8/2

Pradeeps Fundamental Physics (XI) voLI

In 1543, Copernicus suggested that description of motion of heavenly bodies would be
and more properly explained if we assume that sun is stationary and earth as well as other simplified
planets are
revolving around it. This theory was called Heliocentric theory. This theory was later on supported by
Galileo from his experimental study on moon and other planets.
8.3. KEPLER'S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION
Kepler carried out the analysis of the whole astronomical data on the basis of Copernicus theory, As a
result of his investigations, he formulated the following three laws of planetary motion.
1. Kepler's First law (law of orbits). Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
The sun is situated at one foci of the ellipse, Fig. 8.1(a).
The ellipticity of the orbits is, however, very slight, and the orbits may be taken as nearly circular.
The angular momentum of the planct orbiting around the sun is constant.
Kepler's first law (law of orbits) is based on "Inverse Square law". In Fig. 8.1(a), from the sun, the
closest point is P, called perihelion and the farthest point is A, called aphelion. The mid point O of the line
PA is the centre of the ellipse. The length PO = A0 = a, is called the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
Eccentricity of an elliptical orbit (e) is defined as the ratio of
distance of one focus from the centre of ellipse (= SO) to the distance Elliptical
FIGURE 8.1(a)
Major
of semi major axis of ellipse (= OP) i.e., Orbit, Axis
e=
SO
OP
SO
SO = ea
P
Planet A
Refer to Fig. 8.1(b)
SP =rp and SA =rA
Then SP =P0- SO =a- ea =a (1 -e)
Focus Minor
and SA = 0A +SO =a+ ea=a (1 + e) Axis
SA "Aa(lte) 1+e FIGURE 8.1(b)
SP a(l-e) 1-e
For an ellipse e <1. For a circle S coincides with O, so SO = 0. p
Therefore e =0. -rA
For a circle, the two focii of the ellipse merge
into one and the
semi-major axis becomes the radius of the circle.
RETAIN 1. The point at which a planet in its orbit is closest to the sun is
the point at which a planet in its orbit is at the known as perihelion and
IN
aphelion.
farthest point from the sun is called
MEMORY
2. The maximum distance of a planet around the sun;r, =a(l
3. The minimum distance of aplanet +e).
around the sun ; r, =a(l -e).
4. Length of the semimajor axis, a =
2

5. Eccentricity of the orbit, e=

6. In case of an ellipitical orbit of planet of semimajor axis a and
semiminor axis b, the
areal velocity is given by, dA Tab
dt
 8/3
GRAVITATION

of a planet
RETAIN 7. If Ris the distance of a planet from the sun and o is the angular velocity
IN mR? L where
MEMORY around the sun then area swept per unit time 2 2m 2m

sun and m
mK O=Em(Ro)R=mvR=L=angular momentum of the planet arOund the
is the mass of the planet.

2. Kepler's Second law (law of Areas). The line joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equat
areas in equal intervals of time, i.e., the areal velocity of the planet around the sun is constant.

To keep the areal velocity constant, the linear speed of the planet goes on changing. The linear speed is
more, when the planet is close to the sun and less, when it is away from the sun. To understand it, consider a
planet moves from P, to P, or from P, to P, in the same timet, Fig. 8.2(a). In this situation.
Area P SP,= Area P, SP4 FIGURE 8.2(a)
Since, SP > SP3, therefore, P, P, < PzP4 P2
Pa
or ...(1) VA
P A
Here, P, Pg/t= linear speed of the planet in position P;. S

P, Plt= linear speed of the planet in position P3.

Thus, from (1), we note that the linear speed of the planet when
closer tothe sun is more than its linear speed when away from the sun.
Kepler's second law (law of areas) is based on law of conservation of angular [Link]
to it, Or

IMPORTANT NOTE
Kepler's second law is based on the law of conservation of angular momentum.

