
2

W – Energy stored in Magnetic Field (Unit Joule)

L - Self-inductance of inductor (Unit Henry)

I – Current flowing through an inductor (Unit Ampere)

TYPES OF INDUCTOR
FIXED INDUCTOR VARIABLE INDUCTOR

• Air Core

• Iron Core

• Ferrite Core

• Powder Core
TYPES OF INDUCTOR
Air Core Inductor
• This type of inductor is made of thin copper wire wound over a
former made of thick card board.
• It has as low value of inductance.
• Air core inductors are Suitable for low frequency applications

Iron Core Inductor

• This type of inductor is made of copper wire wound on
laminated iron core.
• Laminated core consists of thin iron sheets pressed
together and insulated from each other.
• Iron Cores are very stable for audio frequency applications.
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
PN JUNTION WITH NO EXTERNAL VOLTAGE
BARRIER POTENTIAL
• Due to the formation of junction potential further movement of electrons and holes are
prevented. Since this potential across the junction bars or prevents movement of charge
carriers across the junction, It is called barrier potential.
• The barrier potential for Si is 0.7V and Ge is 0.3V

WIDTH OF THE BARRIER

• The physical distance from one side of the barrier to the other side is referred to as the Width
of the barrier.

DEPLETION REGION
• There are no charge carriers near both sides of the junction where the charge carriers are
depleted due to recombination, This region is called depletion region
PN JUNTION WITH FORWARD BIAS

• When the PN junction is forward biased, Holes

repelled from the positive terminal of the
battery and are compelled to move towards
the junction
• The Electrons are repelled from the negative
terminal of the battery and drift towards the
junction
• Because of their acquired energy, some of
the holes and free electrons penetrate the
depletion region. This reduces the Potential
Barrier
PN JUNTION WITH REVERSE BIAS BIAS
• Suppose if we connect a battery to the PN
Junction Diode Such that the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the N
side and the negative terminal of the battery
is connected to P side the PN junction is said to
be Reverse Biased
• Thus majority carriers are drawn away from
the junction. This increases the potential
barrier.
• There is a current flow due to minority carriers,
This current is called Reverse Saturation Current
• This current is very small as the number of
minority carriers is small
REVERSE BREAKDOWN

• We have seen that PN Junction allows a very small current to flow when it is reverse biased. This
current is due to the movement of minority carriers.
• It is almost independent of voltage applied.
• However if the reverse voltage made too high, the current through the PN Junction increases
abruptly
• The voltage at which the phenomenon occurs is called Breakdown
• There are 2 types of breakdown
• Zener Breakdown
• Avalanche Breakdown
Sl.
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
No
1 Due to collision Due to rupture of covalent bonds

Observed in diodes having reverse Observed in diodes having reverse

2
voltage greater than 5 or 6V voltage less than 5 or 6V

3 Occurs in lightly doped diodes Occurs in heavily doped diodes

VI CHARACTERISTICS
• It is graph between voltage across its terminals and the current that flow
through it.
VI CHARACTERISTICS
• It is graph between voltage across its terminals and the current that flow through it.

• In froward biased , the diode current is very small initially.

• The diode doesnot conduct well until the external
voltage over comes barrier potential
• As approaching barrier potential , Larger number os
electrons and holes start crossing the junction
• Above barrier potential, a small change in voltage
produces a sharp increase in current.
• The voltage at which current starts to increase rapidly is
known as Knee Voltage (Vγ) of the diode
VI CHARACTERISTICS

• It is graph between voltage across its terminals and the current that
flow through it.
• In reverse bias, the diode current is
very small. Only a few 𝜇𝐴 for
Germanium diodes and only a few
nA for Silicon Diode
• It remains small and almost
constant for all voltages less than
the breakdown voltage.
• At breakdown, the current
increases rapidly for the small
increase in voltage.
THE IDEAL DIODE
• A diode has very important Property. It permits only
unidirectional conduction.
• It conducts well in Forward Direction and Poorly in Reverse
Direction.
• It would have been ideal if a diode acted as a Perfect
Conductor when forward-biased and a perfect insulator
when reverse-biased
• An Ideal Diode act like an Automatic Switch
• When the current tries to follow in the forward direction, The
switch is Closed
• When the current tries to follow in the reverse direction, The
switch is open.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

