>Topic 8

The
challenge of
development
LEARNING INTENTIONS

By the end of this topic you willbe able to:

understand the different indicators of development
evaluate strengths and weaknesses of development indicators
describe and explain the global pattern of LICs, MICs, andHICs
give reasons for differences in levels of economic development, standard
of living, and the development gap between countries
understand the importance of sustainable development
evaluate strategies to address differences in levels of
economicdevelopment.
 development
challenge of
8 The

G E T T I N GS T A R T E D

discuss
the following questions: poverty
pairs,
2 How do vou think we can measure
in How do you think we can define poverty?

ADefining and measuring development

Therearca numberof different ways to define development, Human devclopment
11)cans the ways in which acountry KEY TERMS
nerally sccks to improve the standard of living and
liyof life for its people. Standard of living refcrs to thc malcrial goods and levels
ofcomfort people bave. lt can be measurcd using factors such as incomc, employment
qality
Developrnent:
and aflordable access to
an improvernent in
oportunities healthcarc. Thesc factors affect a person's quality
more subjective term that can the standard of living
whichis a measure factors such as a perSon's
happness, general wellbeing, and political frecdoms, such as their right to vote. and quality of life for
the population of
a country.
indicators of development Quality of life:
the general wellbeing
Wecan mcasure a country's level of development in different ways. We can use economic
of people, measured
indicators and sociallindicators to compare countries different 1evels of development.
Development can also cover political, environmental, or cultural criteria, but Tables 8.1 using factors such as
a person's happiness,
8.2%show the
most common economic and social indicators of development.
and level of health, and
political freedoms.
Gross Domestic the total value of goods and services produced in a
Product (GDP) particular country in a year. Standard of living:
the material goods
Gross National the tota! value of all the goods and services produced and levels of
Product (GNP) in aparticular country (GDP), plus income generated comfort people
by its residentsabroad in a year (it includes the income have, measured
generated by citizens living abroad but excludes the using factors such as
income earned by toreign residents within the country). income, employment
Gross National GNIencompasses GDP and GNP. It is the total income opportunities, and
ncome (GNI) earned by a country's people and businesses wherever in affordable access
the world it is earned. tohealthcare.
Table 8.1: Economic measures of development Economic indicators:
measures ot
development
te expectancy the average age to which a person can be expected to live. that affect the
Infant mortality the number of children who die before reaching the age economny, such as
rate one, per 1000 live births per year. average income.

Calorie intake the energy obtained from the food eaten per person each Social indicators:
day, measured in kilocalories. measures of
age of 15 who development that
teracy rate the percentage of the population over the
can read and write. affect people, such
as life expectancy or
eople per doctorthe ratio of people per doctors, usually expressed per 1000 calorie intake.
people.
Iable 8.2: Social measures of development

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 COURSEBOOK
CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND OLEVEL GEOGRAPHY:

80+
75+
70+
D 65+
60+
55+
50+
45+
40+
0+

Source (A: Map showing life expectancy at birth

TASK 1: Study Source A

Describe the global pattern of life expectancy.
b Suggest why life expectancy varies across the world.
Do you think life expectancy alone is a good indicator of development
in a country? Explain your answer.

Source B: Toilets across the world, from an LIC, MIC, and HIC

272 )
 8 The challenge of development
Study
SourceB
2:s

TASK

do you access to quality

think
KEY TERM
o
Why
f d e v e l o p m e

toilets could be a
n t ?

household items
aood indicator Human
What
other
could be good Development
|be the advantages indicators of development?
as indicators,of and disadvantages of
W h a tc o u l d
Index (HDI): a
photographs

Dollar
Gapminder's
Street development?
using household Composite measure
of development,
Visit . of
different website, which cornbining measures
stages investigates how people
countries

live in of
anda
rich family. Explore
to describe
their development.
the similarities everyday Select
homes and a'poor farnily
of education,
health, and incorne
items.
differences Now, write
paragraph

a
iamilies you have
chosen and per capita.
between the
Human
Development Index
(HDI) is a composite
The
). It considers economic both
and social mcasure of development
| development by combining indicators. It provides a
measures of education,
measures are
T h e s e

transformed into an index from 0health, and incomesummary

Amestleve/,of human development and I being the highest. to 1, with )
agpia. per
being the
Indicators
Donensions Dimension index
Longa n d
WhLife expectancy at birth
heathy
ite Lite expectancy index