3. Kepler's third law (Law of periods). The square of the time period of revolution ofa planet
around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semi major axis of its elliptical orbit, i.e.,
T²o« R3 ..(2)
where, T=time taken by the planet to go once around the sun, DO
R= semi major axis of the elliptical orbit. YOU
Clearly, the planets situated at larger distances from the sun take
longer time to complete one rotation around the sun. KNOW?
8.4. DEDUCTION OF KEPLER'S THIRD LAW
1. A law which is derived from
Consider, a planet of mass m is orbiting around the sun of mass experimental data apart
Min circular orbit of radius r, with constant angular velocity , and from some elegant theory or
time period of revolution T, then by logic from first
4n2 principles 1S called
GM m 412
= mr ) = m r
T2
Or T² = empirical law in nature.
GM )
2. The Kepler's laws of
planetary motion are
i.e., =a constant empirical in nature.
3. All other planets except
The above result holds equally good for elliptical orbit provided mercury revolve around the
we replace r with a, the semi major axis of the ellipse. sun in almost circular orbits.
 8/5
GRAVITATION
Velocity
Areal FIGURE 8.2(b)
dL
As, T= =0; SO L =acosntant ...(4)
dt
dA
From (3) and (4), we have 2m =a constant
dt
Time
dA =a constant.
dt
This proves Kepler's second law o
Le., the areal velocity of the planet around the sun is constant.
planetary motion.
IMPORTANT NOTE
graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.
For a panet, the areal velocity versus time
Fig. 8.2(b)
GRAVITATION FROM KEPLER'S LAWS
8.6. DEDUCTION OF NEWTON'S LAW OF
laws of planetary motion.
Newton's law of gravitation can be easily obtained from Kepler's in a nearly circular orbit of radius r,
sun of mass M
Suppose a planet of mass m is revolving around the of revolution of the planet around the sun.
angular velocity . Let T be the time period
with a constant ...(5)
) =2 T/T
its circular motion is
The centripetal force acting on the planet for
47'mr (from (5))
F=mro= mr

According to Kepler's Third Law

() T2

or T²= K, (where Kis a constant of proportionality)

4T mr 412 ...(6)
F=
Kr K

m
.(7)
or F
2 4 n is a constant quantity)
(:
K
planet.
centripetal force is provided by the gravitational attraction exerted by the sun on the
This forceF
between the sun and the planet is mutual. If the
According to Newton, the gravitational attraction proportional to
proportional to the mass of planet, m (from (7)]it should also be directly
is directly
the factor
4n oc Mor 41 = GM. Putting this value in (6), we get
Hence,
the mass of the sun, M. K K
gravitation.
F= GM mlr, which is Newton's law of
concluded the followings :
On the basis of Kepler's laws, Newton
on the planet due to sun (which is the centripetal force) is dircected towards the sun.
(1) Aforce is acting from the sun.
force acting on the planet must be inversely proportional to the square of the distance
(2) The
acting on the planet is direcçy proportional to the product of the masses of the planet and the sun.
(3) The force
8.7. GRAVITATION
any two bodies of the universe.
Gravitation is the name given to the force of attraction between
saw an apple falling down the tree.
It was discovered by Newton in the year l665, when he
8/6
Pradeeps Fundamental Physics (XI)
Gravitational force is the weakest force amongst the four fundamental forces of nature, but is VOLM
important force because it played an important role in initiating the birth of the mo
structure of the universe. The gravitational force has significant stars, and controlling the entirs
Physics. applications in the present advancement of
8.8. NEWTON'S LAW OF
GRAVITATION
Itstates that every body in this universe attracts every
other body with a
proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportionalforce
to
which is directly
the square of the
distance between them.
Consider two point mass bodies A and B of masses m, and m. Let r be the
centres and F be the force of attraction between them, Fig. 8.3. distance between their
According to Newton's law of Gravitation, FIGURE 8.3

F12 F
F« or F= Gm my ..(8)
2
Ak

where G is a constant of proportionality and is called Universal

Definition of G.
Gravitational Constant.
Let mË = m=1 and r=l.

