HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT

Comprehensive Study Module

Psychology & Development | Complete Notes for Examination

Topics Covered:
Module 1: Foundations of Development
Module 2: Prenatal Development & Influences
Module 3: Prenatal Stages (Day-by-Day)
Module 4: Infancy - Sensory Development
Module 5: Motor Development
Module 6: Emotional Development
Module 7: Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Module 8: Social Development
Module 9: Psychological Theories (Freud & Erikson)
MODULE 1: FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
This module establishes the core concepts, definitions, and principles that underpin all areas of human
growth and development.

1.1 Key Definitions

Development: A progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. It
implies qualitative changes — changes in kind or type, not just size.
Growth: A continuous and additive process that implies quantitative changes — measurable increases
such as height, weight, or vocabulary size.
Maturation: The process of change in an individual which occurs primarily as a function of aging or time. It
includes the effects of practice and experience. Maturation is biologically driven and follows a genetically
determined timetable.
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience or
practice.

IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIP:
Development = Product of MATURATION + LEARNING

1.2 Basic Principles of Growth & Development

• Development follows an orderly, predictable sequence — e.g., a baby sits before it stands, stands
before it walks.
• The rate of development is UNIQUE to each individual — no two people develop at exactly the
same pace.
• Development involves change — both qualitative (new abilities) and quantitative (measurable
increases).
• Early development is more critical than later development — experiences in early years shape
brain architecture and personality foundations.
• There are individual differences in development — genetics, environment, and experiences all
contribute to variation.

1.3 Types of Development

TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

Biological Physical growth, brain development, Child doubles birth weight by 5 months
motor skills

Emotional Development of feelings, self-regulation Infant smiling at caregiver

Cognitive Perceiving, thinking, understanding Child learning to count, read

Personal Self-concept, identity, personality Teenager forming sense of self

Social Relating to others, social skills Child learning to share and take turns
MODULE 2: PRENATAL INFLUENCES — NATURE VS NURTURE
This module examines the biological and environmental factors that shape development before and after
birth.

2.1 The Nature-Nurture Question

The NATURE-NURTURE question is one of the most fundamental debates in developmental psychology. It
asks:
How much does NATURE (genetic/biological factors) vs. NURTURE (environmental factors) contribute to
development?
This applies to all five areas of development: biological, emotional, cognitive, personal, and social
development.

2.2 Heredity (Nature)

Heredity: The transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to offspring through genes.
• Genes carry the blueprint for physical traits, predispositions, and developmental timing.
• Examples: eye color, height potential, certain behavioral tendencies.
• Genetic factors set upper and lower limits — environment determines where within that range an
individual falls.

2.3 Environment (Nurture)

Environment: Any factor that contributes to a person's behavior, growth and development — includes
everything EXCEPT genes.
Environment is classified into two major types:

a) External Physical Environment

• Made up of many things in the world that affect us directly.
• Includes all things that stimulate our sense organs — light, sound, temperature, food, pollution,
etc.
• Includes prenatal environment (conditions in the womb) and postnatal physical surroundings.

b) Social Environment
• Includes ALL the human beings who influence us — parents, siblings, peers, teachers, community.
• Social interactions shape language, values, personality, and social skills.
• Quality of early attachment relationships is critical for emotional and cognitive development.

2.4 Key Distinction

NATURE NURTURE

Source Genes, biology, heredity Environment, experience, culture

Examples Temperament, genetic disease risk, Parenting style, nutrition, education,

intelligence range poverty

Control Cannot be changed Can be modified and improved

MODULE 3: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT — STAGE BY STAGE
Prenatal development spans approximately 9 months (38-40 weeks). It is divided into three main phases:
the Germinal Stage, the Embryonic Stage, and the Fetal Stage.

3.1 Fertilization — Day One

• The first cell of a human being, called a ZYGOTE, is formed when a sperm fertilizes an egg.
• The nuclei of the sperm and egg appear as two yellow-brown irregular shapes — when they fuse,
fertilization is accomplished.
• The zygote contains 46 chromosomes — 23 from each parent — carrying all the genetic
information.