Expected years of f schooling HDI

(nowledge
Mean years ot schooling Education index human
development
index
Adecent
aot GNI per capita (PPP %) GNI index
standard

oflving

Gnure 8.1: The Human Development Index

Country HDI value Life expectancyMean years of

Expected years of GNI per HDI rank
(years) schooling (years) schooling (years)capita ($PPP)
Swizerland0.962 84.0 13.9 16.5 66933
Singapore 0.939 82.8 11.9 16.5 90919 10
USA 0.921 77.2 13.7 16.3 64765 21
Japan 0.925 84.9 13.4 15.2 42274 24
Brazil 0.754 72.8 8.1 15.6 14370 86
Morocco 0.683 74.0 5.9 14.2 7303 122
ndia 0.633 67.2 6.7 11.9 6590 130
akistan 0.544 66.1 4.5 8.7 4624 161
Aighanistan0.478
Chad
62.0 3.0 10.3 1824 177
8.0 1364
|0.394 |52.5 2.6 190
le8.3: UN Human data (2021)
Development

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 CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL GEOGRAPHY: COURSEBOOK

World map of countries or territories by Human Development Index scores in

increments of 0.050(based on 2022 data, published in 2024)
> 0.950 0.700-0.749 0.450-0.499

0.900-0.950 |0.650-0.699 0.400-0.449

0.850-0.899 0.600-0.649 s0.399

0.800-0.849 0.550-0.599 |Data unavailable

0.750-0.799 0.500-0.549

Source C: World map of countries or territories by Human Development Index

TASK 3: Study Source C)

a What are the keyindicators used to calculate the Human
Development Index?
b Study Table 8.3. Are there any unexpected results between and/or within
countries? Why might this be?
Study Source C. Describe the global pattern of HDI shown on the map.
Suggest reasons tor this pattern.
In pairs, choose three countries and research their HDI scores over time
since 1990to the present day. Plot this data as a line graph.
Describe and explain the trends.
e Do you think that HDlor social and economic indicatorsalone are a
better indicator of development? Why?

Evaluating indicators
It is useful to measure and compare how developed places are to study how this
changes over time. However, each indicator has advantages and disadvantages, which
affect how usefulit is as a measure of development. For example, manydevelopment
indicators are measured at a national scale, and therefore variations between different
places and different groups of people are not clear. Development data can also be
difficult to reliably collect in some countries and is out-of-date as soon as it is collected.

274 )
 development
8 The challenge of

Economic inndicators
as GNP, are an
such
average. This means that extreme
I n d i c a t o r s

of
,

a population, for example,

can be skewed by a few wcalthy for the
poverty
majority

indicators like GDP reliably families.

means accounting for the earnings
of
a n d business, including informal scctor
work. This isn't always [Link]
R e c o r d i n g .

citizen

Each country's GDP iis converted into US dollars for comparison between
This means SOme data may become unreliable
countries.

e x c h a n g e rates
becausc of changes
in currency
Social indicators

Social indicators provide a much broader understanding of how developcd

acountry is. They are useful in showing how money gencrated by a country
benefits ordinary people.

Birth rate and death rate, when used on their own, are not reliable indicators
because a high birth rate does not necessarily mean lack of development
and. low birth rate does not necessarily mean a high level of development.
Factors such as access to healthcare, the age structure of a country, and
policies can have a big impact on birth rates and death rates.
governiment

In some LICs, birth ates and death rates are not always recorded.
.ts diffhcult to collect social data in rural areas, informal settlements,
and war zones.

Social indicators are averages across a country and don't always link together,
Such as health, education, and diet.

Human Development Index

Ta get a better picture of development in a country, it is better to consider both
anomic and social indicators together. HDIis a composite measure of development,
pombining measures of education, health, and income per capita. HDI can be used
effectively to show differences between countries and to show global patterns.
The United Nations (UN) Development Programme updates the data annually so it
is possible to track trends over time.
HDI has disadvantages too. For example, income still has a lot of weighting' in the
HDI calculation, and therefore HICsregularly score highly. There are also concerns
that it is still too simple as it would be better to include other measures such as political
and environmental measures.

Country HDI Birth rate Death rate Literacy rate

USA 0.927 11/1000 10/1000 86%
Saudi Arabia 0.875 17.5/1000 3/1000 94%
Cuba 0.764 8.9/1000 15/1000 100%

Morocco 0.698 18/1000 6.2/1000 69%

India 0.644 16.4/1000 9/1000 69%

lable 8.4: Development indicators for selected countries (2022)

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 CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL GEOGRAPHY: COURSEBOOK

TASK 4

Write your own definitions of development, standard of living, and quality

of life. In small groups, discuss your personal definitions.
Howuseful do you think indicators of development are for defining
these terms?
C Carefully study the development data for the selected countries in Table 8.4.
Are there any surprises in the data?
i What does this development data suggest about the problems of
using one single development indicator to measure development?
d Go toThe World Bank development data website and choose one
economicand one social indicator of development for 15 countries of
your choice. Choose a range of HICs, MICs, and LICs.
Plot a scatter graph to show the relationship between your chosen
economic indicator of development and your chosen social indicator
for each country.
Draw a line of best fit and identify any anomalies.

ii Describe and explain your results. Are there any anomalies?

