Brain

 The brain is the most complex part of the human body.

 The organ inside the head that controls all body functions of a human being.
 Made up of billions of nerve cells/neurons.
 The skull protects the brain from injury.
Architecture of brain
The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem.

Cerebrum:
 It is the largest & front part of the brain.
 The cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement.
 It regulates temperature.
 The cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and
learning.
 It relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
Cerebellum:
 The back portion of the brain & between the cerebrum and the brain stem.
 Its function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture and balance.
 The cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s volume.( which is Latin for
“little brain”).
Brainstem:
 The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and
cerebellum.
 Brainstem sends signals from brain to the rest of your body.

Brain as CPU.

Brain Vs CPU
[Link]. Brain CPU
1 Biological Neurons or Nerve Cells Silicon Transistors, diodes,
capacitors
2 Learning Capacity Programmable Capacity
3 Input Tools: Human Sensory Organ( Eye, Ear, Input tools: Keyboard,
Nose, Tongue & Skin) Mouse, Touch Screen etc
4 High IQ No IQ
5 Information processing: Some time slow Always fast
6 Information Storage: Electrochemical & Information Storage: Bits
Electrical Signals.
 7 Based on emotions, feelings, Natural intelligence Based on algorithm,
etc commands, artificial
intelligence.
8 Size and weight: The brain's volume is 1500 Variable weight and size
cm3 and weight is around 3.3 pounds. form few grams to tons.
9 Neuron Size (10-6 m) Transistor Size (10-9 m)
10 200 billion neuron and 32 trillion 1 billion bite RAM, Trillion
interconnections of bytes of Disk.
11 Energy Consumption 6-10 Joules per operation Energy Consumption:10-16
per second Joules per operation per
second.
12 Energy consumptions: 12 watts of power Gigawatts of power
7 3
13 Energy density: 10 circuits/cm 1014 bits/cm3

Nervous System:
 The basic building block of the nervous system is a nerve cell or neurons
 The nervous system is the highly complex network of an animal.
 It body’s command center.
 Nervous system transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
 It processes sensory information from outside / inside the body and controls all behaviors
 It is divided into two parts (a) Central nervous system & (b) Peripheral nervous system..
Role:
 The Nervous system controls the movement.
 It controls the emotions.
 It controls sleeping, healing & aging.
 It controls the Digestion, breathing & heartbeat.
 It controls secretion of hormones & body temperature.
 It controls intelligence, memory, personality and speech.
 It controls the response according to situation.
Note: Plants do not have a nervous system. They coordinate their behavior against environmental
changes with the help of Hormones.

Architecture of the nervous system

 The nervous system can be divided into two parts.
 The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, working as an
integrated unit.
 Peripheral nervous system connect to the CNS via the spinal cord.
 Brain covered with shell of bone (the skull) and three layers of tough membranes.
 Cerebrospinal fluid that acts as a shock. that surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all
vertebrates.

Central nervous system(CNS): it is a part of nervous system consisting of brain and spinal
cord.

Reason for being referred to as CNS:

 The brain and spinal cord integrate the information received from the external environment
via the sensory nerves.
 They also coordinate the activities of the whole body of an organism by conducting motor
information to the effectors organs via the motor neurons.
 Hence, the brain and the spinal cord are called the central nervous system as they integrate
information got from the sensory receptors and coordinate activities of the organism through
the motor nerves.
Role of CNS
 sensory input.
 information processing.
 Memory and learning
 motor output. ( Brain has processed the information, impulses are then conducted from the
brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, which is called motor output).

.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): PNS is that part of your nervous system that lies outside the
brain and spinal cord. It consists all the nerves out side the brain and spinal card.
It is further divided into (a) Autonomic nervous system (ANS) & Somatic nervous system
(SNS):
(a) Autonomic nervous system: It is a part of peripherial nervous system, that control
unconscious processes( Sleep/Coma) of the body such as
 Blood pressure, Heart and breathing rates & Body temperature.
 Metabolism, Digestion & Defecation.
 The balance of water and electrolytes (such as sodium and calcium)
 The production of body fluids (saliva, sweat, and tears)
It is subdivided into (a) Parasympathetic nervous system & (b) Sympathetic nervous system.
( a) Parasympathetic nervous system: This can include control of your heart rate, blood
pressure, digestion, urination and sweating. It is responsible for the body's relaxation response.
(b) Sympathetic nervous system:
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for the “fight or flight” response during any
potential danger.
 It increases heart beat, Sweat increases, Dilated (expand) mussels.
 Dilated of Pupils, Increased alertness.
Somatic Nervous system:
 They also carry commands from your brain to your muscles.
 Voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles.
 It also feeds information of senses — smell, sound, taste and touch.
Signal Transmission:
How nervous system transfer the information (Signal Transmission)
 Brain sends the signals transmission through nervous system.
 The nervous systems is made of neurons, it send signal transmission through neurons.
 Dendrites are the tree like structures of the neuron that extend away from the cell body to
receive incoming information (neurotransmitters) from other neurons.
 Dendrites conduct the electrical signals towards the axon then to axon terminal of the neuron.
 The presynaptic terminal is at the end of an axon and is the place where the electrical signal
(the action potential) is converted into a chemical signal (neurotransmitter release). The
presynaptic neuron is the cell that sends information
 The postsynaptic terminal receive the neurotransmitter signal released from the presynaptic
terminal and transduce it into electrical Signals.

Electroencephalogram (EEG):
.
Definition: It is a medical test used to measure the electrical activity of the brain. EEG can help
diagnose a number of conditions including epilepsy, sleep disorders and brain tumors. It can help
detect potential problems with brain cell communication
Preparation
 The patient head should be free from hair, oils, sprays, and conditioner.
 The patient should not take caffeine products before 8 hours of the test.
 Patient made lie in a comfortable bed.
 A technician places 23 electrodes on scalp with glue or paste.
 Patient relaxes with either open or closed eyes.
 Patient may look at a bright light or breathe differently to see if brain has changes during
these activation procedures.
 The technician will note the activity in the record.
Working/Principles
 The billions of cells in brain produce very small electrical signals that form non-linear
patterns called brainwaves.
 The electrodes pick up and record the electrical activity in the brain.
 EEG sensors can record up to several thousands of snapshots of the electrical activity
generated in the brain within a single second.
 The recorded brainwaves are sent to amplifiers, and appear as a graph on a computer screen.
 The electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of your brain cells.