3.2 Germinal Stage — Day Three

• The zygote begins its journey down the Fallopian tube toward the uterus.
• About 36 hours after fertilization, cell division begins in the Fallopian tube and continues to occur
about twice a day.
• In 3-4 days, the cluster of dividing cells completes the 10 cm (4 in) journey through the Fallopian
tube to the uterus.

3.3 Implantation — Day Six

• About the 5th day after fertilization, a cluster of about a hundred cells floats in the uterus.
• This cluster soon takes the form of a fluid-filled ball of cells called a BLASTOCYST.
• After 1-2 days in the uterus, the blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining — a process called
IMPLANTATION.
• The uterine lining grows over the blastocyst and provides it with nutrients.
• The blastocyst is now called an EMBRYO.

3.4 Embryonic Stage — Week Four

• After implantation, cells of the embryo begin to specialize and form primitive organs.
• The head (bottom, left in microscopic view) can be distinguished.
• The heart beats, and limb buds of the arms and legs are visible.
• The PLACENTA develops and provides the embryo with nutrients from the mother.
• The four-week-old embryo measures about 5 mm (0.2 in) from crown to rump.

3.5 Week Eight

• After eight weeks of development, all rudimentary structures of the human have formed.
• The embryo passes into the FETAL stage of development.
• The fetus floats in watery amniotic fluid, contained by the transparent, tough amniotic membrane.
• The amniotic fluid acts as a SHOCK ABSORBER, preventing damage to the developing fetus.
• The 8-week-old fetus measures about 30 mm (1.2 in) from crown to rump.

3.6 Fetal Stage — Development of the Human Fetus

• Although the total gestation period lasts nine months, the fetus takes on a recognizable human
form by the 12th week of development.
• The vital organs are NOT sufficiently developed to sustain life outside the uterus until the SEVENTH
MONTH.
• While in the womb, the fetus is especially susceptible to the effects of drugs, alcohol, and x-rays.
• Parents, especially mothers, must avoid harmful substances during the entire pregnancy.
MODULE 4: BIRTH & SENSORY DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

4.1 The Newborn Baby

• Newborn babies appear helpless, but they can see, hear, taste, smell, and feel.
• They cry to let people know they need food or comfort — crying is their primary form of
communication.
• Newborns are born with several reflexes that aid survival (rooting, sucking, grasping).

4.2 Sensory Development — SIGHT

Key Milestones:
• At 1 month: Can distinguish mother's face WITH THE HELP OF HER MOTHER'S VOICE — vision and
hearing work together.
• At 3 months: Can visually distinguish his/her mother's face independently.
• By 3-4 years: An infant's visual abilities are equal to those of an adult's.
Vision develops rapidly because the visual cortex is highly plastic (changeable) in early childhood.

4.3 Sensory Development — TOUCH

• Newborns respond to touch immediately after birth.
• Key reflex: ROOTING REFLEX — when cheeks are touched, the baby turns its head in that direction
to find the nipple.
• Touch is essential for attachment and emotional bonding.

4.4 Sensory Development — HEARING

• One-month-old infants have very keen hearing.
• Newborns can recognize their mother's voice — they have been hearing it in the womb.
• Hearing is crucial for language development.

4.5 Sensory Development — SMELL AND TASTE

• A 1-day-old infant can discriminate between a citrus odor and a floral odor.
• By 6 weeks, infants can distinguish between the smell of their mother and a stranger.
• This olfactory recognition strengthens attachment and feeding behavior.

4.6 Depth Perception — The Visual Cliff Experiment

• Classic experiment by psychologists in the 1960s using a 'visual cliff' — an apparently steep drop
that is actually covered by transparent glass.
• Despite their mother's beckoning, infants 6-14 months of age were reluctant to crawl over the
'cliff'.
• This suggests they had the ability to PERCEIVE DEPTH — a partly innate and partly learned ability.
• Most psychologists believe depth perception is partly innate and partly a product of early visual
experience.
MODULE 5: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Two Principles of Motor Development

A. Proximodistal Principle
Proximodistal: Parts closer to the CENTER of the infant's body develop before parts farther away.
• Example: The trunk develops before the arms, the arms before the hands, the hands before the
fingers.
• Infants can control their shoulder movements before they can use their fingers precisely.

