CLASS AMPHIBIA

The First Terrestrial Vertebrates

Life Cycle & Metamorphosis · Dual Respiration · Circulatory System

Based on: Zoology, 12th Edition — Miller & Tupper

 I. Introduction to Class Amphibia

Amphibians (Class Amphibia) are ectothermic tetrapods that live a "double life," dividing their time
between aquatic and terrestrial environments. The name comes from the Greek amphi (both) and bios
(life). They were the first vertebrates to colonize land during the Devonian period (~375 mya), evolving
from lobe-finned sarcopterygian fishes. Today, approximately 8,489 species survive, grouped into three
orders.

Classification: Class Amphibia

• Skin: moist, glandular, lacks scales/feathers/hair
• Heart: 2 atria + 1 undivided ventricle (3-chambered)
• Respiration: lungs + cutaneous (skin) gas exchange
• Reproduction: usually external fertilization; aquatic larvae
• Thermoregulation: ectothermic (rely on environment for body heat)

The Three Orders of Class Amphibia

Order Anura Order Caudata Order Gymnophiona

(Frogs & Toads) (Salamanders) (Caecilians)

Figure 1. The three extant orders of Class Amphibia.

Order Common Name # Species Key Features

Anura Frogs & Toads ~7,300 Tailless adults; long hindlimbs for jumping; tympanum present

Caudata Salamanders & Newts ~700+ Retain tail throughout life; four unspecialized limbs

Gymnophiona Caecilians ~214 Limbless, worm-like burrowers; internal fertilization

 II. Life Cycle and Metamorphosis

Life Cycle & Metamorphosis of a Frog

Egg Mass

METAMORPHOSIS

(Larva)
Adult Frog Tadpole

(Metamorphosis)
Figure 2. The four-stage amphibian life cycleFroglet
showing complete metamorphosis (anuran model).

Most amphibians undergo indirect development — they pass through a free-living larval stage (tadpole in
anurans) that is morphologically and ecologically distinct from the adult.

Stages of the Life Cycle

1. Egg Mass: Fertilization is typically external in anurans. Eggs are enclosed in a gelatinous matrix,
deposited in clusters in water or on moist substrates. Clutch size can vary from a few to thousands of
eggs.

2. Larval Stage (Tadpole): Aquatic larvae possess a laterally compressed tail, internal or external gills,
a beak-like structure for scraping algae, and no functional limbs. They respire via gills and skin.
Tadpoles are primarily herbivorous, reducing competition with carnivorous adults.

3. Metamorphosis (Froglet): Dramatic structural reorganization under control of thyroid hormones and
prolactin: gills are reabsorbed, lungs become functional, hindlimbs emerge before forelimbs, the tail is
reabsorbed, and the digestive system shifts from herbivory to carnivory. This transition can occur in
days to weeks.

4. Adult: Terrestrial or semi-aquatic; breathes via lungs and skin. Sexually mature adults return to
water to breed. Adult anurans are primarily visual ambush predators of invertebrates.

Key Facts: Metamorphosis

• Controlled by thyroid hormones (thyroxine triggers metamorphosis)
• Paedomorphosis: some species (e.g., Necturus mudpuppies) remain larval permanently
• Salamander reproduction: internal fertilization via spermatophore in most species
• Anuran tadpoles: 84–100% of gas exchange via gills + skin
• Direct development: some species bypass the larval stage entirely
 III. Dual Respiration: Lungs & Skin

Amphibians are unique among tetrapods in their reliance on both pulmonary (lung) and cutaneous
(skin) respiration. This dual system is an evolutionary adaptation to a life divided between water and
land.

Dual Respiration in Amphibians (Lungs & Skin)

O■ (inhaled)
CO■

O■ absorbed through moist skin

Lungs
(Pulmonary Respiration)

CO■ released through skin

Cutaneous (Skin) Respiration Pulmonary (Lung) Respiration

Figure 3. Dual respiration: cutaneous (left) and pulmonary (right) gas exchange.

Cutaneous (Skin) Respiration

Amphibian skin is moist, thin, and richly vascularized with capillary beds, enabling direct gas exchange
with the environment. This is called cutaneous respiration and accounts for 30–90% of total gas
exchange in salamanders. It can occur both underwater and on land. Plethodontid salamanders have no
lungs at all and rely entirely on cutaneous and buccopharyngeal (mouth lining) respiration.

Pulmonary (Lung) Respiration

Most amphibians possess simple sac-like lungs. Anuran lungs are internally subdivided to increase
surface area. Ventilation occurs via a buccal pump mechanism: muscles of the mouth and pharynx
generate positive pressure to force air into the lungs. Lungs can modulate gas exchange in proportion to
metabolic demand, compensating for the fixed rate of cutaneous respiration.