Applications: EEG might also be helpful for diagnosing or treating the following disorders
 Brain damage from head injury, Stroke, Sleep disorders, Brain tumor.
 EEG is the diagnostic procedure to confirm epilepsy.
 EEG during brain surgery or to test the brain activity of someone in a coma.
 Brain dysfunction, Confusion, Memory Loss, Fainting
 GLUT1 deficiency syndrome, Inflammation of the brain (encephalitis).
Types of EEG
 Routine EEG: Routine EEG scans take 23 minutes.
 Prolonged EEG: A prolonged EEG test usually takes one hour and 15 minutes, but some
types can last several days.
 Ambulatory EEG: Ambulatory EEGs last one to three days.
 Sleep EEG: A technician performs an EEG test while you sleep.

A prosthesis is a device designed to replace a missing part of the body or to make a part of the
body work better.
 These limbs( Arm or leg) are usually designed according to the individual’s appearance and
functional needs.
 It will boost the confidence level.
Robotic arms for prosthesis:
 Programmable mechanical arm with similar functions to a human arm is called robotic arms.
 Prosrobotic arm which works on slightly movement of muscles for disabled persons to fulfill
the duty to assist in the daily activities likes playing chess with friends, drinking etc.,
 These prosthetics have the shape of a human hand.
 It can be attached to the bone joints and have the same functions as real arms.
Advantages:
 It strength their self confidence.
 It enhances the mobility.
 It makes individual independent.
 The hand will improve the quality of life.
 It is suitable for most ages.
 Durable with minimum technical errors.
Parkinson Disease:
 Parkinson's disease is a brain disorder that causes unintended or uncontrollable movements,
such as shaking, stiffness, difficulty with balance and coordination.
 Parkinson's disease is caused by a loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain.
 Parkinson's diagnosis is based on your medical history, a review of patients symptoms,
neurological and physical exam.
 Parkinson's disease does not directly cause people to die.
 There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease.
 Treatments are available to help relieve the symptoms and maintain the quality of life.
Engineering solutions for Parkinson disease.
Deep brain stimulation (DBS): Implanting electrodes in the brain to regulate abnormal neural
impulses, has improved the lives of countless people with Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson mPower app: Developed by University of Rochester. It contains the iPhone’s
sensors to measure patients’ tremor, balance, and gait to track and store this information via
specially designed activities. To download, visit [Link].
Sleepio: A sleep app
People living with Parkinson's may experience sleep problems. Sleepio is a CBT (Cognitive
Behavioural Therapy) app that aims to help user conquer long-term sleep problems.
Breathe2Relax(stress management tool): Breathing exercises can decrease the body’s ‘fight-
or-flight’ (stress) response and help with mood stabilization, anger control and anxiety
management.
Cove (Music for mental health): Clinician-approved app that helps the induvisual to express
how you feeling using the power of music.
Smart watch Applications: Smart watch applications can be used to monitor symptoms of
Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, and provide reminders and prompts for medication and
exercise.
Exoskeletons: Exoskeletons are wearable devices that provide support and assistance for
individuals with mobility issues.
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves the implantation of electrodes into specific
regions of the brain to deliver electrical stimulation, which can help to relieve symptoms such as
tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement.
Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation involves the use of telecommunication technology to provide
physical therapy and rehabilitation services to individuals with Parkinson's disease, without the
need for in-person visits to a therapist.
Virtual Reality: Virtual reality systems can be used for rehabilitation and therapy for
individuals with Parkinson's disease, providing interactive and engaging environments for
patients to practice movements and improve coordination and balance.

Eye:
 Eyes are the most valuable organ of the human body.
 Eyes are organs of the visual system.
 The eyes interpret size, shape, colour and distance of the objects and give a 3D picture of
the objects visible.
 The eye can be considered as a living optical device.
 A human eye is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter & Cicular in shape.
Architecture of Rods & Cones
Rods
 They are in cylindrical in shape.
 Rods are a type of photoreceptor cell( light to electric signals) in the retina.
 Rods are more sensitive than the cones.
 Rod cells are highly sensitive to light and it functions in night vision.
 Rods are not sensitive to color.
 Rods are more in number (i.e., 120 millions) than cones.
Cones:
 Cones are conical shaped cell.
 Cones are capable of detecting a wide spectrum of light photons and are responsible for
colour vision.
 The human eye only has about 6 million cones.
 Cones are present in central part of the retina.
Optic nerve
 The optic nerve is a thick bundle of nerve fibers that transmits signals from the retina to the
brain.
 Thin retinal fibers called ganglion cells carry light information from the retina to the brain.
 The ganglion cells leave the eye at a point called the optic disc.
 Because there are no rods or cones here, it is also called the “blind spot.”
The brain
 The brain gives depth perception by coordinating the signals from both eyes.
 The signals generated by the retina end up in the visual cortex, a part of the brain that
processes visual information. The visual cortex brings together impulses from both eyes to
create images.
Optical Correction:
 Methods used to improve blurred vision caused by refractive error.
 The most common methods of vision correction are wearing eyeglasses or contact lenses.
 Two of the most common vision problems are myopia and hyperopia.
Nearsightedness (myopia):
 It is a common vision condition in which near objects appear clear, but objects farther away
look blurry.
 It is a very common vision disorder.
 It affects about one third of people.
 Myopia is corrected by using concave lenses of suitable focal length.
 It can produce an additional diversion in the light rays and the final image is formed on the
retina.
 A concave lens is called a diverging lens because the incident rays are bent outward.

