Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 1.1
Topic: Respiration and Circulation

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

➢ Describe aerobic respiration as a reaction with oxygen

➢ Define respiration as the release of energy from food substances in all living cells
➢ State the equation (in words) for respiration
➢ Differentiate between respiration and breathing
➢ Identify the similarities in aerobic respiration in plants and animals
➢ Recognize that plants and other animals produce carbon dioxide during respiration.

• Respiration is a chemical process that involves the breakdown of nutrient molecules (specifically
glucose) in order to release the energy stored within the bonds of these molecules
• Respiration can take place with oxygen (aerobically) or without oxygen (anaerobically). Much
less energy is released for each glucose molecule broken down anaerobically compared to the
energy released when it is broken down aerobically
• Respiration occurs in all living cells. Most of the chemical reactions in aerobic respiration take
place in the mitochondria.

Aerobic Respiration:

• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells
that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
• It is the complete breakdown of glucose to release a relatively large amount of
energy for use in cell processes
• It produces carbon dioxide and water as well as releasing useful cellular energy.
Term II Class 8

Uses of Energy in the Body

• Humans need this energy to do the following things:

o Contract muscle
o Synthesise proteins
o Cell division (to make new cells)
o Grow
o Enable active transport to take place
o Allow nerve impulses to be generated
o Maintain a constant internal body temperature

Difference between breathing and respiration:

Breathing and cellular respiration are defining characteristics of living organisms. However,
these terms are not synonymous and there are significant differences between the two.

Cellular Respiration is the biochemical process of releasing energy, which can be utilized by our
body cells to perform various daily activities like walking, sitting, running and many other life
processes. Moreover, cellular respiration is an essential and vital process for maintaining the
proper functioning of the organ system. Breathing is the biological process by which the oxygen
gas is inhaled in, and carbon dioxide s is exhaled out from the lungs to improve gaseous
exchange within the living cells, tissues and other organs of the human body.
Term II Class 8

Breathing Cellular Respiration

Definition

Breathing involves the process of Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down
inhaling oxygen and exhaling of glucose to produce energy, which is then used by
carbon dioxide cells to carry out the cellular function.

Process Occurrence

Breathing takes place in the lungs.

Also involves the nose, mouth and Respiration takes place in cells
pharynx

Type of Process

Breathing is voluntary as well as an

involuntary physical process. (For
example, breathing during sleep is
Respiration is an involuntary chemical process.
involuntary. Voluntary breathing is
observed when we sing, speak,
swim or for relaxation techniques)

Production of Energy

There is no production of energy in

Energy is produced and released in the form of ATP.
this process.

Cellular Activity

As it occurs outside cells, it is called

the extracellular process. (Occurs As it occurs inside cells, it is called the intracellular
between the organism and the process.
external environment)

Enzyme used

No enzymes are used during the A large number of enzymes are used during the
process. process.

Associated Organs

Breathing occurs through

Respiration takes place in cells and cell organelles,
respiratory organs, including the
including mitochondria, etc.
nose, lungs, etc.
Term II Class 8

Respiration in Plants:

The process of respiration in plants involves using the sugars produced during photosynthesis
plus oxygen to produce energy for plant growth. In many ways, respiration is the opposite of
photosynthesis. In the natural environment, plants produce their own food to survive.
They use the carbon dioxide (CO2) from the environment to produce sugars and oxygen (O2),
which can later be utilized as a source of energy. While photosynthesis takes place in the leaves
and stems only, respiration occurs in the leaves, stems and roots of the plant. The process of
respiration is represented as follows:

oxygen + glucose ------------> carbon dioxide + water + heat energy.

 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 1.2
Topic: Respiration and Circulation

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

➢ Discuss the process of anaerobic respiration in humans and micro-organisms, including

fermentation and a word summary for anaerobic respiration
➢ Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration
➢ Compare the composition of inhaled and exhaled air
➢ Identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
capillaries
➢ Describe the role of, exchange surface of the alveoli in gas exchange.
➢ Analyze the effects of smoking, exercise and asthma on lungs and other body parts

➢ Anaerobic Respiration:

• Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells
that break down nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen
• It is the incomplete breakdown of glucose and releases a relatively small amount of energy for
use in cell processes
• It produces different breakdown products depending on the type of organism it is taking place in.

Anaerobic Respiration in Animals

• Anaerobic respiration mainly takes place in muscle cells during vigorous exercise
• When we exercise vigorously, our muscles have a higher demand for energy than when we are
resting or exercising normally. Our bodies can only deliver so much oxygen to our muscle cells for
aerobic respiration
• In this instance, as much glucose as possible is broken down with oxygen, and some glucose is
broken down without it, producing lactic acid instead
• There is still energy stored within the lactic acid molecules that the cell could use; for this
reason, less energy is released when glucose is broken down anaerobically.
 Term II Class 8

Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast

• We take advantage of the products of anaerobic respiration in yeast by using it in bread

making (where the carbon dioxide produced helps dough to rise) and in brewing (where the
ethanol produced makes beer).

Fermentation Definition
“Fermentation is an anaerobic process in which energy can be released from glucose even if
oxygen is not available.”

What is Fermentation?
Fermentation occurs in yeast cells and bacteria and also in the muscles of animals. It is an
anaerobic pathway in which glucose is broken down.

Types of Fermentation
There are different types of fermentation:

Lactic Acid Fermentation

In this, starch or sugar is converted into lactic acid by yeast strains and bacteria. During exercise,
energy expenditure is faster than the oxygen supplied to the muscle cells. This results in the
formation of lactic acid and painful muscles.

Alcohol Fermentation
Glucose is broken down into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Wine and beer are produced by alcoholic
fermentation.
Comparison of Aerobic & Anaerobic Respiration
 Term II Class 8

Differences between Inhaled & Exhaled Air

• Air that is breathed in and air that is breathed out has different amounts of gases in it due to
exchanges that take place in lungs.
• Atmospheric air contains around 20 – 21% oxygen, of which we only absorb around 4 – 5%,
breathing out air containing around 16% oxygen
• Normal carbon dioxide content of air is around 0.04% and, as carbon dioxide diffuses into the
alveoli from the blood, we breathe out air containing around 4% carbon dioxide
• The air we breathe out contains more water vapour than when we breathe it in, and
the temperature of exhaled air is higher than inhaled air.

Structure of the Breathing System

 Term II Class 8

• When you inhale, air enters the traches (windpipe) through nostrils. The trachea divides into two
tubes called bronchi, one to each lung. The bronchi then divide into smaller and smaller tubes
called bronchioles which end at the air sac (alveoli).
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Adaptations of the Alveoli

• The lungs are the gas exchange

surface in humans and so are adapted
to maximize the exchange of gas
by diffusion. The alveoli are highly
specialized structures;
o They (and the capillaries around
them) have thin, single layers of cells
to increase gaseous exchange.
o A layer of moisture on the surface of
the alveoli helps diffusion as gases
dissolve.

When you inhale, the ribs swing upwards and outwards and the diaphragm contracts and
flattens. The lungs expand and air is drawn in from outside the body into the lungs. When you
exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and arches upwards. The ribs move inwards and downwards. The
lungs become smaller and air is forced out of the lungs into the surroundings.

Smoking & the Gas Exchange System

• Smoking causes lung disease, coronary heart disease and increased risks of several different
types of cancer, including lung cancer
• Chemicals in cigarettes include:
o Tar - a carcinogen (a substance that causes cancer)
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o Nicotine - an addictive substance which also narrows blood vessels

o Carbon monoxide - reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

Asthma:

Asthma is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and may produce extra mucus.
This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, a whistling sound (wheezing) when you
breathe out and shortness of breath.