8.2 Uneven development

According to a 2024 Oxfam report on inequality, the world will have its first trillionaire KEY TERM
in the next ten years, but poverty won't be eradicated for another 229 years. The world
is developing unevenly, as shown in Source A. This map shows the world divided into Development
acore of HICs,MICs, andLICs. This difference in the levels of development between gap: the difference
HICs and LICs is called the development gap. in levels of
development
Low-income Lower-middle income Upper-middle income High-income between HICs
and LICs.

Source A: The patternof global development

276 )
 development
of
8 The challenge

owincome countries (LICs) Agroup of

around Bank as a country
with a gross national26 countries. Classified bythe Worlds in [Link]
plays an important roleincome capita of $1135
in theirpereconomies. Someorofless
these cOuntries suffer
from political instability
and conflict.
Examples: Yemen, Chad, Democratic People's Republic of Korea,
and Mozambique.
Middle-income countries (MICs)A group of countries home to 25% of the world's population Classified
Oy the Norld Bank as a country with a ross national income pe
between $1136 and $13845 in 2022. The numbe of MICs hasincreased
rapidly in recent decades, linked too globalisation and investment by
transnational corporations (see Topic 9).
Examples: Mexico, Indonesia. Nigeria. Türkiye, and South Arica
High-income countries (HICs) A
group of just over 80 countries. Classified by the World Bank as a
Ouny Witha gross national income ner capitaof $13846 or more in z0
In these countries, office work has overtaken factory work.
Examples: Norway, Saudi Arabia. Japan, Uruguay, and Canada.
8.5: 7The emain groups of countries and their characteristics, based on WNorld Bank classification
three
Table

pattern for HICs, MICs, and LICs is complicated and

edistribution
changingc o n s t a n t l y .

are that:
Kex features
most HICs and MICs are in the northern hemisphere

nst LICS are in the southern hemisphere

are MICS
most South American countries
LICs
hoth Asia and Africa now have more MICs than
been classified as MICS.
some Eastern European countries have

TIP
countries presented in
Remember the World Bank classification of
living in that country.
Table 8.5 is based on the average income of people
country.
within a
There are often stark variations in wealth

TASK 1: Study Source A

and HICs. KEY TERM
a Describe the pattern of LICs, MICs,
progress along the Development
0 Suggest why MICs are making good pathway: the
development pathway. development
presented as a choropleth
C The World Bank classification of countries is
disadvantages of this map
progress ot a country
discuss the advantages and over time.
"ap. In pairs,
presentation technique.

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 COURSEBOOK
GEOGRAPHY:
CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND O LEVEL
/

people living in absolute poverty

Source B: Aproportional map showing

Source C:A proportional map showing underweight children in the world

TASK 2: Study Sources C

Choose one of the two proportional maps. Describe and explain the
pattern shown.
b ldentify the similarities between the maps. Are there any countries that
surprise you? Discuss in pairs.

THINK LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

Inequality is an impotant concept in geography. Closing the development
gap is a complex challenge. Think about who has the power and
to help tackle this challenge? Individuals? Companies? responsibility
Organisations?
Governments? Can youthink of the careers that geographers do that are
related to helping tackle global geographical issues such as global
inequality?

278 )
 8 The challenge of development
Reasons for
differences in levels of
development
economic
T h e r ea r e
various environmental,
levels of soCial, and economic
thillèrent
rates and
development.
levels and rates
reasons why countries
The imnportance
of
development dO not stay ofthethesc factors can have
p e Tt i n e ,a n d

same. change
Environmentalfactors

Climate can play a significant role in

and moderate levels of
regular
rainfall
development.
Many countries intemperatures can usually grow Countries with
Africa suffer from
population,.

cnough food for their

and people lack enough food to eat. Sone droughts. This means crops
hot climates.
These illnesses
can make peoplediscascs, such as malaria. also thrivedicin
to0 weak to work.
Nine of the twelve countries with
the lowest HDIls are
Country does not have access to landlocked, meaning the
the sea. These
trade with other countries as they countries
are unable to export can find it difficult to
Onthe other hand, natural features such and sell
harbours as long coastlines, goods by ship.
and natural
make trading easier. warm water ports,
Natural disasters such as
earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes
ently in some countries.
Money often has to be diverted tooccur more
andthis impacts the development
of the country. help with recovery
Come countries have natural
resource wealth, such as minerals and
Anels Some countries can exXtract
and seli these resources to bring fossil
support development. income and

Figure 8.2: Climate playssa significant role in development. Droughts make it hard
to grow
crops to sell and feed the population.