Then, from (8), F=Glxl =G or G=F

Thus, Universal Gravitational Constant is equal to the

bodies each of unit mass, whose centres are placed unitforce of attraction acting between two
distance apart.
Gravitational constant is a scalar
of the nature and the size of the bodies quantity. Its value is samne throughout the universe and is
as well as the nature of the medium independent
between the bodies. The value of
G in SI is 6-67 × 10-1Nm kg and in cgs system is 6-67 x 10 dyne cm g.
Dimensional formula for G = (MLT-2) ()
m m M×M

RETAIN 1. Newton's law of gravitation holds good for

IN two objects (i) of any shape, size and mass
(ii) at all places and (iii) at all times throughout the
MEMORY
2. Newton's law of gravitation fails when
universe.
10- m (i.e., of the order of molecular distance between two objects is less than
3. Gravitational force between two mass
distance).
them.
bodies is independent of the medium
separating
4. Gravitational force between two bodies is
repulsive.
always attractive in nature and it can never be
5, Gravitational force is a conservative force.
6. Since the value of G is very small, so
smallunless one or both masses is very gravitational
large.
force between two masses is very

Sample Problem Asphere of mass 40 kg is attracted by a

their centres are 20 cm apart, with a force of 0-1 milligram second sphere of mass 15 kg, when
constant.
weight. Calculate the value of gravitational
8/10
Pradees Fundamental Physics (XI) VOLM
where Fo,, Fn .... F, are the gravitational forces on a particle of mass mo due to
particles of masses m,.
M2 .., m, respectively.
Refer toFig. 8.8, FIGURE 8.8
m2

Fot Fo2
mo
'o2 and Fo Gm, "n Ton m
Fon

F=Gm m, Toi. m, '02 +.... m, "on

8.15. GRAVITY

Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre on a body lying on or near
the surface of earth. Gravity is merely aspecial case of gravitation and is also called earth's
gravoational pull.
For illustration, the force of attraction between two bodies on the surface of earth is the force of
gravitation, but the force of attraction between each body and the earth is the force of gravity.
Force of gravity acting on a body is the measure of weight of the body. Thus, weight of a body is
defined as the force of attraction exerted by the earth on the body towards its centre.
If m is the mass of a body placed on the surface of earth, where acceleration due to gravity is g, then,
gravity pull = weight of body = mg.
The units and dimensions of gravity pull or weight are the same as those of force.
8.16. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GRAVITATION AND GRAVITY
1. Gravitation is the force of attraction acting between any two bodies of the universe.
Gravity is the carth's gravitational pull on a body, ling on or near the surface of earth.
2. The gravitational force on a body A of mass m, due to a body B of mass m, placed distancer apart is,
F=G m, ml;where G is a universal gravitational constant.
The force of gravity on a body of masS m is, F= mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
3. The direction of gravitational force on body A due to body B is along AB.
The direction of force of gravity on a body is along the line joining the body and the centre of the earth
and is directed towards the centre of the earth.
4. The force of gravitation between two bodies can be zero if the separation between two bodies becomes
infinity.
The force of gravity on a body is zero at the centre of the earth.
RETAIN Mass of a body is a universal constant. Itdoes not very with the position or the location of
IN the body, but it varies with the speed with which the body is moving. Mass of a body will
MEMORY never be zero.
The weight of a body (= mass Xacceleration due to gravity) is not a universal constant. ltS
value is different on different planets because the value of acceleration due to gravity S
different from planet to planet. The weight of a body will be zero at the centre of the earth.
 GRAVITATION 8/11

8.17. ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

Ifaforce Facts on abody of mass m, produces an acceleration a, then according to Newton ssecond
law of motion
F= ma
If the force on body is due to gravityof earth, then acceleration in the body is called acceleration due to
gravity, which is denoted by g. i.e., a = g.
Then, F= mg 8= Flm
If, m= 1, then 8= FIl =F