Exercise and breathing rate:

• Exercise increases the frequency and depth of breathing

• This can be investigated by counting the breaths taken during one minute at
rest and measuring average chest expansion over 5 breaths using a tape measure held around
the chest
• Exercise for a set time (at least 3 minutes)
• Immediately after exercising, count the breaths taken in one minute and measure the average
chest expansion over 5 breaths
• Following exercise, the number of breaths per minute will have increased and the chest
expansion will also have increased.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 1.3
Topic: Respiration and Circulation

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

➢ Examine the need of transport system in human beings

➢ Define circulatory system
➢ Describe the structure and function of heart
➢ Differentiate between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
➢ Differentiate between arteries, capillaries and veins
➢ State the role of capillaries in exchange of nutrients between blood and cells
➢ List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
➢ Name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver, kidney, legs , head and
arms

Human Circulatory System:

The human body is a complex machine, requiring many processes to function efficiently. To keep
these crucial processes running without any hitches, vital elements and components need to be
delivered to the various parts of the body.
This role of transportation is undertaken by the human circulatory system, moving essential
nutrients and minerals throughout the body and metabolic waste products away from the body.
The human circulatory system consists of a network of arteries, veins, and capillaries, with the heart
pumping blood through it. Its primary role is to provide essential nutrients, minerals, and hormones
to various parts of the body. Alternatively, the circulatory system is also responsible for collecting
metabolic waste and toxins from the cells and tissues to be purified or expelled from the body.

Features of Circulatory System:

• The human circulatory system consists of blood, heart and blood vessels
• The human circulatory system circulates blood through two loops (double circulation) – One for
oxygenated blood, another for deoxygenated blood.
• The human heart consists of four chambers – two ventricles and two auricles.
• The human circulatory system possesses a body-wide network of blood vessels. These comprise
arteries, veins, and capillaries.
• The primary function of blood vessels is to transport oxygenated blood and nutrients to all parts
of the body. It is also tasked with collecting metabolic wastes to be expelled from the body.
 Term II Class 8

• Most circulatory system diagrams do not visually represent its sheer length. Theoretically, if the
veins, arteries, and capillaries of a human were laid out, end to end, it would span a total distance
of 1,00,000 kilometres (or roughly eight times the diameter of the Earth).

Organs of Circulatory System

The human circulatory system comprises 4 main organs that have specific roles and functions. The
vital circulatory system organs include:

• Heart
• Blood (technically, blood is considered a tissue and not an organ)
• Blood Vessels

Heart
The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest cavity, right between the lungs. The human heart
is separated into four chambers; namely, two upper chambers called atria (singular: atrium),
and two lower chambers called ventricles.

• The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the
lungs
• The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body
• Blood is pumped towards the heart in veins and away from the heart in arteries
• The ventricles have thicker muscle walls than the atria as they are pumping blood out of the
heart and so need to generate a higher
pressure
• The left ventricle has a thicker muscle wall
than the right ventricle as it has to pump blood
at high pressure around the entire body,
whereas the right ventricle is pumping blood at
lower pressure to the lungs
• The septum separates the two sides of the
heart and so prevents mixing of oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood.
 Term II Class 8

Oxygenated blood refers to the blood that has been exposed to oxygen in the lung and is distributed
from heart to the entire body. Deoxygenated blood refers to the blood that has a low oxygen
saturation and is collected from the entire body and brought back to heart than to lungs for
oxygenation.

Blood
Blood is the body’s fluid connective tissue, and it forms a vital part of the human circulatory system.
Its main function is to circulate nutrients, hormones, minerals and other essential components to
different parts of the body. Blood flows through a specified set of pathways called blood vessels. The
organ which is involved in pumping blood to different body parts is the heart.
Blood is composed of:

• Plasma – the fluid part of the blood and is composed of 90% of water.
• Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets constitute the solid part of blood.

Types of Blood Cells

The human body consists of three types of blood cells, namely:
 Term II Class 8

• Red blood cells (RBC)

Red blood cells are mainly involved in transporting oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to
various parts of the body. These blood cells also remove waste from the body.

• White blood cells (WBC)

White blood cells are specialized cells, which function as a body’s defense system. They provide
immunity by fending off pathogens and harmful microorganisms.

• Platelets

Platelets are cells that help to form clots and stop bleeding. They act on the site of an injury or a
wound.

Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are a network of pathways through which blood travels throughout the
body. Arteries and veins are the two primary types of blood vessels in the circulatory system of
the body.
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of
the body. They are thick, elastic and are divided into a small network of blood vessels called
capillaries. The only exception to this is the pulmonary arteries, which carries deoxygenated
blood to the lungs.
Term II Class 8

Veins
Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart from various parts of
the body. They are thin, elastic and are present closer to the surface of the skin.
Capillaries

• Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood

• Have walls that are one cell thick
• Have ‘leaky’ walls
• Speed of flow is slow
Term II Class 8

Major Vessels in the Circulatory System

 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 2.4
Topic: Human Nervous System

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

➢ Identify the organs, functions and processes of the human nervous system
➢ Sketch and label a diagram of the human nervous system
➢ Relate how the brain works as a control station of a human body
➢ Identify the major parts of the brain- fore brain, mid brain, hind brain and describe their various
functions (cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, thalamus, hypothalamus, pons)
➢ Explain and represent how messages flow through the body from and to the brain, and how the
brain collaborates with sensory organs to regulate this process

What is the nervous system?

Nervous system guides almost everything you do, think, say or feel. It controls complicated
processes like movement, thought and memory. It also plays an essential role in the things your
body does without thinking, such as breathing, blushing and blinking.

Your nervous system affects every aspect of your health, including your:

• Thoughts, memory, learning, and feelings.

• Movements, such as balance and coordination.
• Senses, including how your brain interprets what you see, hear, taste, touch and feel.
• Sleep, healing and aging.
• Heartbeat and breathing patterns.
• Response to stressful situations.
• Digestion, as well as how hungry and thirsty you feel.
• Body processes.

This complex system is the command center for your body. It regulates your body’s systems and
allows you to experience your environment.
 Term II Class 8

What are the parts of the nervous system?

The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve
cells. These special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do.

The main parts of the nervous system are:

Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord

make up your CNS. Your brain uses your nerves to send

messages to the rest of your body.

Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system

consists of many nerves that branch out from your CNS all

over your body. This system relays information from your

brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers

and toes.

The Human Brain

On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg.
It is mainly composed of neurons – the fundamental unit
of the brain and nervous system. Recent estimates have
suggested that the brain contains anywhere between
86 billion to 100 billion neurons.
The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the
central nervous system. It is responsible for thoughts,
interpretation and origin of control for body movements.

Where is the Brain located?

The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The skull
consists of 22 bones, 14 of which form the facial bones and the remaining 8 form the cranial bones.
Anatomically, the brain is contained within the cranium and is surrounded by the cerebrospinal fluid.
CSF provides buoyancy for the brain. i.e., the brain is suspended in a layer of CSF, wherein, the
weight of the brain is nearly negated.
 Term II Class 8

Parts of Human Brain

Following are the major parts of the human brain:

Forebrain – Largest part of the brain

It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain parts include:

• Cerebrum (It coordinates movement and enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning,
problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other
senses) assists senses
• Hypothalamus (Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis)
• Thalamus (keeping you awake and alert. It has a role in thinking (cognition) and memory)
Forebrain Function: Controls the reproductive functions, body temperature, emotions, hunger
and sleep.
Fact: The largest among the forebrain parts is the cerebrum. It is also the largest part of all
vertebrate brains.

Midbrain: Smallest and central

part of the brain.

Midbrain Function: The midbrain

serves important functions
in motor movement, particularly
movements of the eye, and in
auditory and visual processing.

Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain

The hindbrain is composed of:

• Cerebellum (it keeps the body balanced and coordinates muscles during walking, running and
other activities)
• Medulla (controls the breathing and heartbeat. It also maintains blood pressure and body
temperature)
• Pons (It links your brain to your spinal cord, providing a route for signals to travel to and from
your brain)
Hindbrain functions: The three regions of the hindbrain coordinate all processes necessary for
survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and motor learning.
 Term II Class 8

What does the nervous system do?

Your nervous system uses specialized cells called neurons to send signals, or messages, all over your
body. These electrical signals travel between your brain, skin, organs and muscles.

The messages help you move your limbs and feel sensations, such as pain. Your eyes, ears, tongue,
nose and the nerves all over your body take in information about your environment. Then nerves
carry that data to and from your brain.

Different kinds of neurons send different signals. Motor neurons tell your muscles to move. Sensory
neurons take information from your senses and send signals to your brain. Other types of neurons
control the things your body does automatically, like breathing, shivering, having a regular heartbeat
and digesting food.
Term II Class 8
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 2.5
Topic: Human Nervous System

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

➢ Map the various steps in transmission of messages through the body and to the brain
➢ Describe the role and function of neurons in transmitting messages through the body
➢ Predict what could happen if a nerve connection broke

What is a Neuron?
Neurons are the building blocks of the nervous system. They receive and transmit signals to different
parts of the body. This is carried out in both physical and electrical forms. There are several different
types of neurons that facilitate the transmission of information.