B. Cephalocaudal Principle
Cephalocaudal: Parts of the body closer to the HEAD develop before the parts closer to the FEET.
• Example: Infants gain head control before trunk control, and trunk control before leg control.
• This is why babies can hold their head up before they can sit, and sit before they can walk.

5.2 Stages of Motor Development (in order)

STAGE MILESTONE APPROXIMATE AGE

1 Sits without support 6-7 months

2 Stands with support 7-8 months

3 Pulls self to stand 8-9 months

4 Crawls 9-10 months

5 Walks holding onto furniture 9-12 months

6 Stands alone well 11-13 months

7 Walks alone 12-15 months

8 Running and jumping 18 months onward

5.3 Developmental Milestones — Key Notes

• Infants develop motor skills in a highly predictable sequence, but differ in the age at which they
achieve these skills.
• Babies have to learn how to walk. Most begin walking by 15 months of age, although some do not
begin until 18 months.
• Some children will attain milestones earlier or later than the typical ranges — this is NORMAL
variation.
• Motor development is driven by the interaction of maturation (brain development) and
experience (practice and opportunity).
MODULE 6: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

6.1 What is Emotional Development?

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT results from our biological capacity to produce emotional expressions which
interact with the positive or negative feedback we receive in attempting to maintain or change our
environment.
• It is influenced by both NATURE (biological capacity for emotions) and NURTURE (environmental
feedback and relationships).
• Emotional development is closely tied to social development and attachment.

6.2 Newborn Emotional Expressions

Newborns display five basic emotional expressions from birth:
• INTEREST — directed attention toward stimuli
• STARTLE — response to sudden stimulus
• DISGUST — rejection of unpleasant stimuli (e.g., bitter taste)
• DISTRESS — response to pain or discomfort
• NEO-NATAL SMILE — reflexive smile (not social, occurs during sleep)

6.3 Temperament
Temperament: Individual differences in attention, arousal and reactivity to new or novel situations.
• Temperament is largely biological/genetic in origin.
• It influences how infants respond to their environment and how caregivers respond to them.
• Three basic temperament types: Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-warm-up.

6.4 Attachment
Emotional Development + Temperament → Emotional Intensity → Attachment between Parent and Child
Attachment is the deep emotional bond that develops between infant and caregiver.

How Attachment Occurs:

CHILD BEHAVIOR PARENT RESPONSE OUTCOME

Crying Care & Sympathy Good Parent-Child Attachment

Social Smiling Joy & Pleasure Good Parent-Child Attachment

Happy Greetings Delight & Satisfaction Good Parent-Child Attachment

Separation Anxiety: An infant's distress when separated from the primary caregiver. Usually peaks around
8-14 months and is a sign of healthy attachment.
MODULE 7: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

7.1 What is Cognitive Development?

Cognitive Development refers to how a person PERCEIVES, THINKS, and GAINS AN UNDERSTANDING of his
or her world through the interaction and influence of genetic and learned factors.
• It includes all mental processes: perception, memory, attention, language, problem-solving, and
reasoning.
• Cognitive development is shaped by both biological maturation and environmental experiences.

7.2 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Swiss psychologist JEAN PIAGET proposed that children pass through four universal, sequential stages of
cognitive development:

STAGE AGE KEY FEATURE DESCRIPTION

1. Sensorimotor Birth – 2 yrs Object Permanence Learns through senses and actions;
develops object permanence
(objects exist even when out of
sight)

2. Pre-Operational 2 – 7 yrs Symbolic Thought Uses symbols, language, and

imagination; thinking is egocentric
and non-logical; lacks conservation

3. Concrete 7 – 11 yrs Conservation & Logic Logical thinking about concrete

Operational objects; understands conservation;
can classify and seriate

4. Formal 12 and above Abstract Reasoning Abstract, hypothetical, and

Operational deductive reasoning; can think
about possibilities, not just realities

7.3 Key Concepts in Cognitive Development

Conservation: The understanding that the physical properties of an object remain the same despite
changes in its appearance. E.g., same amount of water in a tall thin glass vs. short wide glass.
Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen or
touched — develops around 8 months.
Egocentrism: The tendency of young children to view the world entirely from their own perspective —
cannot take another's point of view.