Thus, acceleration due to gravity is defined as the force of gravity acting on unit mass of a
body placed on or near the surface of earth.
called
If the body is falling freely, under the effect of gravity, then the acceleration in the body is also
acceleration due to gravity. Thus,acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration set up in the body when
ifalls freely under the effect ofgravity alone. It is denoted by 'g'. The SI unit of acceleration due to gravity
is ms- or Nkg.
of 'g' is
'g' is a vector. Its direction is towards the centre of the earth. At a given place, the value
altitude, depth and
constant. However, it differs from place to place on the surface of earth. It also varies with
all practical
rotation of the carth. On the surface of the earth, the value of g is taken to be 9-8 m s-, for
purposes. The dimensional formula for g is [M°L' T-.
mass and radius
The value of g is independent of the shape, size, mass etc. of the body but depends upon allowed to
of the earth or planetdue to which there is a gravity pull. When two bodies of different masses are
two bodies of same mass but of
fall from-same height in vacuum, they reach the earth at the same time. If the
simultaneously.
different volumes are allowed to fall from same height in air medium, they will not be reaching
due to air
The body of smaller volume will reach the earth earlier than the other body, since the upward thrust
volume.
on the body of smaller volume will be less than that on the body of larger
8.18. RELATION BETWEEN g AND G
Consider earth to be a spherical body of mass M, radius R with centre O.
FIGURE 8.9
8.9, where
Suppose a body of mass m placed on the surface of earth, Fig.
m

acceleration due to gravity is g.

is
The gravitational force on body of mass m, placed on the surface of earth
mg R

due to earth whose mass M is concentrated at the centre O.

Let F be the force of attraction between body and the earth.
GM m
According to Newton's law of gravitation, F=
From gravity pull, F= mg
GM m GM
mg = or = ...(11)
R2 R?
From (11. we note that the value of acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass,shape and size
of the body but depends upon mass and radius of the earth.
IMPORTANT NOTE
The value of g on different heavenly bodies is different.

Sample Problem The radius of the moon is 17 x 10 mand its mass is 7-4 x 102 kg. If
G= 667 x 10-11 Nm² kg², find the value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon.
8/12 Pradeey Fundamental Physics (XI) vOL.M
Sol. Here, M= 7.4 x 1022 kg; R= 1:7% 10 m;

Gm_ (6-67 x10-)x (74x1022) = 171ms-2

R2 (1-7x106)?
8.19. MASS AND DENSITY OF EARTH
Mass of earth

From equation (11), we find M=g RIG ...(12)

We know that, R 6-4 x 10 m, G= 6-67 x 10- Nm kg-2 and g=9-8 ms-2,
Then, M= 9-8 x (6-4 x 10)(6-67 x 10-1l) = 6-018 x 102 kg
Density of Earth
Consider earth to be aspherical body of radius R. Let pbe the uniform density of the material of the earth.
mass M 3M
Density of earth, p = 4 ..(13)
volume 4T R3

3g R²/G 3g ...(14)
From (12) and (13), we get p=
4n R3 4t RG
We know that, g =9-8 ms²; R= 6.4 x 10 m;G=6-67 x 10- Nm 2kg
3x9-8
From (14), p=
4x (22/7) x 6-4 x10 x (6-67 x 10-1l) = 5.4783x 10 kg m3
55 x 10 kg mn-3
It is to be noted that the density of earth is not uniform through the entire mass of earth.
8.20. VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
The value of acceleration due to gravity changes with height (i.e., altitude), depth, shape of the earth and
rotation of earth about its own axis. The effect of each of; the above factors on the value of g has been
discussion below.
(a) Effect of Altitude. Consider earth to be a sphere of mass M, radius R with centre at O. Let g be the
value of acceleration due to gravity at a point A on the surface of earth., Fig. 8.10(a).
GM
..(15)

If g' is the acceleration due to gravity at a point B, FIGURE 8.10

at a height h above the surface of earth, then the force
on the body at B is due to earth whose mass M is
concentrated at the centre O of earth.
GM A8
...(16)
(R+ h)2
R
Dividing (16) by (I5), we get
GM
X
R R2
..(17)
(R+ h)? GM (R+ h)2
R?
R² (1+ WR)?
GRAVITATION 8/13

Ifh<<Rthen h/R is very small as compared to 1. Expanding the R.H.S. of above equation by Binoma
theorem and neglecting the square and higher powers of h/R, we get
8-2h or
2h "..(18)
R
R

From (17) and (18), we note that the value of acceleration due to gravity decreases with height.
It is due to this reason that the value of acceleration due to grayity is lesser at mountains than in
plains. Ata height equal to the radiusof the carth (i.e., h =R= 6400km), from (17),
g'=
(R+ R) 4
IMPORTANT NOTES
() The relation (17) is used to find the value of acceleration due to gravity g' at a height h, when h is
comparable to the radius of earth Rand relation (18) is used to findg when h is very small as compared
to R.
(ii) With height h, the decrease in the value of gis =g-g'=2h g/R
2h
.. Fractional decrease in the value of g = 8-8
R