• There are three main types of neurone: sensory, relay and motor
o Sensory neurones carry impulses from sense organs to the CNS (brain or spinal cord)
o Relay neurones are found inside the CNS and connect sensory and motor neurones
o Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)

HOW DO NEURONS SEND AND RECEIVE MESSAGES?

All of the cells in our body communicate with each other. That is how we are able to do so many
things in our daily lives, like eating breakfast and studying for school. In our brain and
bodies, Neurons communicate with each other by sending messages using a form of electricity. In
neurons, this electricity is created by the flow of charged particles called ions that move across the
outer membrane of the cell. The movement of ions carries an electrical wave along the length of the
neuron. The neuron has branches (like a tree) called dendrites, which receive signals, and a longer,
simpler projection (like a tree trunk), called an axon, which sends signals. Synapses are found at the
end of axons. How does the electrical signal jump from one neuron to another? The nerve cell
releases chemical signals, called neurotransmitters which travel across the synapse to another
 Term II Class 8

neuron to create a new electrical wave in that cell.

What could happen if a nerve connection broke:

When a nerve is cut, both the nerve and the insulation are broken. Injury to a nerve can stop the
transmission of signals to and from the brain, preventing muscles from working and causing loss of
feeling in the area supplied by that nerve. Nerves can be damaged by too much pressure, by
stretching, or by a cut A cut to the nerve can cause it to no longer transmit signals, because the
signal cannot jump through a gap in the nerve. Stretch injuries to the nerve can range from mild,
temporary nerve injury to a more severe, permanent nerve injury. The extent of the injury
depends on the amount of stretch.

• Numbness: Some nerves only transmit sensation, so a nerve injury to these nerves would cause
some amount of numbness.
• Weakness: In addition to sensory nerves, some nerves give you the ability to move, and other
nerves do both of these things. Injury to nerves that carry motor signals causes some amount of
weakness.
• Pain: This is frequently a symptom after nerve injury. The pain present after a nerve injury can be
anywhere along the course of the nerve, but it is typically at the injury site.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 3.6
Topic: Ecology

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Define Habitat
• Describe the characteristic features of different types of habitats
• Differentiate between population and community
• Describe how the communities in two habitats differ
• Identify the abiotic factors of the habitat
• Explain the importance of physical factors like air, water, temperature, light, mineral salts and pH
to the life of the living things

Key Terms in Ecology

• A population is defined as a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at
the same time
• A community includes all of the populations living in the same area at the same time. Within a
community, each species depends on other species for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc.
If one species is removed it can affect the whole community. This is called interdependence
• A habitat is the place where an organism lives. E.g badgers, deer, oak trees and ants are all species
that would live in a woodland habitat.

Types of habitat:
Different types of habitats are:
1) Terrestrial habitat:
Plants and animals that survive on land.

Types:

• Desert: At night, small animals stay out, while in

the day they stay inside the deep holes in the
sand.
Plants do not have leaves. Photosynthesis takes place through stems.

• Mountain: Plants are cone shaped, and leaves have needle-like structure.
Animals have thick fur to protect them from cold.

• Grassland: Brown in color, found in the grassy area.

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2) Aquatic habitat:

• Plants and animals that live under water.

Types:

• Ponds:
Plants with their roots fixed in the soil.
Plants whose roots are totally submerged in water.

• Oceans:
Animals have gills which help them in the utilization of dissolved oxygen in the water.
Some animals like whales and dolphins have nostrils to breathe.

How do populations and communities differ?

Communities differ from populations in several ways.

• size - A community is larger than a population.

• diversity - A community is more diverse than a population.
• structure - The structure of organisms in a population is similar, while dissimilar structures
exist within a community.
• behavior - Organisms in a population tend to behave in a similar manner, and there is less
behavioral similarity in a population.
• predators - There are no natural predators within a population, but predator/prey
relationships exist within communities.
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Abiotic Factors:

• In Biology, ‘abiotic’ means non-living

• An abiotic factor is a non-living factor within an environment such as temperature, light intensity and
wind speed.

They include:

Light intensity
• Some plants have evolved for optimum growth in bright sunlight. An example of this is a cactus
houseplant. Cacti originally come from deserts where they grow in bright sunlight. Other plants have
evolved to grow in shade.
• Many orchids, which are also kept as houseplants, grow on trees in the rainforest and have evolved for
optimum growth in darker conditions. If you were to put an orchid on a bright windowsill and a cactus in
a dark corner of your room neither plant would grow well.

Temperature
• Both animals and plants have evolved to grow healthily at their optimum temperatures. If you planted
either your cactus or orchid houseplants outside in cold temperatures, they would die. Similarly, animals
that have evolved to live at the North Pole, such as the polar bear, could not survive in warmer
conditions.
 Term II Class 8

• Moisture levels
• More people kill houseplants by overwatering than by under-watering them. Many plants cannot
survive in waterlogged soils. Their roots are unable to respire, they rot and the plant dies. Other
plants, such as pitcher plants, grow best in bogs where the moisture levels are high. Soil moisture
meters can accurately determine how wet an area is.

• Soil pH content
• The pH of soils can have a huge effect on the plants that are able to grow in them. Some plants,
like azaleas, grow best in acidic soils and will quickly die if planted in alkaline soils. Others, like
clematis, prefer alkaline soils. Some, like the hydrangea, can grow in both. These plants are
unusual in that their flower colour changes in different soils. Just like universal indicator paper,
hydrangea flowers are pink in acidic soils and blue in alkaline soils.

pH meters can accurately determine the pH of

soils.

The pH of water can also affect the aquatic organisms that are found there. Different species
have evolved to survive at different pH levels found within water.
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Soil mineral content

Many plants require high levels of soil minerals to grow well. An example of this is magnesium, which
is required to produce chlorophyll. Plants with unnaturally yellow leaves may have a
magnesium deficiency. Carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants, have evolved to catch insects to
supplement the low levels of minerals found in the soils in which they grow.

Wind intensity and direction

The strength of the wind and its direction has a huge impact on where organisms are found within
ecosystems. Many organisms prefer more sheltered locations. Plant seeds are more likely to settle
and germinate there, and animals which depend upon these are more likely to live close to where
they grow. The strength of the wind can also affect the growth of individual organisms.

Carbon dioxide levels for plants

Carbon dioxide is a reactant in photosynthesis which means plants need it to survive. Areas with
higher levels of carbon dioxide are more likely to have healthy plants growing. Farmers often release
carbon dioxide within their greenhouses to maximize their crop yield. Woodlands often have higher
carbon dioxide levels than open grassland, so many plants living in open areas have evolved
mechanisms to overcome a shortage of carbon dioxide.

Oxygen levels for aquatic animals

Oxygen from the air and oxygen produced by aquatic plants dissolves in water. Without this, aquatic
animals would suffocate and die. Healthy lakes and rivers have high levels of oxygen, and polluted
waters often have low levels of oxygen. This pollution means that only certain species can survive
there such as sludge worms. These are bioindicator species because their presence or absence
informs us about the condition of the habitat.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 3.7
Topic: Ecology

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Describe some strategies which plants adopt to avoid climatic stress

• Describe the adaptations to living in a variety of habitats and how these help the organism to
survive (biotic factors)
• State that the habitat together with the organisms living in it forms ecosystem
• List some examples of ecosystems found on Earth
• Study the importance of plant reproduction through insect pollination in human food security

Plant adaptations and features for extreme weather conditions

Hot Deserts

Hot deserts have an extreme climate and challenging environment. There is very little biodiversity in
hot deserts because of the harsh climate. Few species are specialized enough to survive there. Plants
and animals which do survive there have adapted to difficult conditions. The biotic or living
components and the abiotic or non-living components of the hot desert rely on one another - a
change in one will lead to a change in the other.

