ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable

change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics
of any component of the environment (air, water, soil)
which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or
property.

Environmental pollution could be of various types:

1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Soil Pollution
4. Noise pollution
AIR POLLUTION
• Presence of certain substances in air in high concentrations and for long
duration to cause undesirable effects.

• These substances include

1. Gaseous pollutants-
• oxides of sulphur (mostly SO2, SO3)
• oxides of nitrogen (mostly NO and NO2 or NOx)
• carbon monoxide (CO)
• volatile organic compounds (mostly hydrocarbons) etc.

2. Particulate matter- Particulate pollutants include smoke, dust, soot,

fumes, aerosols, liquid droplets, pollen grains etc.

3. Radioactive substances- radon-222, iodine-131, strontium-90,

plutonium-239 etc.
Sources of Air Pollution
Natural Sources:
1. volcanic eruptions
2. forest fires
3. sea salt sprays
4. biological decay
5. photochemical oxidation of terpenes, marshes, extra terrestrial bodies
6. pollen grains of flowers and spores
7. Radioactive minerals present in the earth crust are the sources of radioactivity
in the atmosphere.
Man made sources:
1. thermal power plants
2. industrial units
3. vehicular emissions
4. fossil fuel burning
5. agricultural activities etc.
Classification of air pollutants

1. Primary pollutants: These are emitted directly from the point source.

Eg. CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, Particulate matter, hydrocarbons, radioactive
substances etc.

2. Secondary pollutants: These are formed by the interaction of primary

pollutants or with some natural constituents of atmosphere.

Eg. Ozone, Peroxyacetyl nitrite (PAN), Photochemical smog etc.

Indoor Air Pollution
Air pollutants generating inside the buildings, offices cause health hazards
may known as indoor air pollution

Major indoor air pollutants and their sources and effects

[Link] Indoor air Sources Effects

pollutants

1 Radon gas Building materials which are lung cancer

derived from soil containing
radium,
groundwater and natural gas
2 Sulphur dioxide Coal burning Respiratory disorders

3 Black soot Fossil fuel burning Respiratory disorders

4 Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of Reduces oxygen carrying

Fuels capacity of the blood

5 Benzo (a) pyrene Fuel wood and Cigarette smoke Carcinogenic

Effects of Air Pollution

1. On Human health

Years of exposure to air pollutants (including

cigarette smoke) adversely affect these
natural defenses and can result in.
-Lung cancer,
-Asthma,
-Chronic bronchitis (constriction of respiratory
passage)
-Emphysema (damage to air sacs leading to
loss of lung elasticity and acute shortness
of breath).
Suspended particulates (SPM) – damages lung tissues and cause diseases like asthma,
bronchitis and cancer.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) - causes bronchitis and in the presence of suspended

particulates, can form acid sulphate particles, which can go deep into the lungs and
affect them severely.

Oxides of nitrogen - especially NO2 can irritate the lungs and cause chronic bronchitis
and emphysema.

Carbon monoxide (CO) - causes suffocation. Long exposure to CO cause dizziness,

unconsciousness and even death.

Many other air pollutants like benzene (from unleaded petrol), and dioxins (from
burning of polythene) causes mutations, reproductive problems and even cancer.
2. Effects on Plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering through
stomata (leaf pores through which gases diffuse), destroy chlorophyll

and affect photosynthesis. Pollutants also erode waxy coating of the

leaves called cuticle. Cuticle prevents excessive water loss and damage
from diseases, pests, drought and frost.

Damage to leaf structure causes

▪ necrosis (dead areas of leaf),

▪ chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf)

▪ epinasty (downward curling of leaf), and

▪ abscission (dropping of leaves).

Particulates deposited on leaves can form encrustations and plug the

stomata. The damage can result in death of the plant.

3. Effects on materials:

➢ Particulates can cause damage to exposed surfaces

because of their corrosiveness.

➢ SO2 and moisture can accelerate corrosion of metallic

surfaces.

➢ SO2 can also affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble

and limestone.

➢ Ground level Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking

of rubber.

➢ Oxides of nitrogen can cause fading of cotton and rayon

fibres.
Control of Air Pollution: Air pollution can be minimized by the following
methods:
▪ Siting of industries after proper Environmental Impact Assessment
studies.
▪ Using low sulphur coal in industries
▪ Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help of bacteria)
▪ Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic
precipitators, bag-house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers etc.
▪ Vehicular pollution can be checked by
1. regular tune-up of engines
2. replacement of more polluting old vehicles
3. installing catalytic converters ; by engine modification to have fuel efficient
(lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions
4. slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission (Honda Technology).
•Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.

•Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen

gas).

•Using non-conventional sources of energy.

•Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.

•Planting more trees.

Pollutant National ambient air Quality Standards for India
(µg/m3)

Air Pollutant/Area Industrial area Residential rural Sensitive area

& other areas

Sulphur dioxide 120 80 30

Nitrogen dioxide 120 80 30

Total SPM 500 200 100

REDUCTION AIR POLLUTION AT SOURCE

Gaseous pollutants: these can be reduced by physical adsorption on

porous solid materials like activated charcoal, silica gel etc.

Effluent gases can be absorbed in liquid absorbent, e.g. SO2 absorbed in

ammonia solution.

Particulate matter: Many devices are available choice of which depends

on characteristics of PM, flow rate, collection efficiency and cost.

Major devices using to control Particulate matter are as below

1. Cyclone separator

2. Baghouse filter

3. Wet scrubber

4. Electrostatic precipitator
1. CYCLONE SEPARATOR:

➢ It consists of a cylinder with an inverted cone

attached at the bottom

➢ The gas with particles in it enters tangentially

at the top of the cylinder and spins forming a
vortex.

➢ Due to centrifugal force, the particles strikes

the wall of the cylinder and then fall in the
hopper by gravity.

➢ The spinning gas forms an inner vortex and

leaves from the top.
2. BAGHOUSE FILTER

➢ A baghouse filter contains a large number of

bags made of fabric.

➢They are hung upside down in and dirty gas is

allowed to pass through the pores of the filter
bags.

➢ the dust particles get deposited on the inner

surface of the bag and may form a cake which
can be removed by mechanical shaking

➢ The device is very efficient in removal of very

small particles
3. WET SCRUBBER:

➢ Dirty gas is passed through water in

the chamber or water is sprayed on
the gas.

➢ Particles are made wet and are

removed from the gas stream which
leaves from the top of the scrubber.

➢ Wet scrubber are very efficient in

removal of particulates as well as
toxic and acidic gases.
4. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR:

➢ Vertical wires are placed between the parallel

plates and high negative current is applied to the
wire.

➢Dust particles while passing from the lower end get

negatively charged and collected on the positively
charged plates surface while clean gas leave from
the top.

➢The deposited dust particles fall down in the dust

(d) Electrostatic precipitator

collector or are removed by scrapping.