..% decrease in the value of p 88 2h

= x100
R
If (R + h) = r, then from (16), g= GM/r or g'« 1/2
Thus the variation of g' with r is as shown by a curve. Fig. 8.10(b)
Sample Problem How much above the surface of earth does the acceleration due to gravity
reduces by 64% of its value on the surface of earth. Radius of earth= 6400 km.
Sol. Since the acceleration due to gravity reduces by 64%, then the value of acceleration due to gravity
36
there is= 100 64 = 36%. It means, g: [Link] is the height of location above the surface of earth,
100
R? 36 R2 6 R
then g'= 8 (R+ h)? 8= 8(R+h)2 Or
100 10 R+h

4R 2R 2x6-4x106
6R+6h= 10 R Or h = 4-27 >x 106 m
6 3 3
(6)Effect of depth. Consider earth to be a homogeneous sphere of radius R and mass M with centre at
0. Let g be the value of acceleration due to gravity at a point A on the surface of earth, Fig. 8.1l(a). Then
GM
FIGURE 8.11
R?
Ifpis uniform density of material of the earth, then
R
M= (R-d)

4
GxRp
3 4
R

T G Rp ...(19)
R2
8/14
Pradeep s Fundamental Physics (XI) vOLM
Le g be the acceleration due to gravity at the point B at a depth d below the surface of earth.
The distance of the point B from the centre of the carth is (R-d). The
of () a smaller sphere of radius (R - d) and (in) a spherical shellof carth can be supposed to be made
thickness d.
The body at B is inside the spherical shell of thickness d. The force on body of mass m at B
due t
spherical shell is zero, as explained in Art. 8.13.
The body at B is outside the surface of smaller sphere of radius (R- d). The force on the
m at Bis due to smaller sphere of earth of radius (R - ) is just as if the entire mass M of the body of mas
of earth is concentrated at the centre . smaller sphere
GM' 4
g'= and M'=
(R- d)2 3
4
GX7 r (R-d)p 4
=G (R - d) p ..(20)
(R-d)?
Dividing (20) by (19), we get
g'G(R-d) p R-d Rd d
4 R RR ..(21)
77GRp
From (21), we note that the value of accelerationdue to gravity decreases with depth.
Atthe centre of the earth, d= R, g'= 8o (say).
From (21), we get ...(22)
It means the acceleration due to gravity is zero at the centre of earth. Therefore, the weight of the
body of mass mat the centre of earth =mgo =0, but the mass of the body will not be zero.
Thus,the value of acceleration due to gravity is maximum at the earth's surface and becomes zero at
the centre of the earth.
IMPORTANT NOTES
Decrease in the value of gwith depth d is = g -g'= d g/R
d
:. Fractional decrease in the value of gwith depth = E ..(23)
R

.. % decrease in the value ofe = 8-8 x 100= d x100 ...(24)

R

From (21), we note that g'=g i.e., g' o« (R-d). Thus the variation of g' with d is a st. line Fi.
R
8.11(b).
Variation of g with distance from the centre of earth

For a point inside the earth (r<R), 8a =8 [Where (R- d) =r]

So

For apoint outside the earth (r> R), 8, =8 R2 R2

(Where (R + h) = r]
(R+h)2 2
So &, l/2
 8/15
GRAVITATION
FIGURE 8.12
Thus the variation of acceleration duc to gravity (g') with
distancer fom the centre of the carth is acurve OAB as shown in
Fig. 8.12.
A
Sample Problem Find the percentage decrease in the
weight of the body when taken to a depth of 32 knm below the
surface of carth. Radius of the carth is 6400 km. T

Sol. Here, d =32 km; R= 6400 km. R 2R 3R 4R

Weight of body at depth d is = mg'= mg - R

mg mng' x 100 = d X 100 = 32 x 100 = 0-5%

% decrease in weight R 6400
mg
flattened at the poles and bulges out at
(c) Effect of Shape of Earth. Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is
than the polar radius R,. Fig. 8.13.
the equator. Equatorial radius R, of the carth is about 21l km greater
Now. &= GMIR? FIGURE 8.13
line
Equatorial
Since G and Mare constants .. g 1/R North Pole