Plant adaptations - xerophytic

Plants with adaptations which allow them to live in hot and dry conditions are called xerophytic. The
following adaptations allow plants to survive in the hot desert environment:

• Small leaves - These ensure that less water is lost from the plant by transpiration because the leaf
has a smaller surface area.
• Tap roots - These are long roots (7-10 metres long) that reach deep under the ground to access
water supplies. The tap roots are much longer and bigger than the plant which is visible at the
surface.
• Spines - Some plants have spines instead of leaves, eg cactuses. Spines lose less water than leaves so
are very efficient in a hot climate. Spines also prevent animals from eating the plant.
• Waxy skin - Some leaves have a thick, waxy skin on their surface. This reduces water loss by
transpiration.
 Term II Class 8

• Water storage - Some plants, known as succulents, store water in their stems, leaves, roots or
even fruits. Plants which store water in their leaves and stems also have a thick waxy skin so
that they lose less water by transpiration.

Plant adaptations and features for cold environments

In order for plants to survive in cold environments they have had to adapt to the extreme
conditions found there. These unique adaptations include:

• Cushion plants - these are compact, low growing plants. These characteristics help them to
survive in cold and windy conditions. They trap airborne dust and use it as a source of nutrients.
• Arctic poppy - this has a hairy stem to retain heat. The flower can track the sun in the sky to
maximise the amount of sunlight it receives so that it can increase photosynthesis.
• Cotton grass - this grass has small seeds that can easily be dispersed by the wind to ensure its
survival. It is low lying to protect it from cold winds and has thin leaves to reduce water loss
by transpiration. Cotton grass grows and produces seeds quickly as soon as the temperature
increases.
• Lichen - this organism does not need soil to grow. It grows very slowly, can withstand very cold
temperatures and survives beneath snow.
Term II Class 8

Biotic factors

• In Biology, ‘biotic’ means living

• A biotic factor is a living factor in the environment such as competition, predation and
disease.
 Term II Class 8

Competition:

Organisms compete for their survival, territory, food and mates. It exists between animals of different
species and also within the members of the same species. E.g tigers mark the extensive areas of their
territories and will challenge any other tiger that tries to hunt in their territories.

Cooperation:

Organisms of the same species also cooperate to ensure the survival of their own species. For example,
lioness hunt together to increase the chances of catching a prey. Deer live in the large group called herd to
protect themselves from predators. Ants live in colonies where each ant specialises in a specific task to
ensure the survival of the whole colony.

Food relationships:

The most common interaction between organisms involve food.

Animals can be herbivore (plant eating). For example, butterflies and humming birds feed n nectar of the
flowers, caterpillar feed on leaves and birds feed on nuts.

Carnivores are animals which feed on other animals. Tigers, leopards, lions and eagles are carnivore.

Omnivore are animals which feed on both plants and animals. Pigs, bears and raccoons are few examples of
omnivores.

Scavengers are the organisms that feed on dead animals. For examples vultures and hyenas.

Predators-prey relationship is an example of food relationship between organisms. Predators are animals
that hunt other animals for food while the hunted are prey. Predators usually have strong jaws sharp teeth
and claws to hunt and kill their prey.

Camouflage:

Some predators and prey use camouflage to avoid being detected. Camouflage is a pattern or colouring that
disguises an organism or blends it with its surroundings so that it can hide from its predators. For example,
chameleon can change its colour to blend in which its surroundings. A katydid camouflages itself to hide
from predators.
Chameleon Katydid
 Term II Class 8

Mimicry:

The monarch butterfly is bad tasting. The viceroy butterfly mimics (copies) the appearance of the
Monarch butterfly to trick predators into thinking that they are monarch butterflies, hence avoiding
being eaten. Mimicking other organisms to fool predators is known as mimicry.

Appearing bigger and fiercer when threatened:

Some animals like puffer fish can make themselves bigger and more dangerous when threatened. A
puffer fish makes itself look bigger by inflating or puffing itself with the water or air. Some puffer fish
have thorny appearance when they swell. Some are also poisonous. These adaptations help puffer fish
to escape from predators.

Puffer fish makes itself bigger by inflating

Term II Class 8

Also find about Rafflesia and strangling fig.

 Term II Class 8

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is defined as all the biotic factors and all the abiotic factors that interact within
an area at one time

o Biotic factors includes all the living components such as plants and animals
o Abiotic factors includes all the non-living components such as light intensity, mineral ions, water
availability
o Ecosystems can vary greatly in size and scale
▪ A small ecosystem might be a garden pond
▪ A large ecosystem might be the whole of Antarctica.

Why is pollination important?

Pollination: Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a
flower to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create
offspring for the next generation. One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by making
seeds.
 Term II Class 8

Importance of plant reproduction through insect pollination in human food security

Pollination is an ecosystem service, which means that it is considered a consumer good and
a service that benefits human beings. This service is responsible for reproducing several plants and
crops that are substantially benefited directly or indirectly by pollination by animals such as bees,
butterflies, bats, and birds. It is estimated that 75% of all crops profit, to varying degrees, from this
type of pollination. Thus, pollination enables the production of food in quantity and quality, which
allows food security in several countries, especially in developing countries, whose economy is
based on agricultural export products. The decrease in animal pollinators causes severe
consequences for the economy and ecosystems. There is a decrease in non-domesticated plants,
imbalance in natural environments, decrease in food production and social welfare.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 4.8
Topic: Food Chains and Food Webs

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Define the terms producers, consumers and decomposers

• Explore and construct food chains in a particular habitat
• Identify food chains within food webs and describe what a food web shows
• Identify plants (producers) as a food source at the start of the food chains
• Describe how organisms interact using food chains and food webs
• Predict how changing size of one population in a food web will affect the numbers of other species

Levels of organization

An ecosystem is the interaction between a community of living organisms and their environment. A
community is two or more populations of organisms. An ecosystem is the interaction of two or more
populations of organisms in their environment.

Producers and consumers

Feeding relationships show what organisms eat or are eaten by others and through this the levels of
organisation in an ecosystem. These can be shown in food chains, which add together to make food
webs for a habitat.

A simple example of a food chain is:

grass → rabbits → foxes

At the base of almost every food chain is a producer. These are plants or algae,
which photosynthesis. This means they convert energy from the sun into glucose during
photosynthesis producing biomass. It is this which feeds the rest of the food chain.

All animals above the producer are called consumers. The first is the primary consumer, the next is
the secondary consumer. Animals that hunt and kill others are called predators, and those that are
hunted and killed are called prey. The top animal in the feeding relationship is called the apex
predator.

Decomposers

Decomposers are bacteria and fungi, which break down dead organisms in a process called
decomposition or rotting. They do this by releasing enzymes onto the dead matter and afterwards,
 Term II Class 8

consume the broken down substances. They form a vital role in the recycling of matter. When
organisms die and decompose plants absorb the broken down nutrients through their roots.

Food chains

A food chain shows what eats what in a particular habitat. It shows the flow of energy and
materials from one organism to the next, beginning with a producer.

In the example, grass seeds are eaten by voles, and voles are eaten by barn owls. The arrows
between each organism in the chain always point in the direction of energy flow from the food
to the feeder.

The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for most communities of living things. Green plants are
usually the producers in a food chain.

Producers are organisms that make their own organic nutrients (food) - usually using energy
from sunlight. Green plants make their food by photosynthesis. The other organisms in a food
chain are consumers, because they all get their energy by consuming other organisms.