279 )
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND OLEVEL GEOGRAPHY:
COURSEBOOK

Social factors
Colonialism lastcd for over 400 vears vith Europcan powers cxplO1ting counes
Wiln natural resources. Colonics sunplicd food and resources to the couny ia
nad coloniscd them (for evanmle Brazil sent food and mincrals to Portugal).
development of the
inssiowCd 1he development of the colony but benefitted the
colonising countty.
Dlablc gOveTNMents allou for resources to be allocated to larger-scale projccts and
SCTVICes, sUch as hcalth, cdleation and infstueture. This can drive cconomic
development. If a countiy is eenencing eivil war, for example, then lcss money is
being spenton thesc essentialsevices for development.
Some LlCs have a large vouthul 1opulation but a lack of clucation and/or
Ciipioment opportunities. A lack of access to adequate healthcare, schools, and
jobs significantl hinder cconomic grOwth.

Economic factors
LICS often trade primary products relatively cheaply to HICs. The HIC then
manulactures these primary products and sells the final product for a high profit.
HICs have good infrastructure such as roads, railways, and electricity.
This encourages foreign direct investment as businesses can benefit from
relatively quick production and transport networks. This can help a country
develop because it brings money intoa country.
TASK 3
a In pairs, discuss and then aaree a rank to show which of the above factors
youthink willhave the most and least influence on the development of a
country. Justify your final rank.
b Explain how political instability can have an influence on national wealth.
Norway has a HDl of 0.961 compared with 0.394 for Niger.
Which factors willhave had an influence on the differences in the HDI
sCores of these two countries?

8.3 Achieving sustainable

development
Sustainable development has been defined by the UN as:

'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.

This means that the social, economic, and environmental needs of the present should
be met, while protecting the needs of the future. We should not, for example, exhaust
resources and we must protect environments. Source Ashows the three pillars that
form the basis of sustainability.

280 )
 $ The challenge of developent

Economy

eeincome oNer tine

Soiety
Environent
No lasting change or
Gamage should be done
to the environment

nable aeveloment

kacial. economic, and environmental strategies

and techniques to achieve sustainable
KEY TERMS
ievelopment
Top-down
IEtN N N0 oimprove the quahty of lhte of the world's porN development
eThese strateis can be plaiinto two min categories top-down and strategies:
NTI devdopment srafegis. development
decisions made bv
govemments or large
o-down strategies Companies, oten
Iiwn s N re developmenideunons made b goernments or kre associated with large
social. OnOmic, and
LEN Often oounris work torher tO tRctle a rne of scale projects.
country and
Aaal development challenges Ther aim to develop a rNon Or a
such as building
yaly include larg ale and expensive development projstS Bottom-up
iknc dam for thousands of people development
UN Sustainable Development strategies: small
mpeof a top-down development stratey is he ak development
ES(SDGs). The SDGS are an intemaçonali
agrd sof 17 itte
decisions often led
for eoplk and the planet, nON
tn toprovide a plan for peae and prosperitytogether in global partnership by local people
2nthe future The aim is for ountries to WOrk aimns N O ndporerty, with assistance fronm
The main
eeprogres on sustainable development. change by 20S0. There is a tocus on non-govemmental
elhty and injustice. and tackle climate a oadnap organisations (NGOs).
boosting economicgrowth to provide
ghealth and educaion and scale.
human development on an international

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 COURSEBOOK

GEOGRAPHY:

CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND OLEVEL

SUSTAINABLE GALS
DEVELOPMENT

GENDER CLEAN WATEn

G000 NEALTW
QUALITY
EOUCATION
ANO SARNTIKTION
1POVERTY
NO ERO
2 HUNGER ANO WELL-BEING

SUSTANABLE CITIES
AFFORDABIE AND DFCENT WORK AND .NOUSIRY INNOVANCON
10
REOUCED
INEQUALITIES
11 AND COMMUNTIES 12 CONSUMPi
RESPONSIOLIE
NON
ECONDMIC GROWTH ANDINERASTRUCTURE AND PROOUGTON