➢Electrostatic precipitator can efficiently remove

even submicroscopic particles.
 Water pollution

Water pollution can be defined physical,

as alteration in

chemical or biological characteristics

of water making it unsuitable for designated use in its natural state.
Water quality parameters

 Physical
 Suspended solid (SS), color, taste, odour, temp.
Turbidity
 Chemical
 Electrical conductivity (EC),pH,alkalinity, hardness,
fluoride, heavy metal, organic compound, nutrient
(nitrogen & phosphorus), biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand
(COD),Sulfates.
 Biology
 Bacteria, virus, protozoa
Water quality parameters:
Measurement

 Electrical conductivity is measured using a conductivity meter by

immersing a probe in the water sample. It indicates the ionic
content of water and is expressed in µS/cm, usually standardized
at 25°C.

TS, TSS, TDS

Water quality parameters:
Measurement

 Spectrophotometers (UV-Vis):
A sample is placed in a cell and light absorbance is measured at
specific wavelengths (e.g., 455 nm or 436, 525, 620 nm) to quantify
color intensity.
 Tintometer/Colorimeters:
Devices like the Tintometer or Lovibond use visual or electronic
comparisons against colored discs or standards to determine the
Pt–Co value.
 Visual Comparison (Platinum-Cobalt Method):
Samples are compared with known Pt-Co standards.
SOURCES OF WATER
POLLUTION
 Sewage: Pouring the drains and sewers in fresh
water bodies causes water pollution. The problem is
severe in cities.

 Industrial effluents: Industrial wastes containing

toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols,
cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances, etc. are
sources of water pollution. They also cause thermal
(heat) pollution of water.
SOURCES OF WATER
POLLUTION

 Synthetic detergents: Synthetic detergents used in

washing and cleaning produce foam and pollute
water. (Belandur)

 Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers

(containing nitrates and phosphates) and pesticides
(insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by
rain-water and surface run-off pollute water.
SOURCES OF WATER
POLLUTION

➢ Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during drilling

and shipment pollute it.

➢ Waste heat: Waste heat from industrial

discharges increases the temperature of water
bodies and affects distribution and survival of
sensitive species.
 Effects of Water Pollution

Following are some important effects of various types of water

pollutants:

❑ Oxygen demanding wastes: Organic matter which

reaches water bodies is decomposed by micro-organisms
present in water. For this degradation oxygen dissolved in
water is consumed.

Lower DO may be harmful to animals especially fish

population. Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) helps in release
of phosphates from bottom sediments and causes
eutrophication.
❑ Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds (Nutrients):
Addition of compounds containing nitrogen and
phosphorus helps in the growth of algae and other
macrophytic plants leads to eutrophication.

❑Pathogens: Many wastewaters especially sewage contain

many pathogenic (disease causing) and non-pathogenic
micro-organisms and many viruses. Water borne diseases
like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice etc. are spread by
water contaminated with sewage.

❑Toxic Compounds: Pollutants such as heavy metals,

pesticides (DDT), cyanides like inorganic compounds are
harmful to organisms tend to accumulate in the organism’s
body. This process is called bioaccumulation. The
concentration of these toxic substances builds up at
successive levels of food chain. This process is called
biomagnification.
❑ Some heavy metals like lead, mercury and cadmium
cause various types of diseases.

Mercury- Minamata
Cadmium – Itai Itai

❑ Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes

blue baby syndrome or methaemoglobinemia.

❑ Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in

teeth and bones called fluorosis.
 CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

 Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides

and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-
off and leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped
lands.

 Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement

the use of fertilizers.

 Adopting integrated pest management to

reduce reliance on pesticides.
➢ Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin
for settlement. The nutrient rich water can be used as
fertilizer in the fields.

➢ Separate drainage of sewage and rainwater should be

provided to prevent overflow of sewage with rainwater.

➢ Planting trees would reduce pollution by sediments and

will also prevent soil erosion.

➢ For controlling water pollution from point sources,

treatment of wastewaters is essential before being
discharged.
 Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution can be defined as presence of waste heat

in the water which can cause undesirable changes in the
natural environment.
Sources:
Heat producing industries i.e.,
1. thermal power plants,
2. nuclear power plants,
3. refineries,
4. steel mills etc.
Effects of Thermal
Pollution
 The dissolved oxygen content of water is decreased as
the solubility of oxygen in water is decreased at high
temperature.

 Toxicity of pesticides, detergents and chemicals in the

effluents increases with increase in temperature.

 The composition of flora and fauna changes because

the species sensitive to increased temperature due to
thermal shock will be replaced by temperature tolerant
species.
Effects of Thermal Pollution

 Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase at

high temperature and require more oxygen, whereas
oxygen level falls under thermal pollution.

 Discharge of heated water near the shores can disturb

spawning and can even kill young fishes.

 Fish migration is affected due to formation of various

thermal zones.
Control of Thermal Pollution:

The following methods can be employed

for control of thermal pollution:

(i) Cooling ponds

(ii) Spray Ponds
(iii) Cooling towers
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Lecture-24
INTRODUCTION TO WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid Waste – objects or particles that accumulate on the
site where they are produced.
All wastes from human and animal activities that are
normally solid and discarded as useless or unwanted
Municipal Solid Waste (Garbage) amounts to 230 million
tons in U.S. annually.
THREE CLASSES OF SOLID WASTE

➢ Municipal wastes

➢ Industrial wastes

➢ Hazardous wastes
Type Example Source
Municipal food wastes, rubbish, residential, commercial,
ashes and residues, open areas, treatment
demolition and plants
construction wastes,
special wastes, treatment
plant wastes

Industrial rubbish, ashes, demolition metal finishing shop,

and construction wastes photo laboratory,
electroplating shop, paint
shop, automobile
manufacturing plant, etc
Hazardous wastes that are ignitable, hospitals and biological
corrosive, react with other research facilities, nuclear
materials, or are toxic power plants, etc
CLASSES OF SOLID WASTE
Solid waste can be broadly classified into municipal, industrial, and hazardous categories based on their
source, composition, and potential risk.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) refers to the waste generated from everyday human activities in residential,
commercial, and public areas. It includes food wastes, rubbish such as paper, plastics, and glass, ashes and
residues from domestic fuel use, as well as demolition and construction wastes and other special wastes
from treatment plants. These wastes are typically collected from households, markets, offices, streets, and
open areas. Municipal waste is largely a mixture of biodegradable and non-biodegradable materials,
and its proper management involves segregation, recycling, composting, and sanitary landfilling.

Industrial waste is produced from various industrial and manufacturing processes. It includes materials such
as rubbish, ashes, and demolition and construction wastes generated during production and maintenance
activities. Common sources include metal finishing shops, electroplating units, photo laboratories, paint
shops, and automobile manufacturing plants. Industrial waste can be solid, liquid, or semi-solid and may
contain chemicals, heavy metals, and other pollutants. Depending on its nature, it may require specialized
treatment methods such as chemical treatment, recycling, or secure disposal.