• Transistor is a three-terminal device

• It can be used for voltage as well as current amplification
• The Amplification of the Signal is achieved by passing the input current signal
region of low resistance to a region of high resistance
• This concept of transfer resistance has given the name TRANsfer resISTOR
STRUCTURE OF BJT

• If we join together 2 individual signal diodes back to back, this

will give us two PN Junctions connected in series that share a
common P or N terminal
• The fusion of these two diodes produces a three layer, two-
junction, three-terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar
Junction Transistor, or BJT for short
• BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as
charge carriers
• Types of BJT
• NPN Transistor
• PNP Transistor
STRUCTURE OF BJT
• The Middle region of each transistor type is called the
Base of the transistor. This region is very thin and lightly
doped.
• The remaining two regions are emitter and collector
• The Emitter and collector are heavily doped. But the
doping level of the emitter is slightly greater than the
collector
• The collector region area is slightly more than that of
the emitter
• A transistor can be considered as two PN junction
diodes are connected back-to-back
• A transistor has 2 PN Junctions
• One junction is between t h e emitter and t h e base
which is t h e Emitter Base junction or Emitter Junction
• One junction is between the Base and Collector which
is the Collector Base junction or Collector Junction
DIFFERENT MODES OF OPERATION

• There are four possible ways of biasing Emitter junction and collector junction

Condition Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region of Operation

1 Forward Biased Reverse biased Active Region

2 Forward Biased Forward Biased Saturation Region
3 Reverse biased Reverse biased Cutoff Region
4 Reverse biased Forward Biased Inverted
UNBIASED TRANSISTOR

• Un biased transistor means a transistor with no external voltage is applied

• Since transistor is like two PN Junction diodes connected back to back, there is
a depletion region at both the junctions, Emitter junction and Collector
Junction
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF NPN TRANSISTOR
• Emitter basejunction is Forward biased and Collector
base junction is reverse biased
• The forward bias causes electrons in the n-type
emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the
Emitter’s current IE
• As these electrons flow through the p-type base
they tend to combine with holes
• As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore,
only a few electrons (less than 5%) combine with
holes to constitute Base Current IB
• The remaining which is more than 95% of electrons
cross over into the collector region to constitute the
collector current IC
• In this way, almost the entire current flows in the
collector circuit. It is clear that t h e emitter current is
the sum of t h e collector and base currents
• IE = IB +IC
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PNP TRANSISTOR

• The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type

emitter to flow towards the base. This constitutes the
emitter’s current IE
• As these holes cross into a type base, they tend to
combine with the electrons. As the base is lightly
doped and very thin, therefore only a few holes (less
than 5%) combine with the electrons.
• The remaining more than 95% cross into the
collector region to constitute collector’s current IC
• In this way almost the entire emitter current flows in the
collector circuits
• It may be noted that current conduction, within pnp
transistor is by holes. However, in the external
connecting wires, the current is still by electrons
DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS OF BJT
• CE – Common Emitter Configuration
• If the Emitter terminal has been made common to both input and output. The
connection is called CE
Configuration
• The input signal is fed between the Base and Emitter
• The output signal is developed between Collector and Emitter
• CB – Common Base Configuration
• If the base terminal has been made common to both input and output. The
connection is called CB Configuration
• The input signal is fed between Emitter and Base
• The output signal is developed between Collector and Base
• CC – Common Collector Configuration
• If the collector terminal has been made common to both input and output. The
connection is called the CC Configuration
• The input signal is fed between the Base and the Collector
• The output signal is developed between Emitter and Collector
 CURRENT AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
• It is the ratio of output current to input current

• CE – Common Emitter Configuration

• β = 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵

• CB – Common Base Configuration

𝐼𝑐
• 𝛼=
𝐼𝐸

• CC – Common Collector Configuration

𝐼𝐸
• γ=
𝐼𝐵
RELATION BETWEEN 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾

𝝰 β 1
β= α= γ=β+1 γ=
1−𝝰 1+β 1−𝝰

Q. If α of a transistor is 0.99 the base current is 100 micro amp, Estimate the collector current.

Answer: β = 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵
𝝰 0.99
β= = = 99
1−𝝰 1−0.99
IC = β . IB
= 99 x 100 x 10-6
= 9900 x 10-6 A or 9.9 mA
Q. If a transistor collector current is 1mA and base current is 10µA, Determine α and β
1𝑚𝐴
Answer: β = 𝐼𝐶 = = 1 x 10-3 / 10 x 10-6 = 100
𝐼𝐵 10µ𝐀
β 100
α= = = 0.99
1+β 1+100
Characteristics of CB configuration

The characteristic diagram of determining the common base characteristic is shown in the
figure below.
Transistor Characteristics in Common- Base Configuration

2 types of characteristics are :

1. Input Characteristics: Curves relate the input or emitter current IE

and input or emitter-to-base voltage VEB keeping output or

collector-to-base voltage VCB constant.

2. Output Characteristics: Curves relate the output or collector

current IC and output or collector-to-base voltage VCB keeping
the input or emitter current IE constant.
Input Characteristic

1. For a specific value of VCB, the curve is a

diode characteristic in the forward
region. The PN emitter junction is
forward-biased.

2. When the value of the voltage base current increases the value of
emitter current increases slightly. The junction behaves like a better
diode. The emitter and collector current is independent of the collector
base voltage VCB.
3. The emitter current IE increases with the small increase in emitter-base
voltage VEB. It shows that input resistance is small.
Characteristics of CB configuration

➢ This configuration provides voltage gain but no current gain.

➢ Being VCB constant, with a small increase in the Emitter-base voltage VEB, Emitter
current IE gets increased.
➢ Emitter Current IE is independent of Collector voltage VCB.
➢ Collector Voltage VCB can affect the collector current IC only at low voltages
when VEB is kept constant.
➢ The input resistance Ri is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage (ΔVEB) to the
change in emitter current (ΔIE) at constant collector base voltage VCB.

Ri=ΔVEB/ΔIE at constant VCB

The value of input resistance is very low, and their value may vary from a few ohms to
10 ohms.
Output Characteristic Curve

1. The active region of the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the

collector current IC is almost equal to the emitter current IE. The
transistor is always operated in this region.
2. The curve of the active regions is almost flat. The large charges in
VCB produce only a tiny change in IC The circuit has very high output
resistance ro.
1. When VCB is positive, the collector-base junction is forward bias and the
collector current decreases suddenly. This is the saturation state in which
the collector current does not depend on the emitter current.
2. When the emitter current is zero, the collector current is not zero. The
current which flows through the circuit is the reverse leakage current, i.e.,
ICBO. The current is temperature dependant and its value ranges from 0.01
to 0.1 μA for the silicon transistor and 1 to 10μ A for the germanium
transistor.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
• Here transistor is connected in
CE configuration to a variable base
voltage supple and to a variable
collector voltage supply
• A microammeter in base leads the base
current IB while a milli ammeter in
collector lead reads the collector
current Ic
• The Voltmeter connected between
base and Emitter reads VBE and
Voltmeter between collector and
emitter reads VCE
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

• Figures show typical input characteristics

• They relate IB and VBE for different values of
VCE
• For a given value of VCB the curve is
just like diode characteristics in the forward
bias region
ri is of the order of Kilo ohms
Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of the

common emitter configuration show
the relationship between the output
voltage( VCE) and collector
current(IC) for a fixed base current
(IB).

In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as the collector-emitter
VCE current increases. The slope of the curve is quite more than the output
characteristic of CB configuration.
The output resistance of the common base connection is more than that of the CE
connection.
 Rout = ΔVCE/ Δ IC (when IB is at constant)
 Rout is of the order of 100KΩ
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
)

SATURATION REGION
• Emitter base junction and Collector base junction
is forward biased
• The saturation value VCE designated as VCE(SAT
usually ranges between 0.1V to 0.3V

CUTOFF REGION
• Emitter base junction and collector base junction is
reverse biased
• The region IB = 0 is the cutoff region of transistor
Comparison of CB,CE and CC
Number System and Conversion
Number System

Many number systems are in use in digital technology

The most common are :
➢ Decimal (Base 10)
➢ Binary (Base 2)
➢ Octal (Base 8)
➢ Hexadecimal (Base 16)
The decimal system is the number system that we use every day.
Number System

➢ Decimal system uses symbols (digits) for the ten values

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
➢ Binary System uses digits for the two values 0, and 1
➢ Octal System uses digits for the eight values
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
➢ Hexadecimal System uses digits for the sixteen values
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

to represent any number, no matter how large or how small.