PARTNERSHIPS
UFE
PEACE, JUSTICE
16 AND STRONG 17 FOR THE GOALS
19CUMATE
ACIION 14 BAOW WATER 15 ON LAND INSTITUTIONS

Figure 8.4: The UN Sustainable Development Goals

There are different techniques for implementing these top-down strategies, including
policy. aid, and trade.
Policy
The funding and management for top-down policies mainlycomes from national
governments. An example of a top-down policy to help close the development gap is KEY TERMS
debt relief. Debt relief is when governments or powerfulorganisations cut or cancel
a nation's debt. Some countries in the world, due to high interest rates, cannot afford Aid: assistance given
to pay back debt on loans that they took out in the 1970s and 1980s. This means they from one country
cannot afford to invest in healthcare, education, and infrastructure to develop their to another, such as
country. For example, the World Bank agreed a debt relief policy with Uganda. money, equipment or
They cancelled $1.5 billion of debt, and therefore the Ugandan government was able training.
to spend more money on providing free primary education.
Bilateral aid: strategc
Aid support, whereby the
Aidis the voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another. Bilateral recipient county must
aid is given directly by a donor (often a HIC) to a recipient (usually a LIC) with an spend the money
agreement attached to the aid, such as the recipient country has to give building on goods or services
projects to the donor country. For example, the Akosombo dam in Ghana was built from the donor
using investment from the World Bank and aid from the USA and UK. The dam country.
provided hydroelectric power to produce aluminium. Ghana sells this aluminium

282 )
 8 The challenge of development
aud, bringing money into the country
kvelop The
plant is owned bythrough
aluminium international trade to help them
an American KEY TERMS
eprocess, and therefore
Ghana docs not benefit ascompany who earn money
thomthe

ownedthe company. much as it would if they Multilateral aid:

Wultilateralaid is when HICs give
high-income countries
money to international
Bank or the UN. These
organisations organisations, such as the
then on a short-term
donate money
ofloansto poorer countries. Aid may be deliveredredistribute the money
Mord'
or long-term
in the form to international
aid helps in an organisations, to be
Short-term
emergency, suc. as a natural disaster and distributed arnong
basis
shelter, search and rescue, usually
food.
bottled water, and clothing. poorer cOuntries.
jpvolves

, it brings benefit to the economy,

sUstainableeif
society, and Long-term aid is
the environment. Short-term aid:
Trade immediate support
Tradeisthe. exchange of goods, money, and services between countries. Trade promotes provided during
and poverty reduction, which are two of the
eCOonomicg r o w t h
or after a disaster
SDGs. Trade helps
the quality. and
quantity of jobs in LICs. Trade also means Such as farnine or an
Pajoy a greater variety of goods and services at lower cost, improvingthat
increase,

consumers
gquality of life. can earthquake.

lcorporations (TNCS) are very large global

T r a n s n a t i o n a l

companies that resources,

Long-term aid:
inseverall countries. TNCS directly invest in countries, often buying local operate Continuous support
products,and. services and providing new jobs and skills forlocal people, which benefits prograrnmes that aim
local economies The extra money created by TNCinvestment can be spent on education, to bring benefit to the
health, andinfrastructure projects. This can have long lasting
development impacts. recipient country.

Bottom-up strategies
nm.u) development projects are much smaller in scale and are often led by local
le with the assistance of non-governmentalorganisations (NGOS).
Non-governmental organisations
NGÔS are non-proit, voluntary groups of citizens who work on a local, national, or
international level to tackle different development issues. They are not controlled by
cDNeroments. NGOs include Oxfam, the Red Cross, and Fairtrade International. 'Helping
DeODle to help themselves' is a term often used by NGOs to define their philosophy.
Fairtrade International, for example, focuses on supporting farmers to earn a fair
Iiving wage. Fairtrade products include coffee, chocolate, sugar, tea, and fruit. FAIRTRADE
An inereasing number of TNCS, including Nestle (coffee) and Cadbury (chocolate). MAX HAVELAAR
together with some large supermarkets, are being encouraged by shoppers to stock and
support fairtrade products. Customers are often willing to spend a little extra money
on these products because they see it as an ethical consumption choice. Fairtrade
International standards mean farmers have a more reliable income. This can help lift
them out of povertyand improve quality of life within communities, as more money
Can be spent on improved diets, education, and healthcare projects.

Microfinance
MiCroinance is a strategy that provides small loans of money to poor or vulnerable Figure 8.5: Fairtrade
PEOple who do not have access to banking services. This allows people to start or expand
International tocuses on
and
er Dusiness, increase their income, invest in education, get access to heaithcare, supporting farmers to
p themselves,their families, and communities escape poverty. With extra money, earn a fair living wage
boosting the local economy.
pie wlalso spend more money on goods and services,

283
 AIVMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND OEVEL GEOGRAPHY: COURSEBOOR

TASK 1
Explain the difference between development and
sustainable development.
DUggest how improving gender eguality (SDG 5) can help close uie
development gap.
Explain the diferences between top-down and bottom-up
development strategies.

