COMPUTER NETWORKS 16BCA3C03

MODULE-1
NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS
NETWORK:
• A network is a group of two or more devices (Nodes) that are interconnected with each
other using a communication link/channel.
• A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices,
peripherals, or other devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of data.
• An excellent example of a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people all
over the world.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS: Is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.

FOUR FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA COMMUNICATION:

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets.

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A DATA COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM HAS FIVE COMPONENTS:

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information includes text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
4. workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
5. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
RULES 6. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood
by a person who speaks only Japanese.

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Data Flow:
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown
below:

Simplex
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
• Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can
only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
• In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever
of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band)
radios are both half-duplex systems.

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Full-Duplex

• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously.
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at
the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of
the link with signals going in the other direction.
• This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network.

Network Criteria:

Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
• Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We
often need more throughput and less delay.

• THROUGHPUT is the rate of production or the rate at which something is processed.

• The delay of a network specifies how long it takes for a bit of data to travel across the
network from one node or endpoint to another. It is typically measured in multiples or
fractions of seconds. Delay may differ slightly, depending on the location of the specific
pair of communicating nodes.

Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of
failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a
catastrophe.

Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for
recovery from breaches and data losses.

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Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links.

A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible
• Example: When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are
establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television’s
control system.
Multipoint

A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link.
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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TOPOLOGY:
Topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to one another.

There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, ring & hybrid.

BUS TOPOLOGY:

Representation:

Explanation:
• A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices in
a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices
into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the
metallic core.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason,
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance between those
taps.

Advantages:
• Include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient path,
then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this way, a bus uses less
cabling than mesh or star topologies.

Disadvantages:

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• Include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to be

optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
• In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the
direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.
• Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local area
networks. Traditional Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular
now for reasons.

STAR TOPOLOGY:

Representation:

Explanation:
• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device.
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it
easy to install and reconfigure.
Advantages:
• Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
• Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links.

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Dis-advantages:
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
• Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central
hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies
(such as ring or bus).
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs).

MESH TOPOLOGY
Representation:

Explanation:
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we
first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be
connected to n – 1 node, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 node, and finally node n must
be connected to n – 1 node. We need n (n – 1) physical links.
• However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode),
we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh
topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode links.
Advantages:
• First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by
multiple devices.

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• Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system. Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every
message travel along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
• Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can
be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network
manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and
solution.

Dis-advantages:
• The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of
I/O ports required. First, because every device must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
• Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
• Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a
limited fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid
network that can include several other topologies.
• One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional offices
in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

RING TOPOLOGY:

Representation:

Explanation:

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• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from
device to device, until it reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires
changing only two connections.
• The only constraints are media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and
number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
• Generally, in a ring a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network
operator to the problem and its location.
Advantages:
• All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
• A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each
workstation.
• Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.
• Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the network.

Dis-advantages:
• Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as
a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a
dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
• All data being transferred over the network must pass through each workstation on the
network, which can make it slower than a star topology.
• The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
• The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network is more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs/switches.

Hybrid Topology:
Explanation:
• A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing network
topologies. These topologies include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring
topology, star topology, and tree topology.

Representation:

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Advantages:
Reliable:
• It has far better fault tolerance. The section where fault is found could possibly be singled
out from the rest of network and required restorative steps could be taken, without
impacting the working of rest of the network.
Effective:
• The most important advantage of this topology is that the weakness of the different
topologies connected are disregarded and only the strengths are taken into consideration.
For instance, ring topology has good data reliability and star topology has high tolerance
capability, so these two functions quite well in hybrid star-ring topology.
Flexible:
• One of the key advantages of this topology is its flexibility. The topology is created, so
that it can be implemented for a variety of distinct network environment. Hybrid Network
can be created in line with the demands of the corporation and by maximizing the
available resources.

Dis-advantages:
Complexity:
• Due to the fact that different topologies connect in a hybrid topology, managing the
topology gets challenging. It’s not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a
difficult job for designers. Configuration and installation process need to be very
efficient.
Expensive:
• The network hubs needed for hybrid topology networking are costly to purchase and
maintain. The cost of this topology is higher in comparison to the other topologies. The
hubs used to connect two distinct networks are expensive.

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NETWORK TYPES:

LOCAL AREA NETWORK [LAN]:

• A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area.
Most often, a LAN is confined to a single room, building or group of buildings, however,
one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio
waves.
• A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some hosts in a
single office, building, or campus. Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can
be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video devices.
• Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address that uniquely defines the host in the
LAN. A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and the
destination host’s addresses.