Farsightedness(hyperopia):
 It is a common vision condition in which you can see distant objects clearly, but objects
nearby may be blurry.
 Farsightedness is due to the eye not bending light properly.
 Hyperopic should be treated with glasses or cataract surgery.
 It is corrected by convex lens.
 It affects one by fourth of peoples.
Here are the different types of corrective surgeries,
 LASIK (laser in-situ keratomileusis)
 PRK (photorefractive keratectomy)
 RLE (refractive lens exchange).
Cataract:
 A condition in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy.
 Most cataracts develop when aging or injury changes the tissue that makes up the eye's lens.
 Age is the most common cause of cataracts.
 Crystallins are the most prevalent proteins in the lens.
 Lens proteins denature and degrade over time.
 The denaturation of lens protein is accelerated by diseases such as diabetes mellitus &
hypertension.
 The denaturation of lens protein is accelerated Environmental factors such as toxins,
radiation and ultraviolet light.
Symptoms: Blurred, cloudy, dim vision, double vision, sensitivity to light, difficulty seeing
at night, headache.
 Cataract surgery removes your clouded lens and replaces it with a clear artificial lens called
an IOL.
 Reason for cataracts: Smoking, diabetics, heavy sunlight, steroid use, Injuries etc.,
Types of cataract:
Aged cataracts: It happen because of normal changes in the eyes as the person get older.
Traumatic cataracts: These cataracts form when something injures your eye.
Pediatric cataracts: Babies may be born with cataracts
Secondary cataracts: Secondary cataracts can develop within months or years after cataract
surgery is completed.
Cataract surgery:
 Cataract leads blindness. Surgery is only the alternate.
 The natural cloudy lens is removed and the artificial lens is implanted during the same
surgery.
 It is one of the safest, effective & fastest methods.
 The surgery is not doing simultaneously for both the eyes.
 It restore the vision
Lens material properties
An intraocular lens (or IOL) is a tiny, artificial lens for the eye. It replaces the eye's natural
lens that is removed during cataract surgery.
Artificial lenses are made of inert (or non-reactive) materials, such as PMMA, silicone, and
acrylic.
As like natural lens artificial lenses have refractive power or the ability to bend light, which
helps to focus light rays and images on the retina.
It is possible to correct nearsightedness and farsightedness with artificial lenses.
Hydrophilic acrylic: Hydrophilic acrylic is a type of acrylic material that is designed to be more
compatible with the natural fluid in the eye, reducing the risk of vision-threatening
complications.
Monofocal Lenses
The monofocal lens only enables focus at just one distance – either near or distance.
Most patients who select monofocal lenses choose to have good distance vision and use reading
glasses to help with near visual tasks, such as reading, computer work, or sewing.
Multifocal Lenses
 Multifocal lenses provide more than one type of focused, or clear, vision. They attempt to
provide clear vision both at distance and near simultaneously.
 Because multifocal lenses correct both distance and reading vision, they can reduce the
patient’s dependence on eyeglasses and contact lenses.
Lens Material in market
Columbia Resin 39(CR-39):
 A plastic polymer commonly used in the manufacture of eyeglass lenses.
 It is light weight.
 I do not allow UV radiation (It is opaque to UV radiations).
 It has scratch resistance.
 It is resistance to most of the solvents & chemicals.
 Its index of refraction only slightly lower than that of crown glass.
 Plastic lenses tend to have a lower index of refraction, which require thicker lenses.
Polycarbonate (impact-resistant):
 These lenses are shatter-proof ( break into pieces) and provide 100% UV protection.
 These are durable lenses & provide an extra degree of safety for your eyes.
 Abrasion resistance is poor, but anti scratch coating will reduce slightly abrasion resistance.
 They are thinner & light weight.
Trivex:
 Trivex is a urethane-based pre-polymer.
 which are good optics, light weight and strength. Due do these properties, it is named as
Trivex.
 It block (opaque) to UV light.
 It is the most light weight lens.
Bionic Eye:
 It is an device implanted into the human eye to restore functional vision in partial or total
blindness.
 It is a hope to blind peoples.
 The device typically consists of a camera, a processor, and an electrode array that is
attached to the retina. The camera captures images and sends signals to the processor, which
then transmits electrical stimulation to the electrodes in the retina to stimulate the remaining
healthy cells and restore vision. The restored vision is not perfect, but it can help people
with vision loss to perform daily tasks more easily and safely.