• A food chain shows the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, starting with a
producer
• The source of all energy in a food chain is light energy from the Sun
• The arrows in a food chain show the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next
• Energy is transferred from one organism to another by ingestion (eating)
• In the food chain above:
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Food Webs

• A food web is a network of interconnected food chains

• Food webs are more realistic ways of showing connections between organisms within
an ecosystem as animals rarely exist on just one type of food source.
 Term II Class 8

• Food webs give us a lot more information about the transfer of energy in an ecosystem
• They also show interdependence - how the change in one population can affect others within
the food web
• For example, in the food web above, if the population of earthworms decreased:
o The population of grass plants would increase as there are now fewer species feeding off
them
o The populations of frogs and mice would decrease significantly as earthworms are their only
food source
o The population of sparrows would decrease slightly as they eat earthworms but also have
another food source to rely on (caterpillars)
• Most of the changes in populations of animals and plants happen as a result of human
impact - either by overharvesting of food species or by the introduction of foreign species to
a habitat
• Due to interdependence, these can have long-lasting knock-on effects to organisms
throughout a food chain or web.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 4.9
Topic: Food Chains and Food Webs

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Describe the noncyclic, unidirectional flow of energy through the food chains
• Construct pyramid of numbers
• Examine role of decomposers in recycling the nutrients in the environment
• Recognize that plants benefit from waste products and the decay of organisms

Trophic Levels

• Trophic levels describe the position of an organism in a food chain, web or pyramid
• Animals (known as consumers) can be at different trophic levels within the same food web as
they may eat both primary, secondary and / or tertiary consumers
• Energy flows from the sun to the first trophic level (producers) in the form of light
• Producers convert light energy into chemical energy and it flows in this form from one consumer
to the next
• Eventually all energy is transferred to the environment – energy is passed on from one level to
the next with some being used and lost at each stage
• Energy flow is a non-cyclical process – once the energy gets to the top of the food chain or web, it
is not recycled but ‘lost’ to the environment
• This is in direct contrast to the chemical elements that organisms are made out of, which are
repeatedly recycled.
 Term II Class 8

Transfer of Energy

• In order for the energy to be passed on, it has to be consumed (eaten)

• However not all of the energy grass plants receive goes into making new cells that can be eaten
• The same goes for the energy the vole gets from the grass, and the energy the barn owl gets from
the vole
• Only the energy that is made into new cells remains with the organism to be passed on
• Even then, some of this energy does not get consumed - for example few organisms eat an entire
organism, including roots of plants or bones of animals - but energy is still stored in these parts
and so it does not get passed on
• The majority of the energy an organism receives gets ‘lost’ (or ‘used’) through:
o making waste products eg (urine) that get removed from the organism
o as movement
o as heat (in mammals and birds that maintain a constant body temperature)
o as undigested waste (faeces) that is removed from the body and provides food for decomposers
• This inefficient loss of energy at each trophic level explains why food chains are rarely more than 5
organisms long
• In the example above, something that preyed regularly on the barn owl would only get 0.1J of
energy from each barn owl it ate
• In order to survive, it would have to:
o eat a huge number of them every day to get the amount of energy it needed to survive .
 Term II Class 8

Energy Transfer in Human Food Chains

• Humans are omnivores, obtaining energy from both plants and animals, and this gives us a choice
of what we eat
• These choices, however, have an impact on what we grow and how we use ecosystems
• Think of the following food chains both involving humans:

wheat → cow → human

wheat → human

• Given what we know about energy transfer in food chains, it is clear that if humans eat the
wheat there is much more energy available to them than if they eat the cows that eat the
wheat
• This is because energy is lost from the cows, so there is less available to pass on to humans
• Therefore, it is more energy efficient within a crop food chain for humans to be the
herbivores rather than the carnivores
• In reality, we often feed animals on plants that we cannot eat (eg grass) or that are too widely
distributed for us to collect (eg algae in the ocean which form the food of fish we eat).

Pyramids of Number

• A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms we are talking about at each level of a food
chain.
• The width of the box indicates the number of organisms at that trophic level
• The producer always goes at the bottom of the pyramid.
• For example, consider the following food chain:
 Term II Class 8

• So, a pyramid of numbers for this food chain would look like this:

• Despite the name (and the example above), a pyramid of numbers doesn’t always have to be
pyramid-shaped, for example:

• This is because the size of the organism is also important - one large organism, like the oak tree
in the pyramid above, contains enough energy to support many smaller organisms (the insects).
 Term II Class 8

Rules to remember when drawing a pyramid of numbers:

• You cannot change the trophic level of the organisms - they must stay in the same order
as in the food chain with producers on the bottom, followed by primary consumers, then
secondary consumers, then tertiary consumers.
• Generally, the larger an individual organism is, the less of them there are.

Decomposers:

Decomposers feed on dead things: dead plant materials such as leaf litter and wood, animal carcasses,
and feces. They perform a valuable service as Earth’s cleanup crew. Without decomposers, dead leaves,
dead insects, and dead animals would pile up everywhere. Imagine what the world would look like!

More importantly, decomposers make vital nutrients available to an ecosystem’s primary producers—
usually plants and algae. Decomposers break apart complex organic materials into more elementary
substances: water and carbon dioxide, plus simple compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and
calcium. All of these components are substances that plants need to grow.

Some decomposers are specialized and break down only a certain kind of dead organism. Others are
generalists that feed on lots of different materials. Thanks to decomposers, nutrients get added back to
the soil or water, so the producers can use them to grow and reproduce.

Most decomposers are microscopic organisms, including protozoa and bacteria. Other decomposers are
big enough to see without a microscope. They include fungi along with invertebrate organisms sometimes
called detritivores, which include earthworms, termites, and millipedes.

Fungi are important decomposers, especially in forests. Some kinds of fungi, such as mushrooms, look like
plants. But fungi do not contain chlorophyll, the pigment that green plants use to make their own food
with the energy of sunlight. Instead, fungi get all their nutrients from dead materials that they break
down with special enzymes.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 5.9
Topic: The Rock Cycle

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Recognize that sedimentary rocks can be formed by pressure from layers of sediment e.g; Sandstone
and chalk
• Describe characteristics of sedimentary rocks; e.g. Non-inter-locking, porous, contain fossils
• Describe some observable differences between limestones and relate the composition of limestone to
the process of formation
• Generalise that rocks are mixtures and vary in composition

What are Rocks?

Rocks are mineral aggregates with a combination of properties of all the mineral traces. Any
unique combination of chemical composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other
distinguishing characteristics can describe rock types. Additionally, different classification
systems exist for each major type of rock. There are different types of rocks existing in nature.
Rocks which are found in nature rarely show such simple characteristics and usually exhibit
some variation in the set of properties as the measurement scale changes. The changes in
mineral composition of rocks is due to changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of
metamorphism.
What is porosity?

Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock.

Types of Rocks
There are three types of rocks:

• Igneous Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the broken remains of other rocks that become joined
together.
Term II Class 8

A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as it flows along. When the river reaches a
lake or the sea, its load of transported rocks settles to the bottom. We say that the rocks
are deposited. The deposited rocks build up in layers, called sediments. This process is
called sedimentation.

The weight of the sediments on top squashes the sediments at the bottom. This is
called compaction. The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of rock and crystals of
different salts form. The crystals stick the pieces of rock together. This process is
called cementation.

These processes eventually make a type of rock called sedimentary rock. It may take millions of
years for sedimentary rocks to form.

Here are the different processes in order:

What are sedimentary rocks like?

Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. The oldest layers are at the bottom and the
youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants
trapped in the sediments as the rock was formed. Sedimentary rocks are formed from
sediments that have settled at the bottom of a lake, sea or ocean, and have been compressed
over millions of years. The sediment comes from eroded rocks carried there by rivers or ice, and
from the skeletons of sea creatures.

Examples of sedimentary rocks include sandstone, limestone, chalk and clay.

 Term II Class 8

Properties of a sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are largely found on the Earth’s surface. They cover 75% area of the Earth.
These rocks are generally not crystalline in nature. They are soft and have many layers as they
are formed due to the deposition of sediments.

Interesting Facts about Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by sediment that is deposited over time.

• Flint is a hard, sedimentary form of the mineral quartz.

• Sedimentary rocks cover most of the Earth’s rocky surface, but they only make up a very small
percentage of the planet’s crust.
• They often contain fossils of plants and animals millions of years old.
• Limestone is often made from the fossilized remains of ocean life that died millions of years
ago.
• These rocks form layers called strata which can often be seen in exposed cliffs.

Limestone

Sedimentary rock composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestones have a
granular texture. Their constituent grains range in size from 0.001 mm (0.00004 inch) to visible
particles. In many cases, the grains are microscopic fragments of fossil animal shells.

Different types of limestones:

Shelly Limestone

This rock is made up of well cemented bioclasts. The bioclasts (mainly shell fragments) are
poorly sorted, ranging from <1mm up to a few 10s of mm.
Fine-grained cement fizzes with acid, indicating that it is carbonate. It has weathered to a pale
yellow-grey.
Term II Class 8

Chalk

It is composed mainly of fine-grained calcium carbonate formed from the remains of certain
types of micro-organisms. Like any other high-purity limestone, chalk is used for making lime
and cement and also used as a fertilizer.