• Representation:

Local area network.

• In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable, which meant
that a packet sent from one host to another was received by all hosts.
• The intended recipient kept the packet; the others dropped the packet.

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• Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to recognize the
destination address of the packet and guide the packet to its destination without sending it
to all other hosts.
• The switch alleviates the traffic in the LAN and allows more than one pair to
communicate with each other at the same time if there is no common source and
destination among them.

Examples of LAN:
• Home Network
• Office Network
• Personal Network

METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK [MAN]:

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• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local
area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN).
• The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger
network (which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide area network).
• It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks by bridging
them with backbone lines.
• MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers,
such as fiber optic cables.
• The working mechanism of a MAN is similar to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), but a
MAN is not owned by a single organization. Like a WAN, a MAN provides shared
network connections to its users.
• A MAN mostly works on the data link layer, which is Layer 2 of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.

WIDE AREA NETWORK [WAN]:

Representation:

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• A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale geographical area.
A WAN connects different smaller networks, including local area networks (LANs) and
metro area networks (MANs).
• This ensures that computers and users in one location can communicate with computers
and users in other locations. WAN implementation can be done either with the help of the
public transmission system or a private network.
• A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of
communication.
• A WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a state, a country, or even the
world.
• A WAN interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems.
• A WAN is normally created and run by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it.

Distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and switched WANs.

Point-to-Point WAN:
• A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices through a
transmission media (cable or air).

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Switched WAN:
• A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
• We can say that a switched WAN is a combination of several point-to-point WANs that
are connected by switches.
• As the name indicates, a switched WAN network is used to connect multiple end nodes
through a common WAN network. The end nodes connect to a switched WAN network
to either reach other nodes connected to the switched network or to connect to the public
Internet.
• X.25, Frame Relay, ATM, MPLS are examples of popular switched WAN protocols.
• All switched WAN networks work on the principle of VC (Virtual Circuit) based packet
switching.

Personal area network [PAN]:

• A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for interconnecting devices
centered on an individual person's workspace. A PAN provides data transmission among
devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets and personal digital assistants.
• PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves, or for
connecting to a higher-level network and the Internet where one master device takes up

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the role as gateway. A PAN may be wireless or carried over wired interfaces such as
USB.
• A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices
within the range of an individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters.
• For example, a person traveling with a laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), and a
portable printer could interconnect them without having to plug anything in, using some
form of wireless technology. Typically, this kind of personal area network could also be
interconnected without wires to the Internet or other networks.

Representation:

.
• Wireless personal area network (WPAN) which is virtually a synonym since almost
any personal area network would need to function wirelessly.
• Conceptually, the difference between a PAN and a wireless LAN is that the former tends
to be centered around one person while the latter is a local area network (LAN) that is
connected without wires and serving multiple users.

Internetwork:
• When two or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or internet.
• As an example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the
other on the west coast. Each office has a LAN that allows all employees in the office to
communicate with each other.
• To make the communication between employees at different offices possible, the
management leases a point-to-point dedicated WAN from a service provider, such as a
telephone company, and connects the two LANs.
• Now the company has an internetwork, or a private internet (with lowercase i).
Communication between offices is now possible.

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• When a host in the west coast office sends a message to another host in the same office,
the router blocks the message, but the switch directs the message to the destination.
• On the other hand, when a host on the west coast sends a message to a host on the east
coast, router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the packet reaches the destination.

Advantages of Networking:

1. It enhances communication and availability of information.

• Networking, especially with full access to the web, allows ways of
communication that would simply be impossible before it was developed.
• Instant messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to other
people wherever they are in the world, which is a huge boon for businesses.
2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing.
• This benefit is very important, particularly for larger companies that really need to
produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people.
• Since the technology involves computer-based work, it is assured that the
resources they wanted to get across would be completely shared by connecting to
a computer network which their audience is also using.
3. It makes file sharing easier.
• Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their files,
which greatly helps them with saving more time and effort, since they could do
file sharing more accordingly and effectively.
4. It boosts storage capacity.
• Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people, you
have to ensure all data and content are properly stored in the system.
• With this networking technology, you can do all of this without any hassle, while
having all the space you need for storage.

5. It is highly flexible.

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• This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the opportunity to

explore everything about essential things, such as software without affecting their
functionality. Plus, people will have the accessibility to all information they need
to get and share.