Hazardous waste consists of wastes that are dangerous or potentially harmful to human health and the
environment. These wastes may be ignitable (easily flammable), corrosive (capable of damaging materials
or tissues), reactive (able to explode or produce toxic gases), or toxic (harmful when inhaled, ingested, or
absorbed). Typical sources include hospitals, biological research facilities, nuclear power plants, and
certain industries. Due to their high risk, hazardous wastes require strict handling, storage, transportation,
and disposal procedures, often involving incineration or disposal in specially designed secure landfills.

In summary, understanding these classes of solid waste helps in adopting appropriate management and
disposal techniques to ensure environmental safety and public health.
Management of Solid Waste:
Functional Elements of SWM
1. Waste Generation
2. On-site Handling & Segregation
 Source segregation: Wet, Dry, Hazardous

3. Collection
 Door-to-door collection systems

4. Transfer & Transport

 Use of transfer stations for efficiency

5. Processing & Treatment

6. Final Disposal
SWM: A NOTE
Solid Waste Management (SWM) refers to the systematic collection, transportation, treatment, and
disposal of solid waste in a way that minimizes environmental and health impacts.

Solid waste includes household garbage, industrial waste, agricultural waste, biomedical waste, and
construction debris. With rapid urbanization and population growth, managing waste has become a
critical environmental challenge.

The process of SWM involves several key steps. First is collection, where waste is gathered from
homes, industries, and public places. This is followed by segregation, where waste is separated into
biodegradable (organic) and non-biodegradable (plastic, metal, glass) categories. Proper
segregation at the source is essential for effective waste handling.

Next is transportation, where collected waste is moved to treatment or disposal sites. Treatment
methods include recycling, where materials like paper, plastic, and metal are reprocessed;
composting, where organic waste is converted into manure; and incineration, where waste is
burned to reduce volume and sometimes generate energy.

Finally, waste that cannot be reused or treated is disposed of in sanitary landfills, which are
designed to minimize pollution of soil and groundwater.

Effective solid waste management helps in reducing pollution, conserving natural resources,
preventing the spread of diseases, and maintaining a clean environment. The concept of the 3Rs—
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle—plays a crucial role in sustainable waste management.

In conclusion, proper solid waste management is essential for environmental protection, public health,
and sustainable development.
For waste management we stress on ‘three R’s’-Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
before disposal.

1. Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw materials

will correspondingly decrease the production of waste.

2. Reuse of waste materials: The refillable containers which are discarded

after use can be reused. Villagers make casseroles and silos from waste
paper and other waste materials.

3. Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials

into new useful products.
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

For discarding wastes the following methods can be adopted:

Sanitary landfill: In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers,

compacted and covered with clay or plastic foam.

Composting: Due to shortage of space for landfill in bigger cities, the

biodegradable yard waste (kept separate from the municipal waste) is
allowed to degrade or decompose in an oxygen rich medium,
Vermicomposting: Uses earthworms ,Produces nutrient-rich compost

Incineration: Incinerators are burning plants capable of burning a large

amount of materials at high temperature.
 METHODS OF WASTE DISPOSAL

Landfills
Incineration
Composting
Source reduction
Recycling
 LANDFILLING

⚫ Most of municipal solid

waste disposing in
landfills.
⚫ There is a chance of
groundwater pollution
⚫ Number of municipal
landfills is declining.
⚫ Some closed for
violations, other
because full.
⚫ New landfills costly and
often resisted.
REDUCING THE NUMBER OF LANDFILLS
 INCINERATION

Pros:
 Reduce volume 90%, weight
75%
 Heat from burning converted
to electricity

Cons:
 Create air pollution
 Concentrates toxins in ash
 More costly than landfills, as
long as space available
 COMPOSTING

Harnessing natural
decomposition to transform
organic material into compost
 SOURCE REDUCTION

Most fundamental method of reducing waste is to prevent it from

being produced (Waste Prevention).

Reduce and reuse – Individuals and Industry

 Saves natural resources.
 Reduces waste toxicity
 Reduces costs
 RECYCLING

Benefits

 Saves money, raw materials, and land.

 Encourages individual responsibility.

 Reduces pressure on disposal systems.

 Japan recycles about half of all household and commercial wastes.

 Lowers demand for raw resources.

 Reduces energy consumption and air pollution.

WHAT CAN YOU DO?

Buy durable items and repair them

Buy recycled goods and recycle them

Buy beverages in refillable containers

Rechargeable batteries

Choose items with minimal packaging & reduce number of bags

used

Compost food waste and use it as manure

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES
(INDIA)

Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change introduced Solid

Waste Management Rules, 2016
Key features:
 Source segregation mandatory
 Waste generators responsible
 Inclusion of informal sector (ragpickers)
 Scientific disposal methods required
Climate change, global warming and
green house gases
 CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate is the average weather of an area.

It is the average of weather conditions, seasonal variations and extremes

of weather in a region over a long period- at least 30 years is called
climate.

 The increased global warming decreases the energy available to

the heat engine that drives the global weather machine.

 This will disturb the global pattern of winds and ocean currents as
well as the timing and distribution of rainfall.

 Shifting of ocean currents may change the climate of subpolar and

polar regions.

 By a temperature increase of 1.5 to 4.5°C the global hydrological

cycle is expected to intensify by 5 to 10%.

 Disturbed rainfall will result in some areas becoming wetter and the
others drier.
 Green House Effect
 Troposphere, the lowermost layer of the atmosphere,
traps heat by a natural process due to the presence of
certain gases called Green House Effect.

 Green House Effect is similar to the warming effect

observed in the horticultural green house made of glass.

 The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends

mostly on the

 concentrations of heat trapping green house gases and

 the length of time they stay in the atmosphere.

 The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of green house
gases this temperature would have been –18°C.

 Therefore, Green House Effect contributes a temperature rise to the

tune of 33°C

 Heat trapped by green house gases in the atmosphere keeps the

planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist.

 The two predominant green house gases are water vapour, which is
controlled by hydrological cycle, and carbon dioxide, which is
controlled by the global carbon cycle.
Major green house gases

 Carbon dioxide
 ozone
 methane
 nitrous oxide
 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Sulfur hexafluoride and
 Water vapour
GHGs Source Present conc. Increasing Persistent Contribution
rate time towards GW (%)
Carbon fossil fuel burning (67%) 400ppm 1.5ppm/Yr 500Yrs 52
dioxide land clearing and
burning (33%)
Chlorofluoro air conditioners and 0.00225 ppm 0.5% per Yr 10-15Yrs 24
carbons refrigerators, evaporation
(CFCs) of industrial solvents,
production of plastic
foams, aerosols,
propellants
Methane swamps, natural 1.675ppm 1% per Yr 7-10Yrs 18
(CH4) wetlands, paddy fields,
landfills and digestive
tracts of cattle, sheep
and termites.
Nitrous burning of biomass and 0.3ppm 0.2% per Yr 140-190Yrs 6
Oxide (N2O) nitrogen rich fuels
Enhanced green house effect
Due to anthropogenic activities there is an
increase in the concentration of the
greenhouse gases in the air.