Advantages:
 It helps to correct the vision.
 There is no surgical complications.
 Can be easily implanted
 No battery implanted within the body.
Disadvantages:
 Repairing is difficult if the device get damaged.
 Those who last vision due to other reason could not use the device.
Electrical prosthesis is a surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the
transduction of light in people who have sustained severe damage to the retina.
Retinal prosthesis
A retinal prosthesis acts as artificial retina. It works to replace the function of photoreceptors
that have been lost during retinal degeneration.
Cortical prosthesis
 Some visual prostheses are not placed near the retina at all. These include devices that are
implanted on the optic nerve or parts of the brain such as the thalamus or the visual cortex
 Note: Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a group of rare eye diseases that affect the retina (the
light-sensitive layer of tissue in the back of the eye). RP makes cells in the retina break down
slowly over time, causing vision loss. RP is a genetic disease that people are born with.
Symptoms usually start in childhood, and most people eventually lose most of their sight.
 There’s no cure for RP. But vision aids and rehabilitation (training) programs can help
people with RP make the most of their vision.
Eye as a camera
The human eye can be analogized to a camera system, as both the eye and a camera capture light
and convert it in to an image.
The main components of the eye that correspond to a camera system include:
 The Cornea: This transparent outer layer o the eye functions like a camera lens, bending
light to focus it on to the retina.
 The Iris: The iris functions like the diaphragm in a camera, controlling the amount of light
that enters the eye.
 The Pupil: The pupil functions like the aperture in a camera, adjusting the size to control the
amount of light entering the eye.
 The Retina: The retina functions like the camera film or sensor, capturing the light and
converting it into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.
 The Optic Nerve: The optic nerve functions like the cable connecting the camera to a
computer, transmitting the electrical signals from the retina to the brain.
Eye as camera
Eye Camera
It is the living organism sight I is the device used to record images
Light enters the human eye via the pupil. Light also enters the camera through an
aperture.
The iris regulates the quantity of light entering The amount of light is also adjusted in-camera
the eye. via the diaphragm.
The region covered is about 180 degree The region covered is about 60 dgree
Eye contains lens. Camera also contains lens.
Lenses are flexible and change shape with the Camera lenses are rigid and do not change
help of muscles. shape
Eyes cannot record pictures. Cameras can record photos, videos.
The human eye functions in three dimension. The camera functions in two dimension.
The human eye has a blind spot, which lies A camera typically does not have a blind spot.
where the optic nerve joins the retina.
Connection: Optical nerves cables
Focal length of lens is fixed Focal length of lens changed.
The Pupil adjust the size while focusing Camera Lens move to change the focusing
Heart
Heart & its architecture
 The heart is located in chest cavity (Thoracic cavity) between the two lungs.
 Heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria and two larger
lower chambers called ventricles.
 The ventricles are the chambers that pump blood and atrium are the chambers that receive
blood.
 Right heart consists of right atrium and right ventricle. Left heart consists of left atrium and
left ventricle.
 The right and the left region of the heart are separated by a wall of muscle called the septum.
 The right atrium receive the deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body & pumps it
to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the de-oxygenated blood to the lungs to pick
up a fresh supply of oxygen.
 The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.
The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the body.
 Arteries carry oxygenated blood from heart to different parts of the body. Veins carry
deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body to heart.
 The pulmonary arteries carry blood from your heart to your lungs. The pulmonary artery is
located at the exit of the right ventricle & extending upwards. The right semilunar valves
close and prevent the blood from flowing back into the heart
 The aorta is the main vessel through which oxygen-rich blood travels from the heart to the rest
of the body. It also delivers nutrients and hormones.. The aorta begins at the left ventricle of
the heart & extending upward.
 Note: The difference is that the word 'atrium' is the singular form of the structure and
'atria' is the plural form.
The primary node responsible for initiating and controlling the heartbeat is the sinoatrial (SA)
node, also known as the heart's natural pacemaker.
Heart as pump
 Heart ensure that all parts of the body are provided with an adequate amount of oxygen and
nutrients to function efficiently. Without a sufficient supply of oxygen any bodily function
would fail, causing organ damage or organ death.
 It acts as a double pump. The first pump carries oxygen-poor blood to your lungs, where it
unloads carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen.
 The heart's blood pumping cycle, which is called the cardiac cycle,
 The heart weighs between 7 and 15 ounces (200 to 425 grams)
 The human heart is about the size of a human fist
 Heart may have beat (expanded and contracted) more than 3.5 billion times at the end of long life
person.
 Each day, the average heart beats 100,000 times, pumping about 2,000 gallons (7,571 liters) of
blood.
 It has a normal pyramidal shape in adults.
Pacemaker:
 Pacemaker is a small battery operated device.
 A small incision (cut) is made. Most often, the cut is on the left side (patients are right
handed) of the chest below the collarbone.
 A pacemaker is implanted under the skin.
 This procedure takes about 1 hour in most cases. Patient will be given a sedative to help to
relax & will be awake during the procedure.
 A pacemaker is used to control or increase the heartbeat.
 A pacemaker only works when it senses trouble with the heartbeat.
 It stimulates the heart as needed to keep it beating regularly.
 Pacemakers send electrical signals to help the heart beat at a normal rate and rhythm.
 An electrical signal to the heart typically controls the heartbeat. Electrical signals are called
impulses, move through the heart chambers. This help the heart beat at a normal rate and
rhythm.
 Pacemakers can also be used to help the heart chambers beat in sync, so heart can pump
blood more efficiently to different parts of the body.
When Pacemaker needed
 The patient have a slow or irregular heartbeat that lasts for a long time, also called chronic.
 The patient have heart failure.
There are three types of pacemakers.
 Single chamber pacemaker. This type usually sends electrical signals to the lower right
chamber of the heart.
 Dual chamber pacemaker. This type sends electrical signals to the upper and lower right
heart chambers.
 Biventricular pacemaker. This type also is called a cardiac resynchronization pacemaker.
Patient have heart failure and a slow heartbeat. The device stimulates both lower heart
chambers. It helps make the heart muscle stronger.
Newer pacemakers weigh as little as 1 ounce (28 grams). Most pacemakers have 3 parts:
 A pulse generator: Which contains the battery and generate electric signals to control the
heartbeat.
 Leads: Consists of one to three insulated wires these are connected to the pulse generator on
one end & other end placed inside the one or more heart's chambers. Leads transmit electrical
impulses from the pulse generators to the heart muscle to assist and support synchronized
blood flow to the rest of the body.
 An electrode on each lead: The electrode on the end of a lead and touches the heart wall.
The electrodes delivers the electrical impulses to the heart. It also senses the heart's electrical
activity and relays this information back to the pulse generator.
 Note: Artery supply oxygenated blood from heats to different parts of the body.
 Veins carry blood towards the heart.
 Plaque: An semi-hardened accumulation of substances from fluids in artery.
Reason for blockage Blood vessels.
 Blocked arteries is known as Atherosclerosis .
 It is the build-up of fibrous and fatty material inside the arteries.
 Arterial plaque occurs when cholesterol builds up in the inner lining of the artery.
 High cholesterol levels can increase the rate of plaque buildup.
 There is no easy way to unclog an artery once plaque has built up.
 Ischemia is a condition in which blood flow (and thus oxygen) is restricted or reduced in a
part of the body.
 Clogged peripheral arteries in the lower part of the body (peripheral artery disease or PAD)
most often cause pain and cramping in the legs.
Reason:
 Modern life style, Junk food ( Unhealth diet), Physical inactivity, Overweight
 Unrelieved stress, Smoking, Diabetic
In addition to chest pain, symptoms of a clogged artery may include:
  Dizziness, Feeling like your heart is racing (heart palpitations)
 Nausea, Shortness of breath, Sweating, Weakness.

Note: Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle.