Types of network architecture:

Peer to Peer architecture:

• Peer-to-peer architecture (P2P architecture) is a commonly used computer
networking architecture in which each workstation, or node, has the same
capabilities and responsibilities.
• It is often compared and contrasted to the classic client/server architecture, in
which some computers are dedicated to serving others.
• P2P may also be used to refer to a single software program designed so that each
instance of the program may act as both client and server, with the same
responsibilities and status.
• P2P networks have many applications, but the most common is for content
distribution. This includes software publication and distribution, content delivery
networks, streaming media and peer casting for multicasting streams, which
facilitates on-demand content delivery.
• P2P architecture is often referred to as a peer-to-peer network.

• Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or
network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for
central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of
resources,
• In contrast to the traditional client-server model in which the consumption and supply of
resources is divided.

Client-Server Architecture:
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• Client/server architecture is a computing model in which the server hosts, delivers and
manages most of the resources and services to be consumed by the client.

• This type of architecture has one or more client computers connected to a central server
over a network or internet connection. This system shares computing resources.

• Client/server architecture is also known as a networking computing model or

client/server network because all the requests and services are delivered over a network.
• Client/server architecture is a producer/consumer computing architecture where the
server acts as the producer and the client as a consumer.
• The server houses and provides high-end, computing-intensive services to the client on
demand. These services can include application access, storage, file sharing, printer
access and/or direct access to the server’s raw computing power.

Transmission media/communication modes:

• Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer.
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information
from a source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for two people
having a dinner conversation is the air.
• The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a
written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.

• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. The
information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another
form.
• In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
guided and unguided.
• Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

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• Unguided medium is free space.

GUIDED MEDIA

• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical
limits of the medium.
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
• signals in the form of electric current.
• Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable:
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together, as shown.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and
crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.

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• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both
wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e.g., one is closer and the other is farther).
• This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise source and the other is
farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences
(noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference between
the two, receives no unwanted signals.
• The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. From the above discussion, it is clear that
the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the
cable.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable:

• The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded

twisted-pair (UTP).
• IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use, called shielded
twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each
pair of insulated conductors.
• Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of
noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded
twisted-pair cable into categories.

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Connectors:

• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as shown.

• The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Performance:
• One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation
versus frequency and distance.
Applications:
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
• The local loop—the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office—
commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

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Coaxial Cable:
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted
pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second
conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial Cable Standards:

• Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG
number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the
inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the
shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.

Coaxial Cable Connectors:

• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type
of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector.
• Three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, and
the BNC terminator.

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• The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.
• The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device.
• The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

Applications:
• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
• Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry
digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely
been replaced today with fiberoptic cable.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable.
• Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable;
hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer
premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
• Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs.

FIBER-OPTIC CABLE:

• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
• To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a
different density), the ray changes direction.

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• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is
surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving
through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

PROPAGATION MODES:

• Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating
light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics.
Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index.
• Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the
core in different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure
of the core.

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• In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to
the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
• At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this alters the angle of
the beam’s motion. The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
• Multimode graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable.
The word index here refers to the index of refraction. As we saw above, the index of
refraction is related to density.
• A graded index fiber, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the
center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

SINGLE-MODE:
• Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams
to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
• The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of
multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease
in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90° to make the propagation of
beams almost horizontal.
• Fiber Sizes Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the
diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.

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CABLE COMPOSITION:
• The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to
strengthen the cable.
• Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar
is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it
consists of cladding and core.

FIBER-OPTIC CABLE CONNECTORS:

• There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables. The subscriber channel (SC)
connector is used for cable TV.
• It uses a push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting
cable to networking devices.
• It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a connector that
is the same size as RJ45.

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APPLICATIONS:
• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is
cost-effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer
• data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus
creating a hybrid network. Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial
cable provides the connection to the user premises.
• This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement at the user
end does not justify the use of optical fiber.
• Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also
use fiber-optic cable.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER:

Advantages:
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial).
❑ Higher bandwidth: Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence
data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth
utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation
and
reception technology available.
❑ Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
❑ Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic
cables.
❑ Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
❑ Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
❑ Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than
copper cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

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UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

• Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.

• This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication.
• Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to
900 THz, used for wireless communication.

Radio Waves:
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

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• Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one
antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the
same frequency or band.
• Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because,
for example, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building.
• It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a
building. The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to the
microwave band. When this band is divided into sub-bands, the sub-bands are also
narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital communications.
• Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
• Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several
types of antennas.

Applications:
• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in
which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime
radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.