Evaluating top-down strategies and techniques

1he UN Sustainable Developnent Goals have their strengths and weaknesses.
member countries
e goals were agreed after widespread consultation from all UN
and apply to allcountries (not just poorer ones), However, there are few guidelines
targets are not
ow governments are expected to deliver their own SDGs and the
legaly enforced. Major crises, like pandemics and war, can have a significant negatiVe
impact on a country's ability to meet SDG targets.
Aid can increase the rate and level of development in countries as it can be inves ted in
projects such as those with afocus on education, publichealth, and skills development.
It is a very effective development tool when used alongside sound economic policies
and good governance. Aid can also help countries respond to emergencies, without
diverting the country's own resources away from longer term development. However,
aid can suffer from corruption. For example, not funding development projects and
instead, funding civil wars. Aid can also be inefñciently distributed in some countries.
For example, Nepal has been one of the highest recipients of aid, yet 35% of its
population still live below the poverty line. Some LICs can also become dependent on
aid and fall into more debt.
International trade has the ability to make major contributions to economic growth and
development. One of the issues with trade, though,is that many LICsoften have little to
offer the global marketplace in terms of manufactured goods. This means that many LICs
are trapped in acycle of supplying raw materials to HICS. This does not generate much
wealth since most value is added to products during the manufacturing process. Having
large supplies of minerals is therefore no guarantee of rapid economic development.
Investment by transnational corporations can create stable employment and regular
income for local people. They often help to develop the local infrastructure including
roads, water, and power supplies. TNCs may also contribute to social welfare projects,
including improving health and education. However some TNCs have been criticised
for explojting employees with poor working conditions, long hours, and low pay.
Profits mainly go baçk to the TNCcountry of origin rather than being used to develop
the local area. Environmental regulations are also often less restrictive in LICs.
resulting in air, water, and land pollution. You can read more about this in Topic 9.

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 development
8 The challenge of

TASK2

the, development gap, aid is better than trade.'

this
close In pairs, discuss
Tostaterment

svaluating bottom-up strategies andtechniques

NGOSWOrkcdirectly with individuals, families, and comunities. This means NGOs
development projects directly for the people who nccd it. Fairtrade
provide

International
a
uSually
Ihave been,supporting cocoafarmers in Ghana by ensuring that they get
rpricefortheir cocoa beans. For example, they have been supporting a c0coa-
c 0 - o p e r a t i v e called Kuapa Kokoo, certifying them Fairtrade'in 1995.
g r o w i n g

about 509%
of their sales came from Fairtrade sales. With the additional income,
2013,,
By
h eco-operative has improved the quality of life of iits members and helped farmers,
cgpacially,female farmers, empower themselves. Their sales have funded construction of
schoolsintheearea, pump wells and bore holes for drinking water, and day care centres
The work of NGOs, however, is often limited. These types of projects are
children.

for -scale and therefore don't lead to development on alarge scale.

small
USually

Techniques
like microfinance can help an individual in need establish asmall business
an income. By joining together, a group of small borrowers can
generatng
istart
reduce the
cost of theloan. Joining together alsoincreases community engagement and
Howeve, these are often small loans, some with interest rates that have to
efectively. As with the work
organisation.

naid back and can lead to a debt problem if not invested on a wider scale.
development
NGOs, this technique doesnt necessarily lead to

benefits to African farmworkers

Fairtrade accused of failing to deliver
farmers
trusted ethical schemes, with two million
Fairtrade is one of the world's most contribute to the
workers across 70 countries around the world. Fairtrade products
and rural areas. Fairtrade
schools, health clinics, sarnitation, and other social projects in
funding of companies and farmers involved
economic, and environmental standards for the
sets social, sustainable livelihoods.
farmers earn secure and
in the supply chain and helps
benefiting
from Uganda and Ethiopia are not government
Sales of Fairtrade-certified products A UK
trickle down to the workforce.
poor farmworkers as profits fail to production of flowers, coffee, and
tea in Ethiopia
sponsored study which investigated the were grown, and where there were
'where Fairtrade flowers
and Uganda, found that certified markets, wages were
very
selling coffee and tea into Fairtrade children being
lamers, groups widespread use of
found evidence of the
lOw Researchers said they also for Britain's leading ethical label.
The research
farms growing produce facilities. In one
Pau to work on poorest farmers did not
have access to
were
ported that many of the the Fairtrade premium
co-operative. the modern toilets funded with mechanism
tea
Tairtrade effective
has not been an
senior managers. Fairtrade
CKCIUSIvely for the use of
rural people.
or improving the lives of the poorest generalised because
conclusions were unfair and
al rade International said the eport's workers in areas where
small-scale
working conditions of plantations.
tcompares the wages, and
farmers
presentt with those on
were
large-scale
Fairtrade-certified tea and coffee
The Guardian
article. Source:
Source (A:. Fairtrade International

285 >
 CAMBRIDGE IGCSETM AND oLEVELGEOGRAPHY: COURSEBOOK

TASK 3: Study Source A

a
Outline the aims of Fairtrade.
b
Explain three benefits to farmers of having amore reliable income
through Fairtrade.
Explain, according to the report, three criticisms of Fairtrade in Uganda
and Ethiopia.
Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of bottom-up development
Strategies provided by NGOs such as Fairtrade International.