Oolitic limestone

It is composed mainly of sand sized pellets of calcium carbonate which are formed in warm
shallow water.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 5.10
Topic: The Rock Cycle

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Recognise that increasing temperature and pressure can cause some rocks to change into the solid
state
• Recognise that metamorphic rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks during metamorphism
• Differentiate between metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
• Explain that igneous rocks are formed from magma and name some igneous rocks
• Express speed of cooling to the size of the crystal and explain this in terms of the particle model
• Examine the size of grain to where the crystal was formed
• Use data to assign igneous rocks to one of main groups; dense iron- rich or less dense silica rich

Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed because of heat or pressure.
They are not made from molten rock – rocks that do melt form igneous rocks instead.

Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or squeezed. As a result, the rocks are
heated and put under great pressure. They do not melt, but the minerals they contain are
changed chemically, forming metamorphic rocks.
 Term II Class 8

Metamorphic rocks have been subjected to tremendous heat and/or pressure, causing them to
change into another type of rock. They are usually resistant to weathering and erosion and are
therefore very hard-wearing. Examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, which originates
from limestone and slate, which originates from clay.

slate and marble

What are metamorphic rocks like?

Marble is formed from limestone and contains tiny interlocking grains. The layers in slate,
formed from shale, are arranged in layers. This makes slate useful for making roof tiles because
it can be split into separate flat sheets.

Characteristics of metamorphic rocks

• These are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are changed.
• Heat and/or pressure will cause the elements in the original rock to react and re-form.
• Metamorphic rocks are highly resistant to erosion and are often used in building materials.
Term II Class 8

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

On these rocks, one can witness the arrangement of certain mineral grains appearing like
parallel stripes. Foliation occurs when pressure forces compress minerals within a rock to align
in an elongate or flat way. These rocks form a sheet-like structure which reflects pressure
applied direction.
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are granite, gneiss, and biotite schist.

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

These types of rocks are formed of minerals that are not flat or elongated. Here, the grains will
not be aligned when pressure is applied. Layered or banded appearances are not seen on non-
foliated metamorphic rocks.
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks are skarn, novaculite, marble, hornfels, and quartzite.

Differences between metamorphic and sedimentary rocks

 Term II Class 8

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from molten rock that has cooled and solidified.

The inside of the Earth is very hot - hot enough to melt rocks. Molten (liquid) rock is
called magma. When the magma cools enough, it solidifies and igneous rock forms.

What are igneous rocks like?

Igneous rocks contain randomly arranged interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depends
on how quickly the molten magma solidified:

• magma that cools slowly will form an igneous rock with large crystals
• lava that cools quickly will form an igneous rock with small crystals
This means that we get two main types of igneous rock, extrusive and intrusive, as shown in the
table:

Extrusive igneous rocks form from magma that erupted onto the surface as lava, where it
cooled quickly. On the other hand, intrusive igneous rocks form from magma that cooled
slowly, deep underground.
Term II Class 8

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks

1. The igneous form of rocks does not include any fossil deposits. If there are any chances
of fossil deep inside the crust, it erupts out of the Earth’s surface and gets destroyed
due to the sheer heat these rocks produce.
2. Most igneous forms include more than one mineral deposit.
3. They can be either glassy or coarse.
4. These usually do not react with acids.
5. The mineral deposits are available in the form of patches with different sizes.

Based on mineral composition igneous rocks are classified as igneous rocks rich in silica while
others are rich in iron.

Type of igneous rock Rich in silica or iron?

Basalt Iron
Gabbro Iron
Granite Silica
Obsidian Silica
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 5.11
Topic: The Rock Cycle
By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Examine relative density to composition of igneous rocks

• Identify and link the rock forming process
• Recognise how the Rock Cycle provides a continuous supply and transformation of the earth

How to examine relative density to composition of igneous rocks

Are iron-rich igneous rocks denser or less dense than silica-rich igneous rocks? We can find it out by
comparing the densities of different types of igneous rocks such as gabbro and granite.

• First measure the mass of each sample using electronic balance and record it in a table.
• Fine the volume of each sample by using the displacement method and record it in the same table.
• Calculate the density of the sample by using the formula: Density= Mass/Volume
• Record the density in the table and compare the densities of the different samples.

Displacement method to
measure the volume of the
sample (rock).

The Rock Cycle Continual change:

The Earth's rocks do not stay the same forever. They are continually changing because of processes
such as weathering, erosion and large earth movements. The rocks are gradually recycled over
millions of years. This is called the rock cycle.

For example, sedimentary rocks can be changed into metamorphic rocks. These can be weathered,
eroded, and the pieces transported away. The pieces of rock could be deposited in a lake or sea,
eventually forming new sedimentary rock. Many routes through the rock cycle are possible.
Term II Class 8

The processes in the rock cycle are summarized in this diagram:

 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 6.11
Topic: Sound and Hearing

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Explain how sounds are made

• Identify the source of vibrations in a range of cases
• Explain with reference to particle model of matter, the speed of sound in different mediums
• Conclude why sound cannot travel in space
• Define terms compressions and rarefactions

Sound

• Sound waves consist of vibrating molecules. They are a type of longitudinal wave.
• Longitudinal waves-the vibrations are in the same direction as the direction of travel.

How sound is produced?

Sound is a type of energy made by vibrations. When an object vibrates, it causes movement in
surrounding air molecules. These molecules bump into the molecules close to them, causing
them to vibrate as well. This makes them bump into more nearby air molecules.
Vocal Cords
Speaking involves vibrations. To speak, we move air past our

vocal cords, which makes them vibrate. We change the sounds

we make by stretching those vocal cords. When the vocal cords

are stretched we make high sounds and when they are loose

we make lower sounds.

Term II Class 8

Loudspeakers

Sound waves are produced by all vibrating objects.

Loudspeakers work by converting electrical energy

into kinetic energy. This moves the cone which creates

the sound waves.

Tuning Fork

A tuning fork serves as a useful illustration of how a vibrating object can produce sound. The
fork consists of a handle and two tines. When the tuning fork is hit with a rubber hammer, the
tines begin to vibrate. The back-and-forth vibration of the tines produce disturbances of
surrounding air molecules.
 Term II Class 8

How Does Sound Travel?

Mediums

Before we discuss how sound travels, it’s important to understand what a medium is and how it
affects sound. We know that sound can travel through gases, liquids, and solids. But how do these
affect its movement? Sound moves most quickly through solids, because its molecules are densely
packed together. This enables sound waves to rapidly transfer vibrations from one molecule to
another. Sound moves similarly through water, but its velocity is over four times faster than it is in
air. The velocity of sound waves moving through air can be further reduced by high wind speeds
that dissipate the sound wave’s energy.

Speed of Sound
The speed at which sound waves propagate through a medium is known as the speed of sound. The
speed of sound is different in different media. The speed of sound is highest in solids because the
atoms in solid are highly compressed. The interaction between atoms in a particle is highly
dependent on the distance between them. Higher the interaction between the atoms, the quicker
the energy is transferred. As the interaction of the particles in solids is high, the speed of sound is
faster than liquids and gases. The table below lists the speed of sound in different media.

When a sound is produced, it causes the air molecules to bump into their neighbouring
molecules, who then bump into their neighbours, and so on. There is a progression of collisions
that pass through the air as a sound wave.

Air itself does not travel with the wave (there is no gush or puff of air that accompanies each
sound); each air molecule moves away from a rest point and then, eventually, returns to it.

Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because there are no

particles to carry the vibrations.
Term II Class 8

Compression & Rarefaction

• Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:

o A compression is a place where the molecules are bunched together
o A rarefaction is a place where the molecules are spread out.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 6.12
Topic: Sound and Hearing

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Identify and label parts of the ear and explain how sound is transmitted and transformed into
electrical signal which pass to the brain
• Describe high, low, loud and soft sounds
• Suggest ways to change the pitch and loudness of sounds from musical instruments
• Explain the terms amplitude, wavelength and frequency
• Identify high pitch to high frequency and high amplitude to loudness
• Use a sound level meter or other methods to compare loudness of sounds
• Describe how hearing ability changes with age and that hearing can be damaged
• Describe examples of animals detecting sounds which are inaudible to human ears
• Describe how echoes are formed
•

Detecting sound

Ears

We can detect sound using our ears. An ear has an eardrum inside, connected to three small
bones. The vibrations in the air make the eardrum vibrate, and these vibrations are passed
through the three small bones (called ossicles) to a spiral structure called the cochlea. Signals
are passed from the cochlea to the brain through the auditory nerve, and our brain interprets
these signals as sound.