Decimal System
• The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or symbols.
These 10 symbols are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9; using these symbols as
digits of a number, we can express any quantity.
• The decimal number system is a positional number system
Example : 3501.51
Binary System

• The binary system is composed of 2 numerals or symbols 0 and 1;

using these symbols as digits of a number, we can express any
quantity.
• The binary number system is a positional number system
Example: 1101.01
Binary System
➢ In the binary system, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, 0
and 1.
➢ This base-2 system can be used to represent any quantity that can be
represented in a decimal system.
➢ In digital systems the information that is being processed is usually
presented in binary form.
➢ Binary quantities can be represented by any device that has only two
operating states or possible conditions.
Eg. a switch has only open or closed. We arbitrarily (as we define them) let an
open switch represent binary 0 and a closed switch represent binary 1. Thus we
can represent any binary number by using a series of switches.
Decimal Number Quantity (positional number)
Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
Decimal Number Quantity (fractional number
Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
Decimal to Binary
Converting a decimal number into a binary number
➢ Divide the decimal number by 2 and take its remainder
➢ The process is repeated until it produces the result of 0
➢ The binary number is obtained by taking the remainder from
the bottom to the top
Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
(positional number)

Repeat division
method
• The number is
divide by 2.
• Balance for the
question is written
until the last
answer.
Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
(fractional number)
• The fractional part of the number is found by successively multiplying (known
as successive multiplication) the given fractional part of the decimal number
repeatedly by 2 (×2), noting the carries in forward order, until the value
becomes “0” producing the binary equivalent.
• if the multiplication process produces a product greater than 1, the carry is a
“1” and if the multiplication process produces a product less than “1”, the
carry is a “0”.
• if the successive multiplication processes does not seem to be heading
towards a final zero, the fractional number will have an infinite length or until
the equivalent number of bits have been obtained, for example 8-bits. or 16-
bits, etc. depending on the degree of accuracy required.
Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
(fractional number)
Decimal to binary

• Convert the decimal number (12.0625 )10 into a binary

number.
Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
(fractional number)
Implementation Using Gates
AB + CD

AB + CD
AB + CD

(AB)’
( (AB)’ . (CD)’ )’

(CD)’
Implements the Boolean function : (A+B+CD)E

(A+B+CD)E = AE + BE + CDE.
Find the logic expression for the given circuit
A⨁B
NAND gates as Ex-NOR gate
Designing an XNOR Gate using NOR Gate
POWER SUPPLY

➢ The Power Supply is one kind of electronic circuit , designed to

provide the stable DC Voltage of fixed value across load terminals
irrespective of load variations.
➢ The main function of the regulated power supply is to convert an
unregulated alternating current (AC) to a steady current (DC)
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

➢ The output of the dc power supply is used to provide a constant dc

voltage across the load. Let us briefly outline the function of each of
the elements of the dc power supply.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER SUPPLY

➢ Transformer : Used to Step up or step down (usually step down) the

supply voltage as per need
➢ Rectifier: converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into either positive or
negative pulsating dc.
➢ Filter: Passes dc component to the load and blocks the ac
components of the rectifier output
➢ Regulator: Receives the signal from the filter and delivers a constant
voltage (let’s say 12DC volts) regardless of the variations on the load
or the voltage supply
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

• It contains four diodes D1, D2, D3,

& D4 connected to form bridge as
shown in fig
• The ac supply to be rectified is
applied to the diagonally opposite
ends of the bridge through the
transformer.
• Between other two ends of the
bridge, the load resistance RL is
connected
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER - OPERATION

• During the positive half cycle of

secondary voltage, the end P of the
P secondary winding becomes
positive and t h e end Q negative.
• This makes diodes D1 and D2
A forward biased while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased. Therefore,
only diodes D1 and D2 conduct.
Q
• These two diodes will be in series
B
through the load
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER - OPERATION

• During the negative half cycle of secondary

voltage the end P of the secondary winding
P becomes negative and t h e end Q positive.
• the diodes D3 and D4 a r e forward biased
whereas diodes D1 and D2 are reverse
A biased. Therefore, only diodes D3 and D4
conduct.
• These two diodes will be in series through the
Q load RL. It may be seen that current flows
from A to B through the load i.e in the same
B direction as for the positive half cycle.
• Therefore dc output id obtained across the
load RL
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER – OUTPUT WAVEFORM
THE CAPACITOR FILTER

➢ It consists of a capacitor C placed across the rectifier output in

parallel with load RL
➢ The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier is applied across the
capacitor. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the
capacitor and supplies current to the load.
THE CAPACITOR FILTER

➢ The capacitor is charged to the peak value Vm of the rectifier voltage.