Thus, we conclude that the value of gis least at the equator and maximum
at the pole. It means, the value of acceleration due to gravity increases as
we go from equator to the pole. -Ra
At sea level, the value of g at pole is greater than its value at equator by
1-80 cms2
own axis)
(d) Effect of latitude (Due to Rotation of earth about its South Pole

Latitude at a place is defined as the angle which the line joining FIGURE 8.14
equatorial
the place to the centre of the earth makes with the N
In Fig. 8.14.
plane. It is generally denoted by the letter .
Latitude at a place P=ZPOE =A. As is evident from the figure,
A=90° at poles and =0° at equator.
R with centre O.
Consider earth to be a perfect sphere of mass M, radius
be concentrated at the centre 0.
The whole mass of earth can be supposed to
every particle lying on Equatoial
As earth rotates about its polar axis from West to East, angular velocity as that S
Plane
same
its surface moves along a horizontal circle with
axis.
of earth. The centre of each circle lies on the polar FIGURE 8.15
of latitude A. If
Consider aparticle of mass m at a place P
angular velocity
carth is rotating about its polar axis NS with constant
describes a horizontal circle of
0, then particle at P also rotates and
radius r, where mg (180°-à)
= R cos 2 ..(25)
r= PC = 0P cos

The centrifugal force acting on the particle at P is mro. B

It acts along PA, directed awayfrom the centre Cof the circle of
rotation,Fig. 8.15.
to gravity when earth
Suppose g is the acceleration dueparticle
the (i.e. true weight
were at rest, then the gravity pull on vertical direction* PO.
a
OT the particle) = mg ; acts along earth
place Is the line joining the place with the centre of
*It may be noted that the vertical direction at a
 8/16

Let g' be the

Pradeep'e Fundamental Physics (XI) VOL m
acceleration due to gravity at P when rotation of earth is taken into
Then apparent weight of the particle at P= mg' account.
This is the resultant of the true weight and
centrifugal force acting on the particle at P and hence must he
represented by the diagonal PB of parallelogram PABO. Here ZAPO = (180 -).
Using parallelogram law of forces, we have
mg' = (mg)² + (mro +2 (ng)(m ra) cos (180° -A)
g'=g+r² w-2gra cos A
=Jg'+R² cos2 o-2gR cos o cos
(From (25))
cos - 2 R -cos
..(26)
We know that, R = 6-4 × 10 m,
g=9-8 ms and )= 2T 2T
rad s-1,
T 24x60x 60
Ra 2 1
= 64x106x 1
24x60x60 9-8 289
Since the value of Rolg is very small,
neglected. therefore the terms with its squares and of higher powers can be
1

Hence, (26), becomnes g= g|1 2Ra cos2 2)2

Expanding it by Binomial theorem, we get

- 2R w cos2 2 -
Ra cos2

or
8=g-Ra cos 2
...(27)
As, cos and o are positive,
Thus from (27), it is clear that thereforeg'<due
g.
(ü)increases with the
acceleration to gravity (i) decreases on
account of rotation of earth.
increase in latitude of the place,
At equator, A=0®, cos A= cos 0° =
1, g'= 8, (say)
Then from (27),
Clearly. g, is minimum.
At poles, A=90, cos A=cos
90° = 0, g'= 8, (say)
Then from (27),
&p =8-R o (0) =g
Clearly, g, is maximum.
Hence the value of acceleration due to
value of acceleration due to gravity at polesgravity is minimum at the equator and
maximum at the [Link]
will remain unchanged whether the earth
Thus the effect of rotationof the earth on the is at rest or rotating.
equator and is minimum at the poles. value of acceleration due to graviy is maximum at the
 8/19
GRAVITATION