Outer ear - Part of the ear you can see. Shaped like a funnel to collect sound waves and send
them to the inner ear. Also called the pinna

Ear canal - Tube that runs from the outer ear to the inner ear. Lined with cells that produce ear
wax

Ear wax - Protects the ear by trapping dirt and fighting infections

Ear drum - Thin layer of tightly stretched skin. It vibrates when sound waves hit it

Hammer or Malleus - One of the three tiny bones in the ear. It moves when the ear drum
vibrates

Anvil or Incus - The second tiny bone in the ear. The anvil is moved by the hammer
 Term II Class 8

Stirrup or Stapes - The third tiny bone in the ear. It is moved by the anvil

Cochlea - Spiral tube. When the stirrup moves, fluid inside the cochlea moves. Hearing
receptors turn the movement into signals

Auditory nerve - Carries messages from the cochlea to the brain. The brain makes sense of
these signals as sounds.

Waves: Basics

• Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:

o When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it: The points on the
wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions.

Wavelength

• The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the
next wave. Usually this is measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave.
Wavelength is usually measured in metres (a distance).

Amplitude

• The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of the wave to its top (or from
the middle to its bottom).
 Term II Class 8

Frequency

• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being created or received)
every second - it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second
• The units of frequency are hertz (Hz)

Pitch

• The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound waves
o If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch
o If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch
 Term II Class 8

Loudness

• The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of sound waves
o If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude.

In musical instruments like flute, the pitch of the sound changes by changing the length of the
vibrating air column with different holes in it closed at a time to produce variable notes.
Tension refers to how tightly the string is stretched. Tightening the string gives it a higher
frequency while loosening it lowers the frequency. When string players tighten or loosen their
strings, they are altering the pitches to make them in tune. The density of a string will also
affect its frequency.

Range of Human Hearing

• The human ear responds to the vibrations caused by sound waves

• The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
Term II Class 8

Methods for the detection of Sound:

The loudness of a sound relates the intensity of any given sound to the intensity at the
threshold of hearing. It is measured in decibels (dB).

What is a sound level meter?

A Sound Level Meter (SLM) is an instrument (commonly hand-held) that is designed to measure
sound levels in a standardized way. It responds to sound in approximately the same way as the
human ear and gives objective, reproducible measurements of sound pressure levels.

A sound level meter comprises a microphone, a preamplifier, signal processing, and a display.
The microphone converts the sound signal to an equivalent electrical signal.

Microphones

Mobile phones and telephones contain microphones. These devices contain a diaphragm,
which does a similar job to an ear drum. The vibrations in air make the diaphragm vibrate, and
these vibrations are changed to electrical impulses. In the lab, the electrical impulses can be
sent to an oscilloscope, which represents them as a graph on a screen.

Oscilloscope traces

The graphs shown by an oscilloscope are called oscilloscope traces. The diagrams show some
typical oscilloscope traces for sound:
 Term II Class 8

Age-related hearing loss

Age-related hearing loss, or presbycusis, is the slow loss of hearing that occurs as people get
older.

Causes
Tiny hair cells inside your inner ear help you hear. They pick up sound waves and change them
into the nerve signals that the brain interprets as sound. Hearing loss occurs when the tiny hair
cells are damaged or die. The hair cells DO NOT regrow, so most hearing loss caused by hair cell
damage is permanent.

There is no known single cause of age-related hearing loss. Most commonly, it is caused by
changes in the inner ear that occur as you grow older. Your genes and loud noise (from rock
concerts or music headphones) may play a large role.

The following factors contribute to age-related hearing loss:

• Family history (age-related hearing loss tends to run in families)

• Repeated exposure to loud noises

• Smoking (smokers are more likely to have such hearing loss than nonsmokers)

• Certain medical conditions, such as diabetes

• Certain medicines, such as chemotherapy drugs for cancer.

Inaudible sound
Human ear cannot detect sound frequencies less than 20 vibrations per second i.e. 20 Hz. So
any sound below this frequency will be inaudible sound for humans. In the high-frequency
range, the human ear cannot detect frequencies above 20000 vibrations per second (20 kHz)
and the amplitude of the wave would be dependent on the loudness of the sound. So the
frequencies below 20 Hz and above 20 kHz comes under the category of inaudible frequencies.
The low-frequency sound which the human ear cannot detect is also known as infrasonic
sound. Whereas the higher range inaudible frequency is also known as ultrasonic sound.
Some animals like dogs have the ability to hear sounds having frequencies higher than 20 kHz.
The police department uses whistles with frequencies higher than 20 kHz so that only dogs can
listen to it. Inaudible frequencies are helpful for many purposes. These are used in many fields
like research and medicine. The ultrasound equipment used for tracking and studying many
medical problems works at frequencies above 20 kHz.
Animals that communicate using infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds

1. Bats, praying mantis, dolphins, dogs, frogs, toads, etc. communicate via ultrasonic
sounds.
Term II Class 8

2. Rhinos, hippos, elephants, whales, octopuses, pigeons, squid, cuttlefish, cod, Guinea
fowl, etc. communicate via infrasonic sounds.

How Echo is formed?

An echo is formed when the reflection of a sound wave off a distance surface takes place.
Sound and echo seem to be similar concepts, but are not. They are different phenomena of
sound. When the sound is repeated when the sound wave is reflected, it is known as echo. Echo
is heard when space is large.

When the reflection of the sound due to multiple sources happens within an enclosed system
or when a sound wave is reflected off a nearby surface, reverberation
happens. Reverberation is the reflection of sound waves created by the superposition of such
echoes.
Term II Class 8

Echo sounding

High frequency sound waves can be used to detect objects in deep water and to measure water
depth.

The time between a pulse of sound being transmitted and detected and the speed of sound in
water can be used to calculate the distance of the reflecting surface or object.

The process is very similar to ultrasound imaging.

For deep water, 50 kHz is the preferred frequency of the ultrasound.

This is because water absorbs sound waves at a slower rate than for lower frequencies and so
the signal can travel farther before becoming too weak to use.

This technique is applied in sonar systems used to measure the depth of the seabed and to find
shipwrecks, submarines and shoals of fish.

SONAR stands for SOund Navigation And Ranging.

Bats and dolphins use a similar method, called echolocation, to detect their surroundings and
to find food.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 7.13
Topic: Magnetism

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Differentiate between magnets and magnetic materials

• Recognize that like poles of a magnet repel and unlike poles attract
• Explain why repulsion and not attraction is the test of a magnet
• Recognise that magnetic forces act through non-magnetic materials
• Design and use a method for measuring magnetic strength
• Recognise Earth's magnetic field which attracts a freely-pivoted magnet to line up with it
• Recognise that a freely-moving magnet comes to rest pointing in a north-south direction

What is a Magnet?
A magnet is defined as
An object which is capable of producing magnetic field and attracting unlike poles and repelling like
poles.

Properties of Magnet
Following are the basic properties of magnet:

• When a magnet is dipped in iron filings, we can observe that the iron filings cling to the end of
the magnet as the attraction is maximum at the ends of the magnet. These ends are known
as poles of the magnets.
• Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
• Whenever a magnet is suspended freely in mid-air, it always points towards north-south
direction. Pole pointing towards geographic north is known as the North Pole and the pole
pointing towards geographic south is known as the South Pole.
• Like poles repel while unlike poles attract.
• The magnetic force between the two magnets is greater when the distance between these
magnets are lesser.

What are Magnetic Materials?

• A magnetic material is a material that experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field
• Although all magnetic materials are metallic, not all metals are magnetic
• Common magnetic materials include:
 Term II Class 8

o Iron
o Steel (an alloy of iron)
o Nickel
o Cobalt
• Note: Copper and Aluminium are non-magnetic.

