d-Block Elements important points
1. The d-Block Elements (Transition Metals)
The d-block elements are located in Groups 3 to 12 of the periodic table. They are called
transition elements because they represent a transition in properties between the highly
electropositive s-block and highly electronegative p-block elements.
General Characteristics
General Electronic Configuration: $(n-1)d^{1-10} ns^{1-2}$
The "Zinc Group" Exception: Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), and Mercury (Hg) have a
fully filled d-subshell ($(n-1)d^{10} ns^2$). Because they do not form ions with an
incomplete d-subshell, they are d-block elements but not considered transition
metals.
Physical Properties: High tensile strength, ductility, malleability, high
thermal/electrical conductivity, and high melting/boiling points (due to strong metallic
bonding involving both $ns$ and unpaired $(n-1)d$ electrons).
Key Chemical Trends
Variable Oxidation States: Transition metals show a wide variety of oxidation states
because the energy gap between the $(n-1)d$ and $ns$ orbitals is very small. For
example, Manganese (Mn) shows the maximum number of oxidation states (from +2
to +7).
Catalytic Properties: They act as excellent catalysts (e.g., Fe in Haber’s process,
$V_2O_5$ in Contact process) due to their ability to adopt multiple oxidation states
and provide a large surface area for reactants.
Magnetic Properties: Many transition metal ions are paramagnetic due to the
presence of unpaired d-electrons. The magnetic moment ($\mu$) is calculated using
the spin-only formula:
$$\mu = \sqrt{n(n+2)} \text{ BM}$$
(where $n$ is the number of unpaired electrons and BM is Bohr Magneton).
Formation of Colored Ions: Colors arise from d-d transitions. When light falls on
the crystal-field-split d-orbitals, an electron absorbs energy and jumps from a lower d-
orbital to a higher d-orbital.
Complex Formation: They readily form coordination complexes because of their
small ionic size, high ionic charge, and availability of vacant d-orbitals to accept
electron pairs.
Interstitial Compounds: They trap small atoms like H, C, or N in the vacant spaces
(interstices) of their crystal lattices. These compounds are hard, rigid, and retain
metallic conductivity.
2. The f-Block Elements (Inner Transition Elements)
The f-block consists of two series at the bottom of the periodic table where the $(n-2)f$
orbitals are progressively filled.
Lanthanoids (4f series: Ce to Lu)
General Configuration: $[Xe] 4f^{1-14} 5d^{0-1} 6s^2$
Oxidation States: The most stable and common oxidation state is +3. Some elements
show +2 and +4 states if it leads to a stable empty ($f^0$), half-filled ($f^7$), or
fully-filled ($f^{14}$) subshell (e.g., $Ce^{4+}$ is $f^0$; $Eu^{2+}$ is $f^7$).
Lanthanoid Contraction: This is the most critical topic. There is a steady decrease
in the atomic and ionic radii of lanthanoids with increasing atomic number.
o Cause: Poor shielding effect of the $4f$ electrons.
o Consequences: Zr (4d) and Hf (5d) have almost identical physical and
chemical properties (chemical twins). Separation of lanthanoids in their pure
state is difficult.
Actinoids (5f series: Th to Lr)
General Configuration: $[Rn] 5f^{1-14} 6d^{0-2} 7s^2$
Radioactivity: All actinoids are radioactive. Elements beyond Uranium ($U, Z=92$)
are synthetic and called transuranic elements.
Oxidation States: They exhibit a wider range of oxidation states (+3 to +7)
compared to lanthanoids. This is because the energy gap between $5f$, $6d$, and
$7s$ subshells is much smaller than the gap in lanthanoids, allowing more electrons to
participate in bonding.
Actinoid Contraction: Similar to lanthanoid contraction, but the size decrease is
more pronounced from element to element because the shielding by $5f$ electrons is
even poorer than by $4f$ electrons.
Summary Comparison: Lanthanoids vs. Actinoids
Property Lanthanoids (4f) Actinoids (5f)
Oxidation States Mainly +3 (few +2, +4) Wide range (+3 to +7)
Non-radioactive (except
Radioactivity All are radioactive
Promethium)
Complex Less tendency to form High tendency to form complexes
Property Lanthanoids (4f) Actinoids (5f)
Formation complexes
Basic Character Less basic hydroxides More basic hydroxides
Form oxocations (e.g.,
Oxocations Do not form oxocations
$UO_2^{2+}$, $PuO_2^+$)