rough work
⦁ CnH2n+2( n is the nmber of carbons,while 2n+2 is the number of hydrogens)
⦁ each time you add one carbon add two hydrogens
Most common: alkyl groups
⦁ CH₃ → methyl
⦁ C₂H₅ → ethyl
⦁ C₃H₇ → propyl
⭐ What (CH₃) Means in a Structure (chain isomerism)
When you see something like:
CH(CH₃)
The parentheses mean:
👉 The group inside the parentheses is attached to the carbon right before the parentheses.
So:
CH is the carbon we are talking about
(CH₃) means a CH₃ group is attached to that CH
Think of it like this:
CH
|
CH3 ← this CH3 is in parentheses, so it attaches to the CH
In naming alkanes if More Than One Substituent → Use Prefixes
⦁ 2 → di-
⦁ 3 → tri-
⦁ 4 → tetra-
n/b-🌟 What does (CH₃)₂ mean
(CH₃)₂ means there are two CH₃ groups attached to the SAME carbon.
It’s just a shorthand to avoid drawing long structures.
⦁ Think of it like this:
CH₃–CH(CH₃)₂
means:
The middle carbon (CH)has two CH₃ groups attachedand also connects to the carbon on the
left
⦁ Let me draw it in a clear expanded form:
CH₃
|
CH₃ — CH — CH₃
|
CH₃
🌟 THE THREE GOLDEN RULES OF CHAIN ISOMERISM
️⃣Iif the number of carbons is different → NOT chain isomers
Even if the shapes look similar or different — it does NOT matter.
They must have the same molecular formula first.
️⃣If the number of carbons is the same AND the chain arrangement is different → YES
chain isomers
Examples:
Straight vs branched
or
One branch vs two branches
️⃣3 If the number of carbons is the same BUT the chain arrangement is the same → NOT
chain isomers(if they are identical they are not chain isomers)
This means they are the same molecule, just drawn differently.
Key feature to identify between methyl and isopropyl
I. The carbon attached to the main chain is connected to two other CH₃ groups.(this is
isopropyl)
2. Alkanes
Homologous Series – Naming – Structure – Chain Isomerism – Physical Properties – Chemical
Properties – Gasoline – Octane Number – Methane Chemistry – Exercises and Problem
General Information(they are saturated which means they form single bonds with carbonic
atoms)
⦁ Alkanes are saturated acyclic hydrocarbons with linear or branched chains.
⦁ General formula: CnH₂n+2, where n ≥ 1.
⦁ The homologous series is obtained by assigning successive integer values to n.
First Four Alkanes
Molecular Formula Name Projection Formula Structural Formula
CH₄ Methane H–C–H CH₄
C₂H₆ Ethane H–C–C–H H₃C–CH₃
C₃H₈ Propane H–C–C–C–H H₃C–CH₂–CH₃
C₄H₁₀ Butane H–C–C–C–C–H H₃C–CH₂–CH₂–CH₃
Alkanes with ≥5 carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix “-ane” to the Greek
numeral:
⦁ Pentane (C₅H₁₂), Hexane (C₆H₁₄), Heptane (C₇H₁₆), Octane (C₈H₁₈), Nonane (C₉H₂₀),
Decane (C₁₀H₂₂), Undecane (C₁₁H₂₄), Dodecane (C₁₂H₂₆), Eicosane (C₂₀H₄₂).
Each successive member differs by one –CH₂– group.
Chain Isomerism
⦁ Alkanes with the same molecular formula but different chain structures are chain isomers.
⦁ Linear chain → n-alkanes.
⦁ Branched chain → isoalkanes.
⦁ Chain isomerism starts with alkanes containing ≥4 carbon atoms.
Example (C₄H₁₀):
⦁ n-butane: CH₃–CH₂–CH₂–CH₃
⦁ isobutane: (CH₃)₂CH–CH₃
Example (C₅H₁₂):
⦁ n-pentane: CH₃–CH₂–CH₂–CH₂–CH₃
⦁ isopentane (2-methylbutane): CH₃–CH(CH₃)–CH₂–CH₃
⦁ neopentane (2,2-dimethylpropane): C(CH₃)₄
Hydrocarbon Radicals
⦁ Obtained by removing one or more hydrogen atoms.