➢ Now, the rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As this occurs, the capacitor discharges through
the load and voltage across it decreases as shown by the line AB
➢ The voltage across the load will decrease only slightly bcoz immediately the next voltage
peak comes and recharges the capacitor.
➢ This process is repeated again and again and the output voltage waveform becomes
ABCEDEFG
➢ It may be seen that very little ripple is left in the output. Moreover, the output voltage is
higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of the rectifier output voltage.
WORKING OF ZENER DIODE

• When the reverse bias on

a Zener diode is increased a
,
critical voltage called
breakdown voltage is
reached, and the
reverse current increases
sharply to a high value.

• The breakdown region is

the knee of the reverse
characteristic as shown in fig.
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
➢ A Zener diode can be used as a voltage
regulator to provide a constant voltage
from a source whose voltage may vary
over sufficient range.
➢ The circuit arrangement is shown in Fig
➢ The Zener diode of Zener voltage VZ is
reverse connected across the load RL
across which constant output is desired
➢ It may be noted that the Zener will
maintain a constant voltage VZ across
the load so long as the input voltage does
not fall below VZ
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

➢ To get effective voltage regulation, the input

voltage Vi must be greater than the Zener
voltage Vz.
➢ The value of series resistor or current limiting
resister Rs must be such that in no-load
condition, it must protect the Zener
diode from over current, as in this
condition, I=Iz since IL=0.
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

 There are 3 currents in the circuit, these are

I, Iz and IL.
I = Iz+IL… using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
I =(Vi−Vz)/Rs… using Ohm’s law
 IL=Vo/RL=Vz/RL…
 because, Vz= Vo as Zener diode is
connected in parallel with the load
resistor RL
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

➢ Cases #1: Let us assume that Vi and RL are

constant:
➢ I = Iz + IL… using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
➢ In this condition, I and IL are both are constant,
so Iz is also constant. So, the circuit remains in
steady state condition. However, this condition is
considered only for understanding the working.
But practically, this condition may not exist in the
regulator circuit.
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Case #2: Now assume that Vi is constant, but RL is varying:

➢ I = Iz + IL… using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
➢ In this condition, input current I is constant, but IL is varying,
since RL is also varying. So, there are two possible conditions here.
➢ Let us assume RL increases. Then IL decreases. But input
current I is constant, because we have assumed that Vi is
constant. And as I=Iz+IL. So Iz increases proportionally to adjust
this condition.
➢ Let us assume RL decreases. Then IL is increases. But input
current I is constant as Vi is constant. And
as I=Iz+IL so Iz decreases proportionally to adjust this condition
again.
ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Case #3: Assume that Vi is Varying, but RL is constant:

➢ I = Iz + IL… using Kirchhoff’s Current Law
➢ In this condition, input current I is varying, but IL remains constant,
since RL is constant. So, there are two possible conditions here.
➢ Let us assume Vi increases. Then I increase. But load
current IL remains constant, because we have assumed that RL is
constant. And as I=Iz+IL so Iz increases proportionally to adjust this
situation.
➢ Let us assume Vi decreases. Then I decrease. But load
current IL remains constant, as RL is constant. And as
I=Iz+IL so Iz decreases proportionally to adjust this situation, again.
BIASING OF BJT
➢ The transistor can be operated in 3 regions: cutoff, Active and Saturation
by applying proper biasing conditions.