Larval Gill Respiration

Larvae and some paedomorphic adults (e.g., mudpuppies) use external gills. These are supported by
cartilaginous rods that form between embryonic pharyngeal slits. During metamorphosis, gills are
reabsorbed and lung function is established.

Type Location % of Exchange Environment

Cutaneous Skin surface 30–90% (salamanders) Land or water

Pulmonary Lungs Variable; increases w/ demand Land (air-breathing)

Branchial External gills Primary (larvae) Aquatic (larval stage)

Buccopharyngeal Mouth/pharynx lining Small % (supplement) Land or water

 IV. Circulatory System

The amphibian circulatory system represents a key evolutionary step: the partial separation of
pulmonary (lung) and systemic (body) circuits, which is more efficient than the single-circuit system of
fishes.

Amphibian Circulatory System: 3-Chambered Heart

Oxygenated blood
Deoxygenated blood

Body■Tissues
Lungs
Pulmonary■Vein■(oxygenated) (undivided) Systemic■Veins■(deoxygenated)
Ventricle

Atrium Atrium
Left Arteriosus Right Systemic■Artery
Pulmonary■Artery Conus

Carotid■Artery → Head

★ Skin capillaries also oxygenate blood directly (cutaneous respiration) → blood in right atrium may be well oxygenated

Figure 4. The 3-chambered amphibian heart with separated pulmonary and systemic circuits.

Heart Structure
The amphibian heart has three chambers: a left atrium (receives oxygenated blood from lungs), a right
atrium (receives deoxygenated blood from the body), and one undivided ventricle. Although the ventricle
is not physically divided, it is laced with muscular trabeculae (ridges) that help reduce mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. A spiral valve in the conus arteriosus further directs blood into
pulmonary vs. systemic circuits. Physiologists have calculated 84% efficiency in keeping these blood
streams separate in American bullfrogs.

Blood Circuits
Pulmonary Circuit: Right atrium → Ventricle → Conus arteriosus → Pulmonary artery → Lungs →
Pulmonary vein → Left atrium. Blood is oxygenated in the lungs.
Systemic Circuit: Left atrium → Ventricle → Conus arteriosus → Systemic/Carotid arteries → Body
tissues → Venous return → Right atrium. Blood delivers O■ to tissues.

Adaptation to Dual Respiration

Because gas exchange also occurs across the skin, blood entering the right atrium may be just as well
oxygenated as blood from the lungs. When an amphibian is submerged, blood vessels to the lungs
constrict, conserving energy. This flexibility is especially important for frogs and salamanders that
overwinter submerged in pond mud.
Evolutionary Significance of the Amphibian Heart
• Fish: 2-chamber heart (1 atrium + 1 ventricle); single circuit
• Amphibians: 3-chamber heart; partial double circuit — key transitional step
• Reptiles/Birds/Mammals: 4-chamber heart; complete double circuit
• The undivided ventricle is an ADAPTATION, not a primitive limitation
• Cutaneous respiration means venous blood is often pre-oxygenated → mixing is less harmful
 V. Summary & Evolutionary Significance

Amphibians occupy a critical position in vertebrate evolution, bridging fully aquatic fishes and the amniotes
(reptiles, birds, mammals). Every major body system in amphibians shows dual adaptations to both
aquatic and terrestrial life.

Topic Key Points

Life Cycle Egg → aquatic larva (tadpole) → metamorphosis → terrestrial adult;

Thyroid-hormone driven; some species show paedomorphosis

Metamorphosis Reabsorption of gills, development of lungs and limbs,

skin keratinization, shift in diet and locomotion

Skin Moist, glandular; no scales; functions in gas exchange, water

absorption, defense (toxic secretions), color change

Respiration Dual: cutaneous (skin) + pulmonary (lungs);

Larval gills; buccopharyngeal supplement

Circulation 3-chambered heart (2 atria + 1 undivided ventricle);

Partially separated pulmonary and systemic circuits (~84% efficiency)

Thermoregulation Ectothermic: behavioral regulation (basking, burrowing);

Wide temperature tolerances; can survive mild freezing (wood frog)

Excretion Ammonia (aquatic forms) or urea (terrestrial forms);

Water absorbed through ventral skin, not by drinking

Conservation ~41% of amphibian species threatened; major threats: habitat

loss, chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium), climate change, pollution

Amphibians in Peril
Amphibians are the most threatened vertebrate class. Population declines are driven by habitat
destruction, the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (responsible for the extinction of dozens of
species), climate change, pollution, and invasive species. Because amphibians are highly sensitive to
environmental changes due to their permeable skin and complex life histories, they serve as important
bioindicators of ecosystem health.

Source: Miller, S.A. & Tupper, T. (2023). Zoology, 12th Edition. McGraw-Hill.