⦁ Monovalent radicals (alkyl): replace “-ane” with “-yl”.
⦁ CH₃– → methyl
⦁ CH₃CH₂– → ethyl
⦁ CH₃CH₂CH₂– → propyl
⦁ (CH₃)₂CH– → isopropyl
⦁ CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂– → n-butyl
⦁ (CH₃)₂CHCH₂– → isobutyl
⦁ (CH₃)₃C– → tert-butyl
⦁ Divalent radicals: replace “-ane” with “-ylene” or “-ylidene”.
⦁ –CH₂– → methylene
⦁ –CH₂–CH₂– → ethylene
⦁ CH₃–CH– → ethylidene
⦁ Trivalent radicals: replace “-ane” with “-ylin” or “-ylidin”.
⦁ –CH– → methin
Naming Branched Alkanes (IUPAC Rules)
⦁ Identify the longest chain → base name.
⦁ Number carbons to give lowest locants for substituents.
⦁ Name substituents alphabetically, with prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-).
Example:
3-ethyl-2,3,4-trimethylhexane
Structure
⦁ Carbon atoms are sp³ hybridized.
⦁ Bond angles: 109°28′ (tetrahedral).
⦁ Bond lengths: C–C = 1.54 Å, C–H = 1.094 Å.
⦁ Rotation around single bonds → zig-zag conformation.
⦁ Molecules are nonpolar, interactions are van der Waals.
Physical Properties
⦁ State of matter:
⦁ Gaseous: ≤4 carbons (plus neopentane).
⦁ Liquid: C₅–C₁₇.
⦁ Solid: ≥C₁₈.
⦁ Boiling/melting points: increase with molecular mass. Branched alkanes have lower boiling
points.
⦁ Solubility: insoluble in water, soluble in nonpolar solvents (CCl₄, CS₂, benzene, toluene).
⦁ Density: <1 g/cm³ (float on water).
⦁ Odor: gases are odorless (mercaptans added for detection); higher alkanes smell like gasoline.
Chemical Properties
Alkanes are chemically inert (“paraffins”), reacting only under energetic conditions.
⦁ Halogenation (substitution)
⦁ Isomerization
⦁ Thermal decomposition (cracking, pyrolysis)
⦁ Combustion
⦁ Oxidation
Gasoline and Octane Number
⦁ Gasoline = mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, arenes.
⦁ Isoalkanes burn better in engines.
⦁ Octane number (ON): resistance to detonation.
⦁ n-heptane ON = 0 (knocks easily).
⦁ 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) ON = 100 (resistant).
Exercises and Problems
Below are the True/False questions translated into English.
1. Determine whether each statement is true or false:
a. The general formula of alkanes is CnH₂n+2.
b. In alkanes atoms form only covalent single bonds.
c. Alkanes have saturated acyclic chains.
d. In alkanes, covalent C–C single bonds are polar.
e. In alkanes, atoms are joined by σ and π bonds.
2. True/False:
a. In alkanes chains may be linear or branched.
b. Molecules of alkanes contain only σ bonds.
c. Alkanes have the maximum possible hydrogen content.
d. In alkanes carbon atoms can form double bonds.
e. In alkanes carbon atoms are tetravalent.
3. True/False:
a. In alkanes σ bonds form by overlap of two sp³ orbitals.
b. Alkanes can have cyclic chains.
c. Two alkanes can have the same molecular formula.
d. Alkanes with the same molar mass are isomers.
e. Isomeric alkanes may contain different numbers of primary/secondary/tertiary carbons.
4. True/False:
a. Atoms can rotate around a single bond in alkanes.
b. In alkanes C–C bonds have length 1.094 Å.
c. In the most stable form, chains adopt zig-zag conformation.
d. In methane, carbon has tetrahedral geometry.
e. Alkanes are nonpolar molecules.
5. True/False:
a. All alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen.
b. In alkanes carbon atoms can form single, double, or triple bonds.
c. In alkanes covalent bonds form angles of 109°28′.
d. Between alkanes molecules hydrogen bonds are formed.
e. Alkanes are soluble in water.