Coronary angioplasty is also performed as an emergency treatment during a heart attack.
During the procedure, a small balloon is inserted to push the fatty tissue in the narrowed artery
outwards. This allows the blood to flow more easily.
The Heart Valves
Four valves regulate blood flow through your heart:
 The tricuspid valve regulates blood flow between the right atrium and right ventricle.
 The pulmonary valve controls blood flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries,
which carry blood to your lungs to pick up oxygen.
 The mitral valve lets oxygen-rich blood from your lungs pass from the left atrium into the left
ventricle.
 The aortic valve opens the way for oxygen-rich blood to pass from the left ventricle into the
aorta, your body’s largest artery.
 Sinoatrial (SA) node: The sinoatrial node (SAN) is the natural pacemaker of the heart that
determines heart rate in mammals
 An electrical stimulus is generated in a special part of the heart muscle called the sinusnode. It's
also called the sinoatrial node(SA node). The sinus nodeisa small mass of special tissue in the
right upper chamber of the heart(right atrium). It Sends the signals that make heart beat.
 In an adult, the sinus node sends out a regular electrical pulse 60 to 100 times per minute. This
electrical pulse travels down through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's lower
chambers (ventricles) to contract and pump out blood.
 The right and left atria are stimulated first and contract to push blood from the atria in to the
ventricles. The ventricles then contract to push blood out in to the blood vessels of the body.
Reason for blockage Blood vessels.
 Blocked arteries is known as Atherosclerosis .
 It is the build-up of fibrous and fatty material inside the arteries.
 Arterial plaque occurs when cholesterol builds up in the inner lining of the artery.
 High cholesterol levels can increase the rate of plaque buildup.
 There is no easy way to unclog an artery once plaque has built up.
 Ischemia is a condition in which blood flow (and thus oxygen) is restricted or reduced in a part
of the body.
 Clogged peripheral arteries in the lower part of the body (peripheral artery disease or PAD) most
often cause pain and cramping in the legs.
Other Reason for blockage are
 Modern life style
 Junk food ( Unhealth diet)
 Physical inactivity
 Overweight
 unrelieved stress
 Smoking
 Diabetic

In addition to chest pain, symptoms of a clogged artery may include:

 Dizziness.
 Feeling like your heart is racing (heart palpitations)
 Nausea.
 Shortness of breath.
 Sweating.
 Weakness.
 Smoking
Stent: A stent is a small mesh tube inserted in the blocked area to allow the blood to flow. The
stent restores the flow of blood or other fluids.

Types of Coronary Stents

1. Bare metal stents (BMS)
2. Drug-eluting stents (DES)
3. Bioresorbable scaffold system (BRS)
4. Drug-eluting balloons (DEB
Procedure for stents insertion
It is called angioplasty.
 The stent, which is collapsed around a balloon at the tip of the catheter, is guided through the
artery to the blockage.
 At the blockage, the balloon is inflated and the spring-like stent expands and locks into place
inside the artery.
 The stent is left in place permanently to allow blood to flow more freely(more than one stent
may be needed to open a blockage).
 It is not considered as major surgery

Advantages of stents include:

 They help blood flow better through the artery where they're placed.
 Along with angioplasty, they can stop a heart attack.
 They improve the symptoms, such as shortness of breath and chest pain (when yprovider
places a stent in your coronary artery).
Disadvantages
 In some patients, it leads to stent thrombosis.
Design of Stents
Shape: Stents can be designed in a variety of shapes, including cylindrical, helical, and spiraled
to match the shape of the blood vessel and provide adequate support.
Materials:
 The physical design of a wire mesh structure made from the nitinol alloy(Nitinol is typically
made from 55% nickel and 45% titanium.).
 Stainless steel: this is the most common material used for stents. Its advantages include good
X-ray visibility; a fairly elastic and resistant consistency; and good biocompatibility.
 Metal stents are made of bare metal or covered with another material such as silicone.
Hybrid stents contain a mixture of materials.
 Silicone stents are made of a material that can be molded to a certain shape. They are used
more often if the stent is temporary.
 Expansion mechanism: Stents can be designed to expand in different ways, such as by
balloon inflation or self-expansion, depending on the type of stent and the specific medical
condition it is used to treat.
 Overall, the design of stents plays an important role in their effectiveness and safety. Stents
must be designed to provide adequate support to the blood vessel, prevent restenosis, and
minimize the risk of complications such as blood clots.
 Stents range from 8 to 38 mm in length and from 2.5 to 4.0 mm in diameter.
 Coil stents are made of wires that are formed into a circular coil to form the stent scaffold,
while the slotted tube stents are constructed from a metallic tube and then laser etching is
used to cut out the design.
Electrocardiogram(ECG): Records the electrical signal from the heart to check for different
heart conditions.
Uses: An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a simple, non-invasive test that records the electrical
activity of the heart. An ECG can help diagnose certain heart conditions, including abnormal
heart rhythms and coronary heart disease (heart attack and angina).
If the test is normal, it should show that your heart is beating at an even rate of 60 to 100 beats
per minute.
An ECG Can Recognize the Signs of Blocked Arteries. But for further accurecy a CT coronary
angiogram can reveal plaque buildup and identify blockages in the arteries, which can lead to a
heart attack
Working
 Small sticky dots (electrodes) and wire leads are placed on your chest, arms and legs.
 The leads attach to the ECG machine (electrocardiograph) which records the electrical activity
of the heart muscle and displays this as a trace on a screen or on paper.
 It involves attaching electrodes (small, skin-sticking plastic patches) to specific areas of the
chest, arms, and legs to record the electrical signals produced when your heart beats.
 These electrical signals are represented on an ECG as 12 leads depicting different sections of
the heart.
 The electrode picks up the current and transmit them to an amplifier inside the
electrocardiograph.
 Then electrocardiograph amplifies the current and records them on a paper as a wavy line.
Note: Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle.
Coronary angioplasty is also performed as an emergency treatment during a heart attack.
During the procedure a small balloon is inserted to push the fatty tissue in the narrowed artery
outwards. This allows the blood to flow more easily.
Defibrillator: A defibrillator is a device that gives a high energy electric shock to the heart of
someone who has cardiac arrest.
Defibrillators can help get a person out of sudden cardiac arrest by restoring their normal rhythm
so that they will start breathing again and blood flow starts up once more through the body's vital
organs.
A defibrillator works by de-polarising the cardiac muscle with a short electrical shock. This
allows the cells in the heart to recharge at the same time, reestablishing the sinus rhythm in the
process.
A defibrillator can help you survive sudden cardiac arrest.