PROJECT
Development is a complex term. Every COuntry in the world is at a ditferent
stage of development. Closing the global development gap isa complex
process to achieve and maintain. There are many top-down and
strategies, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. bottom-up
In small groups, plan and write ascript to record a 5-7-minute
Your group are international development experts and podcast.
you are
question, 'How effective are the strategies to close the global answering this
gap and improve quality of life? Agood recording should: development
focus on the question
showevidence of good planning
refer to a range of top-down and bottom-up
refer to strengths and weaknesses of a range strategies
of strategies
use awide range of appropriate terminology.

REFLECTION
Did you work well as a group? Why or why
work, what would you do differently? not? Next time you do group
as a team?
What skills would you improve upon

286 >
 development
of
8 The challenge

B4 Detailed specific
Botswana
example:
BotsWaais a landlockedl country located in the south of Africa. For centuries, large
were controlled by the British
Southern Africa

from Britain in 1966 and has and the Dutch. The country
bcen a stablegrowing
p a r t s
o
1 i t si n d e p e n d e n c e

Oerthe pastfew decades, Botswana has been one of the (astest democracy sinCe. n
cconomies
GDP per capita of $7738 in
with a 2022, growing from $1344 in 1950.
w o r i a ,

c l a s s i f e d

Ias a MIC,
the therefore

ns

ansfor Botswana's level of development

j n d e p e n d e n c e
Botswana has had strong economic growth (Source A).
Since.

due
to goodeconomic policies, political stability, and good governance and
Thisis g e n e r a t e d
i from diamond mining.
wzalth
area of diamonds was discovered at the edge of the Kalahari
1967, ahuge
in
The
Botswana economy grew quickly with wealth from the diamond mines.
Desert.
earns
about one billion dollars ayear from diamond mining, equating to
20% of its GD.
Botswana

approximately

had the second highest government effectiveness score and was the
Botswana
country in Africa, The country's stable political environment and
2019.
In
least. corrupt
second
resources helps attract investment from transnational
corporations
nattural
wealth of
South African/British TNC specialising in diamond mining)
De Beers (a
Such as. This investment provides Botswana
Tomoold (aCanadian gold mining TNC). industrial development and
foreign exchange supplies, which stimulates
ihstrong
improvement in infrastructure.

8
Botswana ,'

Thousand 6

4
5

24

1
2010 2020
0 1990
2000
1960 1970 1980

GDP over time

Source A: Botswana's

287 )
 7 CAMBRIDGE IGcSETM AND o LEVEL GEOGRAPHY: COURSEBOOR

TASK 1: Study Source A

Describe the changes in Botswana's GDP from 1960-2020.
b
Give three different reasons for the rapid economic development or
Botswana since the 1990s.
Explain why having astable qovernment is an important factor behind
economic development.
Suggest a reason for the most recent dip in GDP.
What do you think caused the dip?
In pairs, discuss why relying on one economic activity, such as diamond
mining, might be a risk.

Strategies to raise levels of development

Although Botswana's cconomy is considered a model for countries in the region,
the reliance of the country's economy on diamond mining has made the country
vulnerable to global diamond demand fluctuations caused by global economic crises.
The economy is now diversifying, though, with different economic activities.
For example, the tourism sector has grown a lot in recent years, contributing to 13%
of the country's GDP in 2019. Tourists are attracted by wildlife safari opportunities
In its large game reserves and the beautiful lakes and islands of the Okavango Delta.
The government is encouraging new investments in tourism including new hotels
and conference facilities to host international events. It also has a sustainability plan
focusing on environmental protection and management of natural resources which
includes building tourist eco-lodges in natural parks and game reserves.
To diversify its economyfurther, there is a national plan to invest and develop
its technological sectors,specifically digital technologies such as 3D printing and
e-commerce. It is therefore important to upgrade the population's skills through
quality education so they are better prepared for jobs in the high-tech sector. Economic
diversification and investment in the tourist industry and digital technologies can
provide employment opportunities and an income for a range of people with a range
of skills. This has a positive effect on quality of life factors such as a person's happiness
and level of health. With regular income, more people can afford healthcare and
education for themselves and their family raising standards of living. There is, however,
an HIV/IAIDSepidemic in Botswana and one in every three people are infected with
the virus. An illpopulation reduces economic productivity and unemployment may
threaten its future success. There is a risk that without investments in health and
education and more job creation, Botswana willnot benefit from its 'youth bulge',
the large percentage of the population who are working age.