Microwaves:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

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• Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be

narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
• The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:

• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need
to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
• The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long
distance communication.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands can
be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Unidirectional Antenna:
• Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two
types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the
horn.

• A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to
the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines
intersect in a common point called the focus.
• The parabolic dish works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them
to a common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible
with a single-point receiver.

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• Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The microwaves
hit the dish and are deflected outward in a reversal of the receipt path.
• A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a
stem (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by
the curved head.
• Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner
similar to the parabolic dish, and are deflected down into the stem.

Applications:
• Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks, and wireless LANs.

Infrared:
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to
770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another; a
short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in
the next room.
• When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote
by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for
long-range communication.
• In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun’s
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications:
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.

ROUTER:
• A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
• A router is a physical or virtual appliance that passes information between two or more
packet-switched computer networks - analyzing a given data packet's destination IP
address, calculating the best way for it to reach that destination and then forwarding it
accordingly.
• A routing table often specifies a default route, which the router uses whenever it fails to
find a better forwarding option for a given packet. For example, the typical home office
router directs all outbound traffic along a single default route to its internet service
provider (ISP).

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• Data sent through the internet, such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets.
A packet is typically forwarded from one router to another router through the networks
that constitute an internetwork (e.g. the Internet) until it reaches its destination node.
• A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks. When a data
packet comes in on one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in
the packet to determine the ultimate destination.
• Then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the
next network on its journey.

SWITCH:
• A switch is a multi-port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency
(large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.
• Switch is data link layer device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding
data, that makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to correct port only.
• In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains
same.
• A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to process
and forward data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also
process data at the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing
functionality. Such switches are commonly known as layer-3 switches or multilayer
switches.
• A switch is more intelligent than an Ethernet hub, which simply retransmits packets out
of every port of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to
distinguish different recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency.
• A switch is a device in a computer network that connects other devices together. Multiple
data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different
networked devices.

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• Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a received network
packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended.
• Each networked device connected to a switch can be identified by its network address,
allowing the switch to direct the flow of traffic maximizing the security and efficiency of
the network.

HUB:
• A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words,
collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have
intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage.
Types of Hub:

• Active Hub: - These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can clean,
boost and relay the signal along the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as wiring
center. These are used to extend maximum distance between nodes.

• Passive Hub: - These are the hubs which collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting
them and can’t be used to extend distance between nodes.

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REPEATER:

• A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network.
• An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength. It is a 2-port device.

• A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the

network, repropagate a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes.
• Repeaters amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is
reusable, scalable and available.
• Repeaters were introduced in wired data communication networks due to the limitation of
a signal in propagating over a longer distance and now are a common installation in
wireless networks for expanding cell size.
• Repeaters are also known as signal boosters.

Classification of all the connecting devices:

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Gateway:
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may
work upon different networking models.
• They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it,
and transfer it to another system.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.
Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

Modem:
• Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator.
• is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example,
telephone or cable lines.
• Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone
lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two
forms.
• When an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices
called Data Terminal Equipment (DTE), modems are used at each end. DTE can be a
terminal or a computer.

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OSI-ISO REFERENCE MODEL:

• International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
• Almost three-fourths of the countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
• It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization; OSI is the model.

• An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and
software.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separates but
related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network
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Physical Layer (Layer 1):

• The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices.
• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices.
• When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are:

Bit synchronization:
• The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This
clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
Bit rate control:
• The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
Physical topologies:
• Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
Transmission mode:
• Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
*Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

• The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.

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• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address.
• Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
▪ Logical Link Control (LLC)
▪ Media Access Control (MAC)

• The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution

Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination
host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are:

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Framing:
• Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching
special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical addressing:
After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC address) of sender
and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error control:
Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.

• Flow Control:
The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
• Access control:
When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-layer of
data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
*Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
*Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines.
*Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer (Layer 3):

• Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer.

• The functions of the Network layer are:

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• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

*Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

• Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End delivery of the complete message.
• Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

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• At sender’s side:
• Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation
and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
• It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented
data to the Network Layer.
• Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s
application.
• Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually.
• For example, when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses
port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many
applications have default port assigned.

• At receiver’s side:
• Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application.
• It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are:

Segmentation and Reassembly:

• This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, breaks the message into smaller
units. Each of the segment produced has a header associated with it.
• The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing:
• In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header includes a type
of address called service point address or port address.
• Thus, by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered
to the correct process.

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The services provided by transport layer:

• Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include

– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
• In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
• Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this
type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
• This approach allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection
oriented Service is more reliable than connection less Service.

* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.

*Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates
with the Application Layer by making system calls.
*Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

Session Layer (Layer 5):

• This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.
• The functions of the session layer are:
o Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
Synchronization:
• This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as synchronization
points into the data.
• These synchronization point help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller:
• The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full-duplex.

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*All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP
model
as “Application Layer”.
*Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also
known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

• Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
• The functions of the presentation layer are:
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC. (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange, Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code).

Encryption/ Decryption:
• Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.

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• The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression:
• Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Application Layer (Layer 7):

• At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications.
• These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and
for displaying the received information to the user.

• Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

*Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are:

• Network Virtual Terminal
• FTAM-File transfer access and management
• Mail Services
• Directory Services

Summary of ISO/OSI Reference model.

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The interaction between layers in the OSI model:

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TCP/IP Model:

• The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to
describe the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication
procedure into smaller and simpler components.
• But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by Department
of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
• The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike
seven layers in the OSI model.
• The layers are:
▪ Process/Application Layer
▪ Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
▪ Internet Layer
▪ Network Access/Link Layer

1: Network Access Layer:

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.

2: Internet Layer:
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

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• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
• Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
• IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of
the entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

• IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.

The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to
provide internetwork routing.
• Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
• Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by
data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU).
• If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the
datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the local network.
• Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all
the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
• Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN,
WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant
network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the
IP datagram through various devices such as routers.

ARP Protocol:

• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
address.
• The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
• ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its

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physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both
to its cache memory and to the datagram header.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol
address (IP address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in the local
network. For example, in IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in use today, an
address is 32 bits long.
• In an Ethernet local area network, however, addresses for attached devices are 48 bits
long. (The physical machine address is also known as a Media Access Control or MAC
address.) A table, usually called the ARP cache, is used to maintain a correlation between
each MAC address and its corresponding IP address. ARP provides the protocol rules for
making this correlation and providing address conversion in both directions.

• In Information and communications technology,

• A Request for Comments (RFC) is a type of publication from the technology

community. RFCs may come from many bodies including from the

• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),

• The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF),

• The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) or from independent authors.

• The RFC system is supported by the Internet Society (ISOC).

How ARP Works:

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• When an incoming packet destined for a host machine on a particular local area network
arrives at a gateway, the gateway asks the ARP program to find a physical host or MAC
address that matches the IP address.
• The ARP program looks in the ARP cache and, if it finds the address, provides it so that
the packet can be converted to the right packet length and format and sent to the machine.
• If no entry is found for the IP address, ARP broadcasts a request packet in a special
format to all the machines on the LAN to see if one machine knows that it has that IP
address associated with it.
• A machine that recognizes the IP address as its own returns a reply so indicating. ARP
updates the ARP cache for future reference and then sends the packet to the MAC
address that replied.

*There is a Reverse ARP (RARP) for host machines that don't know their IP address. RARP
enables them to request their IP address from the gateway's ARP cache.

• The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is an obsolete computer networking

protocol used by a client computer to request its Internet Protocol (IPv4) address from a
computer network, when all it has available is its link layer or hardware address, such as
a MAC address.
• The client broadcasts the request and does not need prior knowledge of the network
topology or the identities of servers capable of fulfilling its request.
• RARP is described in Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) publication RFC 903.

ICMP Protocol:

• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

• It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
• A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is
unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a
device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the
sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
• ICMP is part of the Internet protocol suite as defined in RFC 792. ICMP messages are
typically used for diagnostic or control purposes or generated in response to errors in IP
operations (as specified in RFC 1122). ICMP errors are directed to the source IP address
of the originating packet.
• Many commonly used network utilities are based on ICMP messages. The trace route
command can be implemented by transmitting IP datagrams with specially set IP TTL
header fields, and looking for ICMP time exceeded in transit and Destination unreachable
messages generated in response.

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• The related ping utility is implemented using the ICMP echo request and echo reply
messages.

An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

• ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
• ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is responding
or not.
• The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them.
The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
• ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the
router that it is passed to.

3: Transport Layer:
• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data
which is being sent over the network.
• The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the
sender that user datagram has been damaged.
• UDP consists of the following fields:
• Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application program
that has created the message.
• Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the application
program that receives the message.
• Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
• Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
• UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):

• It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration
of the transmission.

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• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment,
and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the
frames to form an original message.
• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence
numbers.

4: Application Layer:
• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application
layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access
the data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio,
video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a
hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

• SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used
for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that
supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to
send the data to another e-mail address.

• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But people prefer to use the names instead
of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as
Domain Name System.

• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.

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