Types
 Manual external defibrillator
 Manual internal defibrillator
 Semi-automatic eternal defibrillator
 Automated external defibrillator (AED)
 Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD)
 Wearable cardiac defibrillator
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) provides temporary assistance, a defibrillator can help you
survive sudden cardiac arrest.
User annual
 Put two defibrillator paddles or sticky pads (connected to the defibrillator) on your chest.
 One paddle or pad goes below your right shoulder and the other below your left nipple.
 To prevent burns, conducting material is already in the pads. However, your provider will
need to put conducting material on your chest before using paddles.
 For sticky pads, push a button on the machine to give the shock. For handheld paddles, push
the button on each paddle at the same time.
 Step 1: Turn the defibrillator on by pressing the green button and follow its instructions.
 Step 2: Peel off the sticky pads and attach them to the patient’s skin, one on each side of the
chest, as shown in the picture on the defibrillator.
 Step 3: Once the pads have been attached, stop CPR and don’t touch the patient. The
defibrillator will then check the patient’s heart rhythm.
 Step 4: The defibrillator will decide whether a shock is needed and if so, it will tell you to
press the shock button. An automatic defibrillator will shock the patient without prompt.
Don’t touch the patient while they are being shocked.
 Step 5: The defibrillator will tell you when the shock has been delivered and whether you
need to continue CPR.
 Step 6: Continue with chest compressions until the patient shows signs of life or the
defibrillator tells you to stop so it can analyse the heartbeat again.
What is the difference between a defibrillator and a pacemaker?
A pacemaker is an implantable device that keeps a person’s heartbeat steady throughout their
daily activities with a very low dose of electricity. It helps the heart to speed up during physical
exertion or keep a heart going when the heart muscle is weakened from something like a heart
attack.
A defibrillator, on the other hand, administers a stronger electrical pulse when it detects irregular
heart behavior. Instead of a regulator like a pacemaker, a defibrillator is an emergency response
device.
Heart related issues / diseases:
 Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG.
 Heart attack: An ECG can help diagnose a heart attack by detecting changes in the
heart's electrical activity that indicate a lack of blood flow to the heart.
 Heart enlargement :The term "cardiomegaly" refers to an enlarged heart seen on any
imaging test, including a chest [Link] the heart weakens, as it can with heart failure
 Genetic heart defects:
 Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a
fairly common inherited heart condition that can affect people of any age. This disease can
thicken part or all of the heart muscle. In extreme cases, it can even cause sudden death.
 Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy: While hypertrophic cardiomyopathy causes the heart
muscle to thicken, the opposite is true of dilated cardiomyopathy: the heart muscle becomes
thin and weak.
 Familial hypercholesterolemia is an inherited cause of coronary heart disease. If it is
untreated, leads stroke or suffer from a heart attack.
Poor blood supply to heart:
 Myocardial ischemia occurs when blood flow to the heart is reduced, preventing the heart
muscle from receiving enough oxygen. The reduced blood flow is usually the result of a
partial or complete blockage of your heart's arteries (coronary arteries).
 Heart inflammation (myocarditis): Myocarditis occurs when the heart muscle becomes
inflamed. When your heart muscle is inflamed, it can affect the heart’s electrical system.
Lungs
The lungs are the foundational organs of the respiratory system, whose most basic function is to
facilitate gas exchange from the environment into the bloodstream.
Human being have two lungs, the left lung and the right lung. The left lung is slightly smaller
and give room (accommodation ) for the heart.
The lungs are located on either side of the breastbone
The lungs are responsible for removing carbon dioxide from the blood and adding oxygen to it.
Lungs as Purification System
 Filtration: The nose and mouth serve as a first line of defense against harmful substances in
the air such as dust, dirt and bacteria. The tiny hairs in the nose called cilia and the mucus
produced by the respiratory system trap these substances and prevent them from entering
the lungs.
 Moisturization: The air is also humidified as it passes over the moist lining of the respiratory
tract, which helps to keep the airways moist and prevent them from drying out.
Architecture of Lungs as Purification System

 Trachea: It is a long U-Shaped tube connects larynx & lungs. It is also called as
windpipe. It is lined with cilia (hair like structure) and mucus-secreting glands that help
to filter out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus.
 Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi..Bronchi is the plural form of the
bronchus. The left bronchus carries air to left lung & The right bronchus carries air to
 right lung.
 Bronchioles: Bronchi branches into smaller and smaller passageways. These smallest
passageways/airways called bronchioles. The bronchioles are smaller airways that
eventually lead to the alveoli.
 Alveolus : They are tiny air sacs that function as basic respiratory unit. The alveoli are
the center of your respiratory system's gas exchange.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is a muscle that helps you inhale & exhale. This thin dome
shaped muscles sits below the lungs & heart.
 Pleura membrane: Its function is to allow optimal expansion & contraction of the
lungs.
Gas Exchange: Once the air reaches the alveoli, the gas exchange process occurs, where
oxygen diffuses across the thin alveolar and capillary walls into the bloodstream, and carbon
dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction, from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled.
This process ensures that the bloodstream is supplied with fresh, oxygen-rich air, while waste
carbon dioxide is removed from the body.

Gas exchange takes place in the millions of alveoli in the lungs and the capillaries that envelop
them.
This process is known as diffusion and occurs due to differences in partial pressures of oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen Diffusion: The partial pressure of oxygen in the air in the alveoli is higher than the
partial pressure of oxygen in the bloodstream. This difference creates a gradient that causes
oxygen to diffuse from the alveoli into the bloods stream, where it binds to hemoglobin of red
blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin.
Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream is higher
than the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air in the alveoli. This difference creates a
gradient that causes carbon dioxide to diffuse from the bloodstream into the alveoli, where it is
exhaled.
.
Spirometry:
Spirometry is the most common type of pulmonary function or breathing test, that measures the
function of the lungs by measuring the amount and flow rate of air that can be exhaled. The test
is commonly used to diagnose lung conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), and interstitial lung disease.
Principle: The principle behind spirometry is to measure the volume of air that can be exhaled
from the lungs in a given time period. By measuring the volume of air exhaled.
Working: A device that consists of a mouth piece, it help you breathe out only through the
tube attached to the Spirometry. It consists of a flow sensor and a volume sensor. The patient
takes a deep breath in and blow into a tube connected to the spirometer. The spirometer
measures the volume and flow rate of the exhaled air. The volume of air exhaled is displayed
on a graph called a flow-volume loop, which provides information about the lungs function.
Applications/Uses: Spirometry can provide information about the functioning of the lungs and
the ability of the lungs to move air in and out.
Conditions:
 The patients should wear loose fitting clothing.
 The patients do not smoke for 24 hours before the test.
 Avoid eating a heavy meal two to four hours before the test.
 Avoid vigorous exercise 30 minutes before the test.
 3.1.1 AbnormalLungPhysiology-COPD