GHGs absorb infra-red light containing heat

and results in the re-radiation of thermal
infra-red energy.

Thereby increasing the average surface

temperature beyond 15°C. The
phenomenon is referred to as the
enhanced green house effect.

Increasing global ideal temperature due to

green house effect is called as global
warming.
Impacts of Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

1. Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean temperature will
rise between 1.5 to 5.5°C by 2050.

2. Rise in Sea Level: With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand.
Heating will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level,
which results inundation of coastal cities.

3. Effects on Human Health: The global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall
pattern in many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like
malaria, filariasis, elephantiasis etc.

4. Effects on Agriculture: Soil moisture will decrease and evapotranspiration will

increase, which may drastically affect wheat and maize production. Increase in
temperature and humidity will increase pest growth . Pests will adapt to such
changes better than the crops.
Measures to Check Global Warming

(i) Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel.

(ii) Use energy more efficiently.

(iii) Shift to renewable energy resources.

(iv) Increase Nuclear Power Plants for electricity production.

(v ) Shift from coal to natural gas.

(vi) Trap and use methane as a fuel.

(vii) Reduce beef production.

(viii) Adopt sustainable agriculture.

(ix) Stabilize population growth.

(x) Efficiently remove CO2 from smoke stacks.

(xi) Plant more trees.

(xii) Remove atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photosynthetic algae.

ACID RAIN AND OZONE DEPLETION
 Acid rain
 Rain water turns acidic when its pH falls below 5.6.

 In fact clean or natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20°C because of formation

of carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water.

 Rain fall with less than pH 5.6 at 20°C due to sulphuric acid and nitric acid

is known as acid rain.

 SO2 and NO2 in the atmosphere in presence of moisture (water vapour)

converted into their respective acids.

SOx + H2O → H2SO4 NOx + H2O → HNO3

 Hydrogen chloride and carbonic acid also contribute to make rain water acidic
Dry and Wet deposition
In India acid rain is recorded from certain places:

Name of place pH of rainwater

 Kodaikanal 5.18

 Minicoy 5.52

 Mohanbari (Assam) 5.50

Effects of Acid rain

 It causes deterioration of buildings especially made of marble e.g.

monuments like Taj Mahal. Crystals of calcium and magnesium

sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid rain.

 It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy

have been partially dissolved by acid rain.

 It damages metals and car finishes.

 Aquatic life especially fishes are badly affected by lake acidification.

 Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium,

mercury, manganese, zinc and lead which seepages from the surrounding

rocks due to acid rain.

 It results in reproductive failure and killing of fish.

 Many lakes of Sweden, Norway, Canada have become fishless due to acid

rain.

 It damages foliage and weakens trees.

 It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature,

drought, etc.
Control of Acid Rain

 Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants

should be reduced by using pollution control equipment.

 Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the

adverse effects of acid rain.

 A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given

in the interior of water pipes for drinking water.
 Ozone Depletion

 Natural sunscreen at the height of 16 to 24 km in the stratosphere of

around 10 ppm concentration called as ozone layer.

 This layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sunlight and
thus protects various life forms on the earth.

 Formation of Ozone:

 O2 + hν → O● + O● [Ozone is formed by photochemical reaction]

 O● + O2 → O3

[atomic oxygen reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone]

Ozone hole

 Decreasing ozone concentration by reactive atoms of chlorine,

bromine etc., resulting thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone

hole.

 Ozone depleting chemicals

 Chloro Fluro carbon (CFC)[Used in refrigerators, propellent, spray cans, blowing

agent, foam agent]

 Hydro chloro fluoro carbon (HCFC) [Used in refrigerants, blowing agents]

 Bromo fluoroCarbon (BFC)[ Used in fire extinguisher].

 Nitrous oxide N2O [emissions of supersonic aircrafts, combustion of fossil fuel

and use of nitrogen fertilizers]

Mechanism of Ozone layer  In 1970 it was found that ozone
depletion: layer was attacked by CFCs
 CF2Cl2 + hν → Cl + CF2Cl  Each Chlorine atom attacks ozone
 Cl + O3 → ClO + O2 molecule.
 ClO + O● → Cl + O2  Loss in ozone increases the UV
radiation reaching the earth
surface.
Effects of ozone depletion

 On human health – Skin cancer, Non melanine skin cancer, slow

blindness called keratitis, cataracts, Allergies, reduces human
resistivity, infectious diseases etc.

 On aquatic systems- Affects phyto plankton which absorb more

CO2, affects fish, larval crabs

 On materials- Degradation of paints, plastics, & other polymeric

material result in economic loss.

 On climate – increasing the average temperature of the earth

surface & cause global warming.
Ozone measurement:

▪ The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by ‘Dobson

Spectrometer’ and is expressed in Dobson units (DU).

▪ One DU is equivalent to a 0.01 mm thickness of pure ozone

▪ Normally over temperate latitude - 350 DU, over tropics - 250 DU.
whereas at subpolar regions it is on an average 450 DU.

▪ It is because of the stratospheric winds which transport ozone

from tropical towards polar regions.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Environment Impact Assessment

What is EIA?

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process of assessing the likely

environmental impacts of a project proposal/developmental work and
identifying options to minimize environmental damage.

u The main purpose of EIA is to inform decision makers on likely impacts

of a proposal before a decision is made.

u EIA provides an opportunity to identify key issues and stakeholders

early in the stage of a proposal, so that potentially adverse impacts can
be addressed before final approval decisions are made.
The EIA should identify, describe and assess the direct and indirect

effects of a project on the following factors:

u Human beings

u Fauna and flora

u Soil, Water & Air

u Climate and the landscape

u Material Assets

u Cultural Heritage

u Interaction between all above factors

Why EIA?

EIA is intended to prevent or minimize potentially adverse environmental impacts and enhance the
overall quality of a project.

The main benefits and advantages of EIA are:

u Lower project costs in the long-term

u Increased project acceptance

u Improved project design

u Informed decision making

u Environmentally sensitive decisions

u Increased accountability and transparency

u Reduced environmental damage

u Improved integration of projects into their environmental and social settings

Which type of projects under go EIA?
u Agriculture

u Construction (Road networks, Malls, Townships, Dam etc)

u Industries

u Electrical projects

u Waste disposal

u Any developmental projects around Protected Areas / Nature reserves

u Clean Development Mechanism CDM projects

History of EIA in India

u Started in 1976-77, when Planning Commission asked Department of Science & Technology
to examine River Valley Projects from environmental angle

u Till 1994, Environmental Clearance from Central Government was an administrative

decision which lacked legislative support.

u On 27th January 1994, Union Ministry of Environment & Forests, GOI under Environment
(Protection) Act 1986, promulgated EIA notification making Environment clearance
mandatory for expansion or modernization of any activity or for setting up new
projects listed in Schedule one of the notification,

u This EIA notification have been amended more than 12 times.