7.4 Numerical Understanding in Infants

• Research by psychologist Karen Wynn showed that 5-month-old infants have a basic ability to
count.
• When the expected number of objects (e.g., 2 dolls) was violated, infants stared longer —
indicating surprise.
• This suggests young infants have a simple understanding of quantity even before language
develops.
7.5 Learning by Observation
Observational Learning: People learn much of what they know simply by observing others and imitating
their behavior.
• Example: A child learns to use a lawnmower by observing his father's behavior and imitating it
with a toy.
• This is also called SOCIAL LEARNING and was studied by Albert Bandura.
MODULE 8: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

8.1 What is Social Development?

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT refers to how a person develops a SENSE OF SELF or self-identity, develops
relationships with others, and develops the kind of social skills important in personal interactions.
• It is closely linked to emotional development and cognitive development.
• Social development begins at birth through interactions with caregivers.

8.2 Social Development in Toddlers

• Very young children (toddlers) tend to PLAY ALONGSIDE another rather than with each other —
this is called PARALLEL PLAY.
• Toddlers also do NOT understand the concept of sharing their possessions — this is
developmentally normal.
• As children grow, they move from parallel play to cooperative play where they interact, share, and
negotiate.

8.3 Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development occurs through a series of stages, each focused on
a different erogenous zone:

STAGE AGE KEY FEATURES

ORAL 0-1 yr Mouth is primary site of pleasure. Overindulgence or frustration leads

to FIXATION. Fixation = adult shows personality characteristics related
to the stage.

ANAL 1-3 yrs Pleasure centers on bowel and bladder control. Conflict = toilet
training. Fixation: anal-retentive (overly controlled) or anal-expulsive
(messy, disorganized).

PHALLIC 3-6 yrs Pleasure from genitals. Oedipal complex (boys see father as rival for
mother). Electra complex (girls develop attachment to their fathers).

LATENCY 6-12 yrs Characterized by repression of sexual concerns, making it latent. Focus
on school and peer relationships.

GENITAL Puberty+ Sexual maturity emerges. Mature sexual relationships and adult
responsibilities.

Fixation: An adult shows personality characteristics that are related to an unresolved stage. Results from
being overindulged or frustrated at that stage.
MODULE 9: ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

9.1 Overview
ERIKSON'S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES are eight developmental periods during which an individual's primary
goal is to satisfy desires associated with SOCIAL NEEDS.
• Each stage presents a PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS — a conflict between two opposing forces.
• Successfully resolving each crisis leads to a healthy personality and the development of a basic
virtue.
• Unresolved crises can lead to psychological difficulties in later life.

9.2 The Eight Stages

PERIOD AGE CRISIS/STAGE KEY OUTCOME

Early Infancy 0-1 year Trust vs. Mistrust Consistent caregiving → Trust.
Neglect → Mistrust. Virtue: HOPE

Late Infancy / 1-3 years Autonomy vs. Shame & Independence encouraged →
Toddler Doubt Autonomy. Over-controlled →
Shame. Virtue: WILL

Early Childhood 3-5 years Initiative vs. Guilt Child explores and leads →
Initiative. Criticized too much →
Guilt. Virtue: PURPOSE

Middle & Late 5-12 years Industry vs. Inferiority Success in tasks → Industry.
Childhood Failure/comparison → Inferiority.
Virtue: COMPETENCE

Adolescence 12-20 years Identity vs. Role Clear sense of self → Identity.
Confusion Confusion about roles → Role
Confusion. Virtue: FIDELITY

Young Adulthood 20-40 years Intimacy vs. Isolation Close relationships → Intimacy.
Avoidance → Isolation. Virtue:
LOVE

Middle Adulthood 40-65 years Generativity vs. Contributing to society →

Stagnation Generativity. Self-absorption →
Stagnation. Virtue: CARE

Late Adulthood 65 and older Integrity vs. Despair Life viewed with satisfaction →
Integrity. Regret → Despair.
Virtue: WISDOM

9.3 Comparing Freud and Erikson

ASPECT FREUD ERIKSON

Focus Sexual & biological drives Social relationships and identity

Number of Stages 5 stages 8 stages

Lifespan Coverage Ends at puberty Covers entire lifespan

Key Concept Fixation at unresolved stages Psychosocial crisis resolution

Motivation Pleasure principle (id, ego, superego) Social needs and cultural demands
QUICK REFERENCE: KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS
Use this section for rapid review before examinations.