Abnormal lung physiology or Lungs diseases: It refers to any deviation from the normal
functioning of the respiratory system. This may due to diseases, injuries, or genetic conditions.
Asthma: Asthma is a chronic lung disease affecting people of all ages. It is caused by
inflammation and muscle tightening around the airways, which makes it harder to breathe.
Symptoms are coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and chest tightness
Lung Cancer: When cancer starts in the lungs, it is called lung cancer. Lung cancer begins in
the lungs and may spread to lymph nodes or other organs in the body.
Pneumonia : It s an infection that affects one or both lungs. It causes the air sacs or alveoli, of
the lungs to fill up with fluid or pus. Bacteria, viruses or fungi may cause pneumonia.
Pulmonary fibrosis: Pulmonary fibrosis is a lung disease that occurs when lung tissue
becomes damaged and scarred. This thickened, stiff tissue makes it more difficult for your
lungs to work properly. No cure exists. Medications may slow down scarring and help preserve
lung function
A pulmonary embolism (PE): It occurs when a blood clot and gets stuck in an artery in the
lung It blocks blood flow to part of the lung. Blood clots most often start in the legs and travel
up through the right side of the heart and into the lungs.

Ventilators: A ventilator is a machine that helps breathe. The ventilator partially or completely
supports lung functions. It pumps oxygen-rich air into lungs. It also helps breathe out carbon
dioxide.
ventilator in an emergency, if a condition makes it difficult to breathe on own (called
respiratory failure), may also need a ventilator during surgery.
Types of ventilators
 Volume-controlled ventilators,
 Pressure-controlledventilators and
 Bilevel positive air way pressure(BiPAP) devices.
The type of ventilator used depends on the patient's individual needs and the type of respiratory
failure being treated.
Ventilators work by delivering pressurized air or oxygen into the lungs through a breathing
tube or mask. The pressure can be adjusted to match the patient's needs and to help maintain
adequate oxygen levels in the blood.
While ventilators can be lifesaving for individuals with acute respiratory failure, they also come
with potential risks and complications. For example, prolonged use of a ventilator can increase
the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia, and patients may experience discomfort or pain
from the breathing tube.
The use of ventilators is carefully monitored and managed by healthcare professionals to ensure
that the patient receives the appropriate level of support while minimizing potential risks and
complications.
Disadvantages
 Patients under this condition can develop respiratory muscle fatigue and severe adverse
events, such as barotrauma.
 Fluid and mucus build-up in your throat and windpipe can allow germs to accumulate on
the breathing tube.
 It may lead Pneumonia.

Heart-Lung Machine:
 A heart-lung machine is a piece of equipment that temporarily takes over the work of
the heart and/or lungs, providing blood and oxygen to the body.
 It is most often used during serious procedures that require the heart to be stopped.
 To stop the heart without harming the patient, oxygenated blood must continue to
circulate through the body during surgery without stopping. The cardiopulmonary
bypass pump does the work of the heart, pumping blood through the body and making
sure that the tissues of the body get the oxygen.
 A heart failure patient may be placed on the pump to support the patient until a heart
transplant becomes available.
 During some open-heart procedures, it may be necessary to stop the heart in order to
repair the heart's muscle, valves or other structures.
 The heart-lung machine works by circulating blood outside of the body through a series
of tubes and pumps. Blood is taken from the body, oxygenated, and then returned to the
 body. This allows the heart to be stopped during the surgery with out causing any harm
to the patient.
 The use of a heart-lung machine during surgery carries some risks, including the
potential for blood clots, bleeding and infections. Additionally, there may be some long-
term effects on the body, such as cognitive decline, that are not yet fully understood.
However, the use of a heart-lung machine has revolutionized the field of cardiovascular
surgery,

Kidney:
 Kidney as filtrating system
 kidneys are part of your urinary system.
 Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.
 The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs.
 Their main job is to cleanse the blood of toxins and transform the waste into urine.
 Each kidney weighs about 160 grams and gets rid of between one to one-and-a-half liters
of urine per day. The two kidneys together filter 200 litres of fluid every 24 hours.
 Kidney removes the nitrogenous wastes such as urea or urea acid ( The purpose of
making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood.).
 It is roughly the size of a fist.
Function of Kidney
 Remove waste products from the body
 Remove drugs from the body
 Balance the body's fluids by reabsorbing the water.
 Release hormones rennin that regulate blood pressure
 Produce an active form of vitamin D that promotes strong, healthy bones
 Control the production of red blood cells.
 Important compounds such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water
are selectively re-absorbed by the kidney.
Architecture of filtering unit
Renal Artery: Blood flows into kidney through the renal artery
Nephron:
 The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
 Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons.
 Nephron performs the functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Renal Vein: Carries filtered blood out of the kidney.
Renal Capsule: A protective layer of tissue surrounding the kidney.
Renal Cortex: The renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidney, where nephrons, the kidney's
filtering units, begin.
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): is a segment of the renal tubule responsible for the
reabsorption and secretion of various solutes and water. The PCT is located in the renal cortex,
the outer part of the kidney.
Ureters: The ureters are two narrow tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder.
Mechanism
Blood flows into your kidney through the renal artery.
A nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. They are the microscopic
structure composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. It convents blood waste into urine
through filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion.
A renal corpuscle is the blood-filtering component of the nephron of the kidney. It consists of
a knot of capillaries (glomerulus) surrounded by a double-walled capsule (Bowman's capsule)
that opens into a tubule.