EIA Clearance required
Total EIA clearance is required for 32 categories of developmental works broadly categorized
into following industrial sectors:

u Mining

u Thermal power plant

u River valley

u Infrastructure (Road, highway, ports, harbour, airports

u Industries including very small electroplating or foundry units

u Certain activities permissible under Coastal Regulation Zone Act 1991, also
require similar clearance
Major steps in the EIA process are:

u Screening

u Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

u Scoping

u Impact analysis

u Mitigation

u EIA Review and

u Decision Making
Screening
u It would be time consuming and a waste of resources for all proposed
projects and activities to undergo EIA

u Not all development projects require an EIA, as some projects may not
pose an environmental threat

u Screening is the process used to determine whether a proposed project

or activity requires an EIA and, if so, what level of environmental review

is necessary
Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)
u Describes the proposed project or activity and examines alternatives

u Identifies and addresses community concerns to extent possible

u Identifies and assesses potential environmental effects

u Directs future action

Scoping
A process of interaction between government agencies and project proponents

It Identifies:

u spatial and temporal boundaries for the EIA

u important issues and concern

u information necessary for decision making

u significant effects and factors to be considered

Impact analysis
u It involves characterizing the impact in terms of its likely nature, spatial and temporal
distribution, duration, frequency, reversibility and magnitude.

u Finally a judgment must be made as to whether the impact is likely to be significant or

not.

u A large number of impact analysis techniques exist and can be quantitative or

qualitative.

u Quantitative techniques tend to involve a prescriptive method being set out and
followed whereas qualitative techniques rely less upon a prescribed method instead
relying heavily upon professional judgment.
EIA Impact Analysis Methods

u Checklists
u Matrices
Qualitative
u Networks
u Overlays/GIS

u Expert Systems
Quantitative
u Risk Assessment
 Checklist

Checklists are comprehensive lists of environmental effects and

impact indicators designed to stimulate the analyst to think broadly
about possible consequences of contemplated actions

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
u Simple to understand and use u Does not distinguish between direct
and indirect impacts
u Good for site selection and priority u Does not link action and impact
setting u Qualitative
 Matrices
Matrices are two-dimensional tables which facilitate the
identification of impacts arising from the interaction between
project activities and specific environmental components

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
u Link action to impact u Difficult to distinguish
direct and indirect
impacts
u Good method for u Significant potential for
displaying EIA results double-counting of
impacts
u Qualitative
 Networks
Network is an alternative for illustrating the secondary and
subsequent effects of action on environmental elements. The aim is to
construct a network tracing such effects.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
u Link action to impact u Can become overly complex if
u Useful in simplified form used beyond simplified version
in checking for second
order impacts u Qualitative
u Handles direct and
indirect impacts
 Overlays
1. An effective visual aid
2. Useful as documentation of environmental conditions existing
before project implementation
3. May describe both biophysical and social aspects of area
under study

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
u Easy to understand and u Address only direct impacts
use u Does not address impact duration
u Good display method or probability
u Good for site selection
setting
 Expert Systems

Expert systems are man/machine systems that perform problem-

solving tasks in a specific domain
Example
Software predicting air pollution dispersion based on emission data
Reduces subjectivity and improves reliability

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
u Excellent for impact u Heavy reliance on
identification and analysis knowledge and data
u Good for experimenting u Often complex and
u Semi-quantitative to expensive
quantitative
 Risk Assessment
2. Key Components of Risk Assessment
a) Hazard Identification
u Identify possible sources of harm
(e.g., chemical spills, air pollution, explosions)
b) Exposure Assessment
u Determine who or what is exposed and to what extent
(humans, water bodies, soil, flora/fauna)
c) Dose-Response Assessment
u Relationship between level of exposure and impact severity
d) Risk Characterization
u Combine probability and consequences
u Final output: quantified risk level
u Risk = Probability × Consequence
u This is the fundamental concept:
u Probability → Chance of occurrence of an event
u Consequence → Severity of its impact
u This allows risks to be expressed numerically or semi-
numerically.

•Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

•Event Tree Analysis (ETA)

•Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA)

•Simulation models (dispersion, toxicity models)

FTA and ETA

u FTA is a top-down approach ETA is a forward (bottom-up) approach

used to identify the causes of a that analyzes possible outcomes after
system failure. an initiating event.
u Concept Concept
u Start with an undesired event u Start with an event (e.g., pipeline
(e.g., gas leak) and trace all rupture) and evaluate different
possible causes using logical scenarios depending on system
gates (AND/OR). responses (success/failure).
Use in EIA Use in EIA
u Identifies root causes of u Predicts accident consequences
accidents
u Evaluates effectiveness of safety
u Helps improve system design systems
and safety u Answers: “What happens after this
u Answers: “Why can this failure event?”
happen?”
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA)

QRA is a comprehensive method that numerically

evaluates risk by combining probability and
consequences.
Concept
u Risk = Probability × Consequence
u Uses data from FTA, ETA
Use in EIA
u Calculates individual and societal risk
u Generates risk contours/maps
u Helps in regulatory decision-making
u Answers: “How much risk is acceptable?”
Dispersion and Toxicity Models
These are mathematical/computer models used to predict how
pollutants behave in the environment.

Types
•Dispersion models → Track spread of pollutants in air/water
•Toxicity models → Assess impact on humans and ecosystems

Use in EIA
•Predict concentration levels of pollutants
•Assess health/environmental impacts
•Support mitigation planning

Answers: “Where will the pollutant go and how harmful will it be?”
Mitigation
Mitigation refers to measures taken to avoid, reduce, or compensate
for negative environmental impacts identified during EIA.
Types of Mitigation Measures

u Avoidance → Change project design/location to prevent impact

u Minimization → Reduce intensity (e.g., pollution control devices)
u Restoration → Repair affected environment (e.g., reforestation)
u Compensation → Offset impacts (e.g., afforestation for forest loss)
Example

u Installing air filters in industries

u Noise barriers along highways
u Wastewater treatment systems
u Outcome: Reduced environmental damage and improved
sustainability
EIA Review
This stage involves a critical evaluation of the EIA report by experts and
authorities.
Purpose
u Check accuracy and completeness of the study
u Ensure all impacts are properly assessed
u Verify adequacy of mitigation measures
Who Conducts It
u Regulatory bodies
u Expert committees
u Sometimes public stakeholders (public hearing)
Key Questions
u Are all environmental aspects covered?
u Are predictions reliable?
u Are mitigation measures sufficient?
u Outcome: Approval, rejection, or request for revisions
Decision Making
This is the final step, where authorities decide whether the project should
proceed.
Possible Decisions
u Approved (with or without conditions)
u Approved with modifications

u Rejected

Basis for Decision

u EIA report findings

u Review outcomes

u Environmental regulations

u Public concerns
Key Aspects

u Often includes conditions like:

u Pollution limits
u Monitoring requirements
u Compliance with environmental laws

u Outcome: Official clearance or denial of the project

 Disaster
Management
Earthquakes
Floods
Landslides &
Cyclones
DISASTER MANAGEMENT

 Geological processes like earthquakes, volcanoes, floods and

landslides are normal natural events which have resulted in the
formation of the earth that we have today.