Hard and Soft Materials

• Magnetically soft materials (e.g. Iron):

o Are easy to magnetise
o Easily lose their magnetism
• Magnetically hard materials (e.g. Steel):
o Are hard to magnetise
o Do not easily lose their magnetism
• Permanent magnets are made out of magnetically hard materials, as we don’t want them to lose
their magnetism
• Electromagnets are made out of magnetically soft materials, as we want them to be able to easily
gain and lose their magnetism.

Magnetic Fields

• In the space around a magnet there is a magnetic

field
• Magnetic field lines are a useful way of helping us
to picture that field: Its strength and its direction.
 Term II Class 8

• Magnetic field lines obey a couple of rules:

o They always go from north to south ((indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
o They never touch or cross other field lines

• When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:

Why repulsion is the sure test for magnetism ?

This is because , Repulsion takes place only between two likes poles of a magnet whereas attraction
takes place between two unlike poles of a magnet and also between a magnet and a magnetic
material . So by attraction it cannot be surely identified the substance is a magnet or not . So ,
repulsion is the sure test of magnetism .

A permanent magnet can:

 Term II Class 8

• attract or repel another permanent magnet

• attract a magnetic material (but not repel it)
This means that you can only show that an object is a permanent magnet by checking if it repels
another magnet.

Magnetic fields

A magnet creates a magnetic field around it. You cannot see a magnetic field, but you can
observe its effects. A force is exerted on a magnetic material brought into a magnetic field. The
force is a non-contact force because the magnet and the material do not have to touch each
other.

How to compare the strength of different magnets:

Materials:

• 3-5 Paperclips (even more if you want to see how long of a chain you can make)
• Magnet

Instructions
1. Begin by trying to get the paperclips to stick together to form a chain. Do this put holding one
paperclip and then putting another next to it. You’ll notice that when you let go the paperclip
falls to the table. There is no way to get the paperclips to stick together, unless we add another
item.
2. Next, take a magnet and place one paperclip on it. Helpful Tip: The stronger the magnet, the
more paperclips you will be able to stick together.
3. Next, slowly add a second paperclip to the bottom of the first one. Take your time on this one
because the magnetic force will want to pull the second paperclip up to the magnet, but if you
are patient, you can get it to balance at the end of the first paperclip.
4. Once you have two paperclips stick together, try to add another and then another, until you’ve
formed a long paperclip chain.
5. Add a fun twist and remove the paperclip chain from the magnet. To do this, pinch and hold the
first paperclip, then slowly pull the magnet away. Then watch in amazement as the paperclip
chain stays together.

The Earth's Magnetic Field

• On Earth, in the absence of any magnet or magnetic materials, a magnetic compass will always
point north
 Term II Class 8

o This is evidence that the core of the Earth is magnetic and creates its own magnetic
field
• The Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a bar magnet

• On Earth, the north arrow on a magnetic compass will point towards the geographic
North Pole (in the Arctic Ocean)
o This is because the geographic North Pole is a magnetic south pole (the magnetic
field lines point into the pole)
o The north pole of the magnetic compass is attracted to the Earth's magnetic south
pole

• The geographic South Pole (in Antarctica) is a magnetic north pole (the magnetic field lines
point out of the pole)
• The north pole of the magnetic compass is repelled from the Earth's magnetic north pole
Term II Class 8

If a bar magnet is freely suspended, it will swing until its one end points towards the north pole
of the earth and the other towards the south pole of the earth. A freely suspended magnet
comes to rest always in the north-south direction. We call it a freely suspended magnet
because it is free to move in any direction. If we turn the magnet by hand so that it points in
another direction and then leave it. We will see that after a while the magnet comes back to its
earlier position and again points in the same north-south direction.

The end of magnet which points towards the north direction is called north-seeking end or
north pole of the magnet.

The end of magnet which points towards the south direction is called south-seeking end or
south pole of the magnet.

It is only a freely suspended magnet (or a freely pivoted magnet) which always comes to rest
along the same direction (north-south direction) even after being disturbed again and again.
 Term II Class 8

The City School

Handout #: 7.14
Topic: Magnetism

By reading this handout, learners will be able to:

• Describe how to magnetize a magnetic material

• Construct an electromagnet and identify the factors that affect the strength of an electromagnet
• Describe how electromagnets are used in domestic and industrial devices e.g. electrical devices,
lifting magnets
• Describe and demonstrate the magnetic field of a magnet using iron filings
• Recognise that the magnetic field line patterns represent the strength of magnetic fields
• Demonstrate the direction of magnetic field using a compass
• Recognise and demonstrate that current in a wire/coil produces a magnetic field similar to that of a
bar magnet

Creating and Destroying Magnets

• Magnets are usually made from hard magnet materials

• There are several ways in which a magnet can be created:
Term II Class 8

Using a direct current (d.c.) in a coil:

Hitting with a hammer:

• If the material is placed in a magnetic field and then hit with a hammer, the material will
also become magnetised.

Methods of Demagnetisation

• Magnets can be demagnetised by using one of the following methods:

o Hit the material with a hammer (when it is not in a magnetic field)
o Heat the material (until it begins to glow) and then slowly let it cool
 Term II Class 8

o Place the material in a coil containing alternating current (a.c.) and then slowly
withdraw the material (with the a.c. power source still attached to the coil).

What is an electromagnet?

When a current flows in a wire, it creates a circular magnetic field around the wire. This
magnetic field can deflect the needle of a magnetic compass. The strength of the magnetic field
is greater:

• closer to the wire

• if the current is increased

Solenoids

A solenoid consists of a wire coiled up into a spiral shape. When an electric current flows, the
shape of the magnetic field is very similar to the field of a bar magnet. The field inside a
solenoid is strong and uniform. The small magnetic fields caused by the current in each coil add
together to make a stronger overall magnetic field.
 Term II Class 8

Electromagnets

A solenoid with an iron core is called an electromagnet. The iron core increases the solenoid’s
magnetic field strength. A simple electromagnet is made by coiling wire around an iron nail.

Electromagnets have the following uses:

• A soft iron core is useful when you want an electromagnet to switch off rapidly.
• Some cranes use electromagnets to pick up scrap cars. They can let go of the car by turning
off the current.
• Electric bells use electromagnets. When the electromagnet has pulled the striker towards the
gong, the current stops to let the striker move back away from the gong again. The current
restarts and the movement of the striker continues. The circuit is constantly made and
broken.
• Door locks that can be controlled remotely.
• Electrically operated switches called relays also use electromagnets.

Relay with an open switch from a coil of wire

leading to a contact with a spring loaded
striker, this rings the bell.

Magnetic Fields
 Term II Class 8

• In the space around a magnet there is a magnetic field

• Magnetic field lines are a useful way of helping us to picture that field: Its strength and its
direction.

• Magnetic field lines obey a couple of rules:

o They always go from north to south ((indicated by an arrow midway along the
line)
o The field lines are more concentrated at the poles
o They never touch or cross other field lines

• When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:

Finding magnetic fields

You can use a plotting compass or iron filings to detect a magnetic field:

1. put a piece of paper over a magnet (this stops the iron filings sticking to the magnet)
2. sprinkle iron filings onto the paper
 Term II Class 8

3. gently tap the paper to spread the filings out

4. observe and record the results

Neutral point

A neutral point of Magnet is a point at which the resultant magnetic field is zero. It is
represented by x.

The distance between the lines indicates relative strength of the magnetic field.
The closer the lines are, the stronger the magnetic field is.

Finding direction of magnetic field using a compass:

• Place a piece of paper on top of the magnet

• Gently sprinkle iron filings on top of the paper
• Now carefully tap the paper to allow the iron filings to settle on the field lines
• Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
• Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
 Term II Class 8

• Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass points
towards the dot
• Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle
• Now move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and repeat the above process
• Keep repeating until you have a chain of dots going from one end of the magnet to the other.
Then remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – the magnetic field line
• The direction of the field line is the same as the direction of the plotting compass
• You can now repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines.

The Field around a Wire

• When a current flows in a wire, a magnetic

field is created around the wire.

Diagram showing the magnetic fields around a

current-carrying wire.

• a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic

field lines circle around each part of the coil, passing through the centre of it.
 Term II Class 8

• A solenoid is a long coil

• The magnetic field around a solenoid look the same as the magnetic field around a bar
magnet:

The magnetic field around a solenoid (a

long coil) is identical to the magnetic
field of a bar magnet.

• One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves
like the south pole.