288
 development

challenge of
The

Okavango Delta
88.6: The
Figure

TASK 2
beneficial for national
growth of tourism can be
Fxplain how the
a e c o n o m i cd e v e l o p m e n t .
percentage
about the
current intormation mobile
Use the internet to
research
using the internet orown
populationwho are
now living?
of Botswana's quality of life and standard of
phones. How can
it improve development?
affected economic
Howhas it

TASK 3 development may not last.

economic
Botswana's encourage
reasons why should do to
Explain two government
Botswana
Suggest what the
b inpairs,
future development.
 COURSEBOOK

GEOGRAPHY:

IGCSETM AND OLEVEL

CAMBRIDGE AThe
answer
Specific examplestates a
of an
NGO here. Thisisi good
IMPROVE THIS ANSWER because the question
asks to 'use example
advantages and
examples, describe
and explain the human d e v e l o p m e n t gap. E The
Using reduce the answer could be
of strategies to
aisadvantages
coutry seeKs to
improve improved by describing
which a and explaining som
generally means
the waus in cdevelopmert
people. Top-clown
tts and disadvantages of
quality ot lite for
Ceveloement
tr (IGos),
the stanclar of lving anc intergovermental
organusations
bottom-up development
qovernments or cdevelopmert strategies of NGOs
strateqies are lec by clevelopment projects.
Bottom-up
large-scale c o m m u n i t y - l e c l with
the and giving more detail
include expensive, and are often incluce
about the advantages
much snaller in scale Top-cloun strategies
projectS are organisations (NGos). and disadvantages of
incluce
assistance of non-governmental Bottom-up
strateqies microfinance. At the
rternational tracle.
international ac anc moment, it only says
microfinance 1.
Organisations and
Non-Governmental
courtry responc to
that microfinance is 'an
relatively QuicK way to help a important strategy'.
aucl 2 can be a important role in
Short-tem
Long-tern aid can play an increase
emergency such as a
flooc. health, ancd to
an of and access to public 6 Excellent conclusion.
the Quality not aways well
mproving eclucatior, However, funds are clearly answering
population. military
the level of sKills among the corruption. For examole, 40% of Africa's the question.
countries cdue to oic and tall
spert in some LICs coan become depencdent on
by aic. Some contributionS
spencing is tuncdedd to make major
International trade has the abilitu
Further ito ddebt.
a Courtry 3.
anc cdevelopment within
to economic qrouth more etticiet
and therefore can provicde
people at a local
level
NGOS uworK with equpmert anc
such as assistance with faming
services, qive
anc appropriate international NGO to Support
Faurtracde Foundation 4 is an For
methodls. The fairer terms ot trace
worKing concitions and
can litt tarmers out
imprOve
better prices, anc more Stable income
in LICs. A fairer,
taners and worKers through
improve quality of lite within communities
ot extrene poverty and prQjects. MCrotinance is
another
ecucation and healthcare
improvec ciet anc
5
importart bottom-up strateqy.
recuce. There are
qap
development is complex anc not easy to
The human maKe Significant
top-cown anc bottom-up strateqies that can
a range ot aclartages anc cisaclvantages
dufferences on a variety of
scales. Each has its stability
governance anc political
strategies is requirecl. Goocl
so a combinaton of
mportat touncation
for al courtries. 6
are an

key terms
introductory paragraphis very strong because it defines examples.
1 The
"Top-down', and 'Bottom-up' strategies. The question asks for
'Development, bottom-up strategies.
examples of top-down and
The answer clearly states two
out' the answer.
The introduction clearly 'sets
as it uses words such
important to include key words. This answer does this well,
2 It is
and 'microfinance.'
as 'short-term aid'
of trade.
improved by giving some disadvantages
3 The answer could be
the guidance above.
response to this answer using
Now, write an improved
 aLF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
The challenge of development
stucying
this topic, think
about how
ind any gaps
you to
After
will help
in your confident
This

knowledgeyouandarelearnwith the different

I can:
more
effectivelytoplcs.
Junderstand |the different ways ot Needs
the strengths and
measuring development more Work Getting
there
Ready to
evaluate

indicators to compare Countries weaknesses of

move on

describe and explain the aloobal patterrn of

development
reasons tor the
differences in levels of LICs, MICs, and
give,

and the HICs

d e v e l o p m e n t

development gap
the importance
economic
of
sustainable
understand

evaluate
strategies to address differences indevelopment
lof economic development. levels

291 )