 They are, however, disastrous in their impacts when they affect

human settlements.

 Human societies have witnessed a large number of such natural

hazards in different parts of the world and have tried to learn to
control these processes, to some extent.
How Earthquake occurs?
 Earthquakes occur due to sudden movements of earth’s crust.

 The earth’s crust has several tectonic plates of solid rock which slowly
move along their boundaries.

 When friction prevents these plates from slipping, stress builds up and
results in sudden fractures which can occur along the boundaries of
the plates or fault lines (planes of weakness) within the plates.

 This causes earthquakes, the violent, short-term vibrations in the

earth.

 The point on a fault at which the first movement occurs during an

earthquake is called the epicenter.
Hypocenter
The severity of an earthquake is generally measured by its
magnitude on Richter Scale, as shown below:

Richter Scale Severity of

earthquake
Less than 4 Insignificant
4 - 4.9 Minor
5 - 5.9 Damaging
6 - 6.9 Destructive
7 - 7.9
Major
More than 8
Great
A seismograph is a scientific instrument used to detect and record ground
motion, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and underground explosions.
It consists of a seismometer (sensor) to detect movement and a recording
system to log data, often producing a graphical record known as a seismogram
Anthropogenic activities cause or enhance the frequency of
earthquakes are:

(a) Impoundment of huge quantities of water in the lake behind a big dam.

(b) Under ground nuclear testing.

(c) Deep well disposal of liquid waste.

Earthquake causes tsunamis
❑ Earthquake-generated water waves called tsunamis can severely affect
coastal areas.

❑ These massive sea waves can move at a speed upto 1000 Km/hr or even
faster.

❑ While approaching the sea shore they may often reach 15 m or sometimes
upto 65 m in height and cause immense devastation in coastal areas.

❑ In China such waves killed 8,30,000 people in 1556 and 50,000 in 1976.

❑ In 2004, the devastating Tsunami killed at least 225,000 people across a

dozen countries, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Maldives, and Thailand
 Disaster Management

Disaster Management can be defined as

the organization and management of
resources and responsibilities for dealing
with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in
particular preparedness, response and reco
very in order to lessen the impact of
disasters.
EARTHQUAKES
A .Earthquake Resistant Construction
Techniques for New Structures

 Earthquake-resistant construction aims to ensure that buildings can

withstand seismic forces without collapse, thereby protecting human
life and minimizing structural damage. In India, the guidelines for
seismic-resistant construction are provided by the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) and the Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS) through codes such as IS 1893, IS 4326, and IS 13920.

1. Simple and Symmetrical Building Configuration

 Buildings should have Simple rectangular plans, uniform mass and
stiffness distribution, symmetrical layout.
 Irregular shapes such as: L-shaped ,T-shaped , U-shaped buildings
create stress concentration and torsional effects during earthquakes.
Buildings should avoid sudden changes in: Height , Stiffness , Geometry
2. Strong Foundation Design
 The foundation transfers seismic loads safely to the ground.
 Important practices include Providing continuous foundations , Tying all
footings with plinth beams , Designing foundations according to seismic
zone . For weak soils, use raft foundations , pile foundations to improve
stability.
3. Use of Reinforced Concrete (RC) Frames
 Modern earthquake-resistant buildings commonly use
Reinforced cement concrete frames ,Steel frames
 RC frame structures perform better because they can
absorb and dissipate earthquake energy.
4. Shear Walls
 Shear walls are vertical RC walls provided to resist
lateral earthquake forces.
 Features: Increase lateral stiffness , Reduce building
sway, Improve overall stability
 They are commonly used in:
1. High-rise buildings
2. Multi-storey apartments
3. Hospitals and important structures
5. Seismic Bands in Masonry Buildings
 Masonry buildings should include reinforced concrete
bands at different levels.
 These include Plinth band , Lintel band , Roof band
Functions:
 Tie the building together
 Improve integrity
 Prevent wall separation during shaking

6. Horizontal and Vertical Reinforcement

 In masonry structures, Vertical steel bars are provided
at corners and junctions, Horizontal reinforcement
improves wall stability
These reinforcements help resist shear failure , diagonal
cracking and wall collapse
7. Lightweight Construction Materials
 Heavy structures attract larger seismic forces.
Therefore, Lightweight roofing materials , Lightweight
partition walls , Lightweight cladding systems are
preferred in earthquake-prone areas.

8. Base Isolation and Energy Dissipation Systems

 Advanced earthquake-resistant buildings may use Base
isolators , Shock absorbers , Dampers
These systems: Reduce transmission of earthquake
vibrations , Improve building performance
B. Seismic Strengthening and Retrofitting
of Lifeline and Priority Structures