 Glomerular filtration is the first step in making urine. It filter excess fluid and waste
products out of the blood into the primary urine.
 Bowman's capsule surrounds the glomerular capillary loops and participates in the ultra
filtration of blood from the glomerular capillaries. It allowing the water molecules a small
molecules of other substances to pass through its selectively permeable wall.
 The proximal tubule also completes the reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, and important
anions, including phosphate and citrate. proximal tubule is also a metabolic organ.
 This part of the nephron is called the loop of Henle. Its main function is to reabsorb water
and sodium chloride from the filtrate. This conserves water for the organism, producing
highly concentrated urine.
 The distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of
Henle and the collecting tubule. It maintains a proper concentration and pH of the urine.
 The renal veins are blood vessels that return blood to the heart from the kidney.
Chronic Kidney Disease(CKD)
 CKD is a condition in which the kidneys are damaged and cannot filter blood. Because of this
excess fluid and waste from blood remain in the body and may cause other health problems.
 There's no cure for chronic kidney disease (CKD). Treatment can help relieve the symptoms
and stop it getting worse. The treatment will depend on the stage of your CKD. The main
treatments are lifestyle changes (Healthy food, excise, Mediation, Regular check up &
fallow the doctor advice).
Symptoms
 Weight loss and poor appetite. Swollen ankles, feet or hands, Shortness of breath.
 Tiredness. Blood in urine Difficulty sleeping (insomnia) Itchy skin.
 More risk in high blood pressure, Diabetic conditions patients
Dialysis is a type of treatment that helps your body remove extra fluid and waste products from
your blood when the kidneys are not able to.
 Removing waste and extra fluids in your body to prevent them from building up in the body
 Keeping safe levels of minerals in your blood, such as potassium, sodium, calcium, and
bicarbonate
 Helping to regulate your blood pressure.
There are two main types of dialysis systems: hemodialysis and peritonealdialysis.
Hemodialysis (HD)
Hemodialysis is a dialyzer (filtering machine). It is used to remove waste and extra fluid from
blood and then return the filtered blood into body.
During Hemodialysis, blood is removed from the body, passed through a dialysis machine that
filters out waste and excess fluids and then returned to the body. Hemodialysis can be done at
a dialysis center, hospital or at home. Treatments usually last about four hours and are done
three times per week.
Peritoneal Dialysis (PD)
 A person can perform peritoneal dialysis at home,
 Peritoneal dialysis is a way to remove waste products from the blood.
 It is essential for the removal of waste from blood after kidney failure.
 The inner lining of the abdomen, known as the peritoneum, acts as a filter and removes
wastes from blood.
 It requires small surgery for placing a soft tube, called a catheter, in to a belly.
 Patient start peritoneal dialysis, dialysis solution—water with salt and other additives—flows
from a bag through the catheter into your belly. When the bag is empty, patients can
disconnect your catheter from the bag and cap it.
 While the dialysis solution is inside your belly, it soaks up wastes and extra fluid from the
body. After a few hours, patients drain the used dialysis solution into a drain bag.
 The process of first draining the used dialysis solution and then replacing it with fresh
solution is called an exchange. Most people do four to six exchanges every day,
 The dialysate will stay in your belly for a period of time, usually four to six hours, while it
clean the blood. This time is called a dwell time.
 Then drain the used dialysate out of your belly and refill it with fresh dialysate.
 This process is called an exchange. Patients may do these exchanges himself or with the help
of a machine.
Artificial Kidney
While much progress has been made in developing an artificial kidney, it is still in the
experimental stage and is not yet widely available. Further research and development is needed
to improve the efficiency and safety of artificial kidney devices, and to ensure that they can be
widely adopted as at treatment for chronic kidney disease.
Figure: a) Schematic representation b) a proto type of artificial kidney
An artificial kidney is a device that is being developed to mimic the functions of the human
kidney. The goal of an artificial kidney is to provide a more effective and efficient means of
treating patients with chronic kidney disease, who currently rely on dialysis or kidney
transplantation.
There are currently two main approaches to developing an artificial kidney: a biological
approach and a technological approach.
Kidney Diseases:
Kidney Stone: These are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside your
kidneys, it from the chemicals in the urine. There are four types of kidney stones: calcium
oxalate, uric acid, struvite, and cystine. A kidney stone may be treated with shockwave
lithotripsy, uteroscopy, percutaneous nephrolithomy or nephrolithotripsy.
Symptoms:
 Lower back pain, Blood in your urine, Nausea, Vomiting, Fever and chills, Urine that
smells bad or looks cloudy.

Kidney infection: It is also called pyelonephritis. It is due to gram negative bacteria. A kidney
infection needs prompt medical treatment. If not treated properly, an infection can cause lasting
damage to the kidneys.

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD): It is an inherited disorder in which clusters of cysts develop
primarily within your kidneys, causing your kidneys to enlarge and lose function over time.
Cysts are noncancerous round sacs containing fluid. There is no cure. potentially useful
medications, such as tolvaptan, that can sometimes be used to reduce the growth rate of cysts.
 Simple kidney cyst: It is the most common type of renal cyst. It is a fluid-filled sac that
originates from the surface of the kidney. Simple kidney cysts are usually harmless. There is
no cure.
Reason
One theory suggests that kidney cysts develop when the surface layer of the kidney weakens
and forms a pouch. The pouch then fills with fluid, detaches and develops into a cyst.

Renal capsule: It is thin membranous sheath that covers the outer surface of each kidney. The
capsule is composed of tough fibres, chiefly collagen and elastin (fibrous proteins), that help
to support the kidney mass and protect the vital tissue from injury.
Renal cortex: It is the outer layer of the kidney. The renal cortex is also known as the kidney
cortex. The cortex surrounds the inside of the organ.
Renal or kidney medulla: It is the inner part of the kidney. The medulla helps regulate the
concentration of urine by filtering out water, salts, and acid.

Questions.
 Discuss the architecture of Brain.
 Discuss brain as CPU.
 Explain the preparation, principle & applications of EEG.
 Explain the role of Central nervous system & Peripheral nervous system in animals.
 Write a note on signal transition through nervous system.
 What is Parkinson’s diseases? Discuss the engineering solutions to Parkinson’s diseases.
 Discuss eye as camera.
 What is cataract? Discuss the types & solution for cataract.
 What is lens? Discuss the types of lens & Lens materials.
 Discuss Bionic Eye.
 Discuss heart as pump.
 Explain the architecture of heart.
 Explain the procedure & materials used in angioplasty. Or discuss the types & insertion of
stents.
 Discuss ECG
 Discuss Defibrillator.
 Discuss the heart related diseases.
 Discuss pace maker.
 Discuss function & application of spirometry.
 Discuss the architecture of Lungs.
 Explain the diseases of lungs.
 Discuss Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) :
 Discuss the types, applications & disadvantages of ventilators.
 Discuss Heart lung machine.
 Discuss the architecture of Kidney.
 Discuss the types of dialysis.
 Discuss the Chronic Kidney Disease(CKD)