TERM DEFINITION

Development Progressive series of qualitative changes from maturation + learning

Growth Continuous additive process; quantitative changes (measurable)

Maturation Changes primarily as a function of aging/time; includes practice effects

Heredity Transmission of genetic characteristics from parent to offspring

Environment All external factors contributing to development EXCEPT genes

Zygote First cell formed when sperm fertilizes egg; Day 1 of prenatal development

Blastocyst Fluid-filled ball of ~100 cells formed around Day 6

Implantation Blastocyst burrowing into uterine lining ~Day 6-7

Embryo Developing organism from implantation to 8 weeks

Fetus Developing organism from 8 weeks to birth

Placenta Organ providing nutrients from mother to embryo/fetus

Amniotic Fluid Fluid surrounding fetus; acts as shock absorber

Proximodistal Motor development from center of body outward

Cephalocaudal Motor development from head downward toward feet

Object Permanence Objects exist even when not visible; develops ~8 months

Conservation Physical properties stay same despite appearance changes

Egocentrism Child views world only from own perspective; Piaget's Pre-operational
stage

Temperament Individual differences in arousal/reactivity to novel situations

Attachment Deep emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver

Separation Anxiety Infant's distress when separated from caregiver; peaks 8-14 months

Fixation (Freud) Adult personality stuck at an unresolved psychosexual stage

Oedipal Complex Boy sees father as rival for mother's love (Phallic stage)

Electra Complex Girl develops attachment to father (Phallic stage)

MASTER SUMMARY: DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Piaget's Cognitive Stages — Quick Summary

STAGE AGE KEY CONCEPTS

Sensorimotor 0-2 yrs Senses + motor actions, Object permanence, egocentric

Pre-Operational 2-7 yrs Symbolic play, language, egocentrism, no conservation

Concrete Operational 7-11 yrs Conservation, classification, seriation, logical about real
objects

Formal Operational 12+ Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, deductive logic

Freud's Psychosexual Stages — Quick Summary

STAGE AGE KEY CONCEPT

Oral 0-1 yr Pleasure from mouth; fixation → oral personality traits

(dependency, smoking)

Anal 1-3 yrs Toilet training; fixation → anal-retentive or anal-expulsive

personality

Phallic 3-6 yrs Oedipal/Electra complex; gender identity formed

Latency 6-12 yrs Sexual urges repressed; social and intellectual development

Genital Puberty+ Sexual maturity; adult relationships and identity

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages — Quick Summary

STAGE # AGE CRISIS VIRTUE IF RESOLVED

1 0-1 yr Trust vs. Mistrust Hope

2 1-3 yrs Autonomy vs. Shame Will

3 3-5 yrs Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose

4 5-12 yrs Industry vs. Inferiority Competence

5 12-20 yrs Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity

6 20-40 yrs Intimacy vs. Isolation Love

7 40-65 yrs Generativity vs. Stagnation Care

8 65+ yrs Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION

Short Answer Questions

• Differentiate between growth, development, and maturation.
• Explain the nature-nurture debate and how it applies to human development.
• List and explain the 2 classifications of external environment.
• Trace the development from fertilization to the fetal stage.
• Explain the proximodistal and cephalocaudal principles of motor development.
• Describe Piaget's four stages of cognitive development with examples.
• Compare Freud's psychosexual stages with Erikson's psychosocial stages.
• How does attachment develop? Explain with the child-parent interaction table.
• What are the five basic emotional expressions of newborns?
• Describe the sensory development milestones for sight, hearing, smell, and touch.

Essay Questions
• "Development is the product of maturation and learning." Discuss this statement with reference to
any three domains of development.
• Critically analyze Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development and explain their importance
for understanding personality across the lifespan.
• Discuss the role of prenatal environment in determining the health and development of the fetus.

— END OF MODULE —
Human Growth & Development | Study Module