 Many buildings and infrastructure in India were constructed

without earthquake-resistant features and are highly
vulnerable to seismic damage. Since rebuilding all old
structures is not feasible, the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) recommends selective seismic strengthening
and retrofitting of important and lifeline structures.
 Seismic strengthening improves the strength of structures,
while retrofitting modifies existing buildings to better resist
earthquake forces. The aim is to reduce casualties, protect
infrastructure, and maintain essential services during disasters.
 Priority is given to Hospitals and healthcare centres , Schools
and colleges ,Government offices , Bridges, flyovers, dams,
airports, and railway stations
 Before retrofitting, buildings undergo vulnerability
assessment through:
 Rapid Visual Screening (RVS): Quick visual inspection to
identify weak buildings
 Detailed Vulnerability Assessment (DVA): Detailed
structural analysis of foundations, columns, beams, and
walls
 Common retrofitting techniques include:
 Jacketing of columns and beams
 Addition of shear walls
 Steel bracing
 Strengthening of masonry walls
NDMA also stresses non-structural safety by securing ceilings,
water tanks, electrical systems, and heavy equipment. Training
programmes for engineers, architects, and masons, along with
public awareness campaigns, are promoted to improve
implementation. Seismic strengthening and retrofitting help
reduce structural collapse, save lives, minimize economic losses,
and improve disaster resilience. Therefore, it is a major pillar of
earthquake management in India.
C. Regulation and Enforcement
 The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
emphasizes that effective regulation and strict enforcement
are essential for ensuring earthquake safety in India. Although
several earthquake-resistant building codes and safety
regulations exist, poor implementation and weak monitoring
have increased the vulnerability of buildings in seismic zones.
 This pillar focuses on strengthening the techno-legal and
techno-financial framework related to construction activities.
NDMA recommends strict enforcement of Indian Standards such
as IS codes.
 State governments and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are required
to revise and enforce:
• Building bye-laws
• Land-use zoning regulations
• Development Control Regulations (DCRs)
• All new constructions in seismic Zones III, IV, and V must comply
with earthquake-resistant design standards. Structural designs of
important buildings should undergo mandatory technical review
and third-party audits before approval.
 NDMA also stresses licensing and certification of
Engineers ,Architects ,Contractors ,Masons to ensure
that only qualified professionals undertake construction
work in earthquake-prone regions.
 Regular inspections and compliance monitoring are
necessary to prevent unsafe construction practices.
Incentives and penalties may also be introduced to
encourage adherence to safety regulations.
 Proper regulation and enforcement help reduce unsafe
construction, improve structural safety, and minimize
earthquake-related losses. Therefore, strict
implementation of building codes and planning
regulations is a critical component of earthquake risk
reduction and sustainable urban development in India.
D. Awareness and Preparedness
 The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) emphasizes
awareness and preparedness as essential components of earthquake
management because earthquakes occur suddenly without warning.
Lack of public awareness often leads to panic, confusion, and
increased casualties during disasters.
 This pillar focuses on educating communities, institutions, and
government agencies about earthquake risks and safety measures.
NDMA recommends conducting:
 Public awareness campaigns
 School and college safety programmes
 Mock drills and evacuation exercises
Community-based disaster preparedness activities
 Information regarding safe behaviour before, during, and after
earthquakes should be widely disseminated through media,
workshops, seminars, and training programmes.
 Preparedness measures also include developing Disaster
Management (DM) plans for: Schools , Hospitals , Government
offices ,Commercial complexes , Residential communities
 Emergency response systems, communication networks,
evacuation routes, and shelter arrangements should be
planned in advance.
 Mock drills help people practice evacuation and
emergency response procedures, thereby improving
coordination and reducing panic during actual disasters.
 Awareness and preparedness improve community
resilience, reduce casualties, and ensure faster and
more organized emergency response.
E. Capacity Development (Education, Training,
R&D and Documentation)

 Capacity development is an important pillar of

earthquake management that focuses on improving
technical knowledge, professional skills, and institutional
capabilities related to earthquake safety. The National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) recognizes that
lack of trained professionals and inadequate technical
education are major challenges in seismic risk reduction.
 NDMA recommends training programmes for: Engineers,
Architects , Planners , Contractors , Masons , Disaster
response personnel
 These programmes help professionals understand
earthquake-resistant design and construction practices.
Earthquake engineering concepts should also be included in:
 Engineering curriculum
 Architecture courses
 Technical education programmes
 Research and Development (R&D) activities are encouraged
to improve seismic design methods, retrofitting
technologies, and disaster response systems. Technical
institutions such as IITs and research organizations play an
important role in developing new technologies and
conducting seismic studies.
 Documentation of lessons learned from past earthquakes is
also important. Case studies, manuals, and technical
guidelines help improve future disaster management
practices.
 Capacity development creates skilled manpower,
strengthens institutions, and promotes scientific approaches
to earthquake management. It ultimately improves the
country’s ability to reduce earthquake risks and build safer,
more resilient communities.
F. Emergency Response
 Emergency response is a critical pillar of earthquake
management that focuses on immediate actions taken
after an earthquake to save lives and reduce suffering.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
emphasizes the need for a quick, coordinated, and
efficient response system in earthquake-prone areas.
 Major emergency response activities include:
 Search and rescue operations
 Medical assistance and first aid
 Evacuation of affected people
 Temporary shelter arrangements
 Distribution of food, water, and relief materials
 The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and State
Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs) play major roles in rescue
and relief operations.
 NDMA also recommends strengthening:
1. Emergency Operation Centres (EOCs)
2. Communication systems
3. Emergency logistics and transport
4. Incident Command System (ICS)

 Community participation and involvement of NGOs, volunteers,

and the corporate sector are encouraged for effective disaster
response.
 Medical preparedness is another important aspect. Hospitals
and emergency medical teams should be equipped and trained
to handle mass casualties during earthquakes.
 An effective emergency response system minimizes loss of life,
provides timely assistance to victims, and supports faster
recovery. Therefore, strengthening response capabilities is
essential for improving disaster resilience and reducing the
impact of earthquakes in India.
FLOODS
FLOODS

Flooding is the most worldwide natural disaster. It occurs in every country

and wherever there is rainfall or coastal hazards.

They are most likely to happen in tropical areas.

Most common floods happen around the world’s largest/greatest rivers.

Most Flooding occurs during the beginning of spring.

FLOOD

A flood is usually caused by

rain, heavy thunderstorms,
and thawing of snow.
Its considered to be a temporary
condition due to
 Overflowed with inland or
tidal waters
 Rapid or runoff of surface
waters
 Mudflows
Types of floods
 Riverine floods : These floods occur when heavy rainfall
or snowmelt causes rivers or streams to overflow their
banks. River floods can be slow-moving and occur over a
period of days or weeks, or they can be sudden flash
floods, which occur rapidly and with little warning.
 Coastal floods: These occur when high tides, storm
surges, or large waves cause seawater to flood onto
coastal areas. Coastal floods are often associated with
cyclones or other severe weather events.
 Flash floods: These floods occur when heavy rainfall
occurs in a short period of time, overwhelming the
capacity of drainage systems and causing water to
rapidly accumulate in low-lying areas. Flash floods can
be particularly dangerous, as they can occur with little
or no warning.
 Urban floods: These occur in urban areas when the built
environment and pavement prevent rainwater from being
absorbed into the ground, causing it to accumulate in low-
lying areas. Urban floods can also be caused by blocked
drainage systems, overloaded sewage systems, or any
other forms of infrastructure failure.
 Pluvial floods: These occur when heavy rainfall exceeds
the capacity of drainage systems, causing water to
accumulate on the surface of the land. Pluvial floods can
occur in both urban and rural areas and can be
particularly damaging to infrastructure and property.
 Dam or levee failures: These occur when dams or levees
are unable to withstand the pressure of floodwaters,
causing them to breach and release large volumes of
water downstream
Impacts of Floods
• The soil becomes poor with less Soil-oxygen and pH by increasing
decomposition rate

• Trees are effected as well. It effects the height, age, vigor, roots, and
species.

• During the growing season flooding is very harmful especially to

woody plants compared a flood in a dormant season.
• Floods could carry chemicals from agricultural fields, sewage,etc.