Region of Operation Emitter Base Collector Base

Junction Junction
Cutoff Reverse Biased Reverse Biased
Active Forward Biased Reverse Biased
Saturation Forward Biased Forward Biased

➢ In order to operate transistor in desired region we have to apply

external dc voltages of correct polarity and magnitude of two
junction of the transistor. This is called DC Biasing of the Transistor.
BIASING OF BJT

Cutoff Region:
Operation: In the cutoff region, both junctions of the transistor are in reverse bias.
This means there is no significant current flow between the collector and emitter
terminals. The transistor is effectively turned off.
Active Region:
Operation: In the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased, allowing
a small base current to flow. This results in a much larger collector current, making
the transistor function as an amplifier. The transistor operates in its active mode in this
region.
Saturation Region:
Operation: In the saturation region, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions
are forward-biased. This condition allows for maximum current flow from the collector
to the emitter. Transistors in saturation act as electronic switches and are fully "on."
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS

• A circuit which is used to establish a stable

operating point is for self- biasing circuit. This
circuit is known as Voltage Divider Bias (or) Self
Bias (or) Emitter Bias
• In the circuit the biasing is provided by three
resistors R1, R2, & RE
• The Resistors R1, R2 act as potential divider
giving a fixed voltage to point B which is base.
RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

➢ When only one transistor with

associated circuitry is used for
amplifying a weak signal, the circuit
is known as Single Stage Transistor
Amplifier or RC Coupled Amplifier
➢ RC Coupled amplifier uses Voltage
Divider Biasing Concept.
RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Biasing Circuits: Resistance R1 and R2 form the voltage
divider biasing circuit for t h e CE Amplifier. It sets t h e
proper operating point for t h e CE Amplifier. while the
emitter resistor RE forms the stabilization network.
Input Capacitor Cin (Coupling Capacitor) It blocks any DC
component present in the signal and passes only ac signal
for amplification
Emitter bypass Capacitor (CE) CE is connected in parallel
with emitter resistance to provide a low reactance path to
the amplified AC signal. If it is not inserted, the amplified
AC signal passing through RE will cause a voltage drop
across it.
Output Coupling Capacitor (CC) The coupling capacitor
blocks DC and passes only the AC part of the amplified
Signal at the Output
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
➢ The voltage gain (Av) of the amplifier
for the different input frequencies can
be determined.
➢ A graph can be drawn by taking
frequency (f) along X axis and voltage
gain (Av) along Y axis.
➢ The frequency response curve obtained
will be of the form as shown in Fig.
➢ It can be seen that the gain decreases
at very low and very high frequencies,
but it remains constant over a wide
range of mid-frequency region.
BANDWIDTH

• Lower cutoff frequency (fL) is defined as

the frequency in the low frequency
range.
• Upper cut off frequency (fU) is defined
as the high frequency range.
• Bandwidth is defined as the
frequencyinterval between lower cutoff
and upper cut off frequencies.
• Bandwidth = fU - fL
PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

• A Public Address System (PA system) is a collection of equipment

designed to enhance sound for a large or dispersed audience.
• It often consists of microphones, amplifiers, loudspeakers, and other
related equipments.
P A SYSTEM

➢ Microphone: The microphone is an input device that converts

sound waves to electrical signals. It records the voice or other
audio sources and transmits the electrical signals to the mixer.
➢ Mixer: The mixer integrates audio signals from microphones,
instruments, and other sources. It lets you change the volume,
equalization, and mixing of several audio sources before sending
the combined signal to the amplifier.
➢ Voltage Amplifier: After the mixer combines the audio signal, the
voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal. The weak
electrical signals are amplified in this stage so they can be
processed further.
P A SYSTEM

➢ Processing Circuit: A variety of parts, including equalizers,

compressors, limiters, and effects processors, may be a part of the
processing circuit. Depending on the needs, these parts modify the
audio signal to improve its quality, change its tone, or add special
effects.
➢ Driver Amplifier: The processed audio signal is received by the driver
amplifier, which then amplifies it even more. It gets ready the signal
so that enough power can be applied to the loudspeakers.
➢ Power Amplifier: The audio signal must be amplified by the power
amplifier to a sufficient level for the loudspeakers to be powered. It
increases the signal strength to a point where it can generate sound
at the targeted loudness.
P A SYSTEM

➢ Loudspeaker: The output device that transforms the electrical

signal into sound waves is the loudspeaker. When an electrical
signal is received, a diaphragm vibrates, producing audible
sound waves that travel through the atmosphere and are
perceived by the audience.