• Damage property and life

• Great economic loss

• Health related problems due to widespread contamination and

• Posing serious threat to health due to outbreak of epidemics.

Flood Management
Strategies
 Floods are among the most frequent and destructive natural disasters in
India, causing large-scale loss of life, damage to infrastructure,
agricultural losses, and environmental degradation. According to the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), effective flood
management requires an integrated approach that combines structural
measures, non-structural measures, preparedness, mitigation, and
emergency response.
 Structural measures are engineering interventions designed to control
and manage floodwaters. These include:

 Construction of embankments and levees

 Dams and reservoirs for flood moderation
 Flood walls and diversion channels
 Improvement and desilting of river channels
 Drainage improvement works
 Watershed management and afforestation
Embankments prevent rivers from overflowing into nearby
settlements, while reservoirs store excess floodwater and
release it gradually. Proper drainage systems reduce urban
flooding and waterlogging. Afforestation and catchment area
treatment help reduce surface runoff, soil erosion, and
sedimentation in rivers.
 Non-structural measures focus on reducing flood
vulnerability through planning and management. Important
strategies include:
 Flood plain zoning regulations
 Flood forecasting and early warning systems
 Flood-proofing of buildings
 Public awareness and community participation
 Insurance schemes and disaster preparedness plans
 Flood plain zoning restricts construction in flood-prone
areas, thereby reducing exposure to flood hazards.
 Early warning systems developed by agencies such as the
Central Water Commission (CWC) and India Meteorological
Department (IMD) provide timely flood forecasts and
evacuation alerts.
 NDMA also emphasizes regular inspection and
maintenance of dams, embankments, sluices, and
drainage networks before monsoon seasons. Training
programmes for engineers, disaster management
officials, volunteers, and local communities improve
preparedness and emergency response capabilities.
 Thus, integrated flood management strategies involving
prevention, preparedness, mitigation, response, and
public participation are essential for minimizing flood
damage and building resilient communities in India.
LANDSLIDES
LANDSLIDE

Landslide occurs when coherent rock of soil masses

move downslope due to gravitational pull.

Slow landslips don’t cause much worry but sudden

rockslides and mudslides are dangerous.

Chemical action of water gradually cause chemical

weathering of rocks making them prone to landslides.
Causes:

 Earthquakes, vibrations caused by mining, nuclear testing etc.

 Disturbances in resistant rock overlying rock of low resistance.

 Saturation of the unconsolidated sediments with water.

 Unconsolidated sediments exposed due to logging, road or

house building.
NDMA Landslide Management Strategies
 The strategy focuses on risk assessment, mitigation, preparedness,
monitoring, response, and planning to minimize loss of life, property
damage, and environmental degradation.
 One of the key components is Hazard and Risk Assessment, which
includes Landslide Hazard Zonation (LHZ) mapping, inventory
preparation, and risk analysis. These activities help identify landslide-
prone areas and assess the vulnerability of settlements, infrastructure,
and populations.
 The guidelines also emphasize Investigation and Monitoring through
geological and geotechnical studies, slope analysis, and real-time
monitoring systems. Technologies such as GIS, remote sensing, and
sensors are used to monitor slope movement and provide scientific data
for risk management.
 Another important strategy is Risk Treatment and Mitigation, which
involves slope stabilization, retaining walls, drainage improvement,
afforestation, and restrictions on unsafe land use. Proper drainage
systems reduce water infiltration, which is a major cause of landslides.
 Early Warning Systems, including forecasting, communication networks,
and community participation are vital. Timely warnings help authorities
evacuate people from high-risk zones before landslides occur.
 Regulation and Planning form another critical aspect of the strategy.
NDMA recommends strict enforcement of building codes, land-use zoning
regulations, and environmental planning to prevent construction in
unstable areas.
 The strategy also includes Emergency Response Measures such as search
and rescue operations, medical aid, relief distribution, and rehabilitation
of affected populations.
 Finally, Research and Development (R&D), policy development, and
institutional coordination are emphasized to improve scientific
understanding, disaster management planning, and long-term landslide
mitigation efforts.
 Thus, the NDMA landslide management strategy adopts an integrated
approach combining scientific assessment, engineering measures,
preparedness, regulation, and community participation for effective
landslide risk reduction in India.
CYCLONES
Cyclones
Cyclones are recurring phenomena in the tropical coastal regions.

Formation of Cyclones

 Tropical cyclones in the warm oceans are formed because of heat and moisture.

 One of the requirements for formation of tropical cyclones is that the sea surface
temperature (SST) should be above 26°C.

 Tropical cyclones move like a spinning top at the speed of 10-30 Km per hour.

 They can last for a week or so and have a diameter varying between 100 to 1500
Km.
Eye
Tropical cyclones are called in different names

 Hurricanes - Atlantic, Caribbean and north eastern Pacific

 Typhoons - Western Pacific

 Cyclones - Indian Ocean and

 Willy willies - Australia.

Cyclone management and
mitigation
 Cyclones are among the most destructive natural
disasters affecting India’s coastal regions. The National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has developed
comprehensive guidelines for cyclone management
focusing on preparedness, mitigation, response,
recovery, and capacity building. India’s long coastline
and high population density make coastal states highly
vulnerable to cyclones, storm surges, heavy rainfall,
and flooding.
 One of the key components is the Early Warning System, which includes
advanced weather forecasting, timely alerts, and risk assessment.
Accurate cyclone prediction by agencies such as the India Meteorological
Department (IMD) helps authorities issue warnings in advance and
prepare vulnerable communities for evacuation.
 The guidelines also emphasize Warning and Communication Systems
through multi-channel dissemination methods such as television, radio,
mobile alerts, and sirens. Special attention is given to “last mile
connectivity” to ensure warnings reach remote coastal populations.
 Another important aspect is Structural Mitigation, which involves the
construction of cyclone shelters, resilient buildings, embankments, and
strong infrastructure capable of withstanding high wind speeds and
storm surges.
 Coastal Zone Management, including bio-shields and mangrove
plantations that act as natural barriers against cyclones and coastal
erosion. Sustainable coastal protection measures help reduce
environmental damage.
 Public Awareness and Community Participation are also essential. NDMA
promotes education programmes, mock drills, and community training to
improve disaster preparedness and reduce panic during emergencies.
 The strategy further includes Disaster Risk Reduction through hazard
mapping, vulnerability analysis, and capacity building of disaster
management agencies and local authorities.
 During disasters, Emergency Response Measures such as evacuation
plans, medical aid, search and rescue operations, and relief distribution
become crucial for protecting affected populations.
 Finally, Implementation and Coordination among government
departments, disaster management authorities, NGOs, and local
communities ensure effective disaster management planning and resource
utilization.
 Thus, the NDMA cyclone management guidelines adopt an integrated
approach combining technology, infrastructure, preparedness, public
participation, and institutional coordination for effective cyclone risk
reduction in India.