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. The intensity of gravitational ficld at a point is a vector quantity.
the same as that of acceleration due
2. The dimensional formulae of intensity of gravitational ficld is
to gravity.
3. The intensity of gravitational field at a point inside a hollow spherical shell is zero.
same as if the entire mass
4. The intensity of gravitational field at a point outside the spherical shell is
of the shell is concentrated at the centre of the shell.
5. Since intensity of FIGURE 8.16
gravitational field () at
a location is equal to the Ior g
acceleration due to
gravity (g). so the
variation of /org with
distance r for a spherical loe 1/2
shell of radius R is as
shown in Fig. 8.16(a) |=0
R
and for a solid sphere of R
radius R is as shown in
Fig. 8.16(b).
Sample Problem On a planet whose size is the same and mass 4 times as that of our earth,
find the amount of workdone to lift 3 kg mass vertically upwards through 3 m distance on the planet.
The value of g on the surface of earth is 10m/s.
Sol. Here, R, =R,; M, =4 M,; m=3 kg; h=3m:g, = 10 m/s.
GM,
On the surface of earth, 8,
R
GM G4M GM
P e=4 =4g, =4x 10 =40m/s
On the surface of planet, 8, =

Work done = m g,h=3x40 x 3 =360 J

8.23. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field of a body is defined as the amount of

work done in bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point without acceleration.
If Wis the amount of work done in bringing abody of mass m, from infinity to apoint Pin the gravitational
field without acceleration, then Gravitational potential at P=
W
m
Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity, since work done is a scalar.
Unitof gravitational potential at apoint in Sl is J kg and in cgs system it is erg g-!
Dimensional formula for gravitational potential.
W [ML? T-]
Gravitational potential = [M]
=[M°2T
The dimensional formula of gravitational potential is same as that of the square of speced of a body.
8/20
Pradeeea Fundamental Physics (XI) VOLIm
Expression for gravitational potential at a point FIGURE 8.17
Let earth be a perfect sphere of radius R and mass M. The mass of
the earth can be supposed to be concentrated at its centre 0. Let us
calculate the gravitational potential at anypoint P, where OP =rand r P
>R, Fig. 8.17. Join OP and produce it onwards. Take two points Aand B
B on this line such that OA =x and AB = d. K

The gravitational force of attraction on a body of unit mass at pointA will be

GM x1 GM
F=

Smallamount of work done in bringing the unit mass body without acceleration through a small
distance
GM
AB (= d°) is dW = F dx = -dx
Total work done in bringing the body of unit mass from infinity to point P can be
the above expression within the limits x = oo to x = r, we get obtained by integrating

GM Y

This work done is the measure of gravitational potential at P (i.e., Vp).

Vp = W = -GM ...(30)
From (30), we note that (i) the gravitational potential at a point is always
(ii) When r= o, from (30), V, = 0, hence, gravitational negative.
(iiil) At the surface of earth, r= R, therefore
potential is maximum (= zero) at infinity.
V,=-GMIR at the surface of earth.
IMPORTANT NOTES.
1. Gravitational potential at a point is a scalar
quantity.
2. The gravitational potential at a point inside a
shell.
spherical shell is the same as that on the surface of
3. The gravitational potential at a point inside the
solid sphere of radius R, mass M at a distance r from
the centre of sphere is V = GM (3 R² -2)
2 R3
4. The variation of gravitational
potential (V) at a point
sphere is shown in Fig. 8.18(a) and (ii) a solid spherewith distance r from the centre of (i) a hollow
is shown in Fig. 8.18(b).

FIGURE 8.18

R
R

GM
R GM
a
3GM
2R
 8/21
GRAVITATION

The various relations of gravitational potential Vand gravitational intensity 1

Gravitational
s. No. Item Position of the point of Gravitational
observation Potential (M Intensity (0

GM
GM (i) I=
1. A solid sphere () When point lies outside the () V= 2
of radius R, sphere at distancer from O
mass M where r> R GM
GM (ii) l= = 8
with centre at O (i)When point lies on the (ii) V = - R2
R
surface of sphere, i.e., r= R GMr
GM (3 R? -2) (iüi) I=
(ii) When point lics inside (ii) V =
2R' R3 R
the sphere, i.e., r<R GM gR2
GM () l=
2. Ahollow sphere () When point lies outside (i) V= 2 2
of radius R, the sphere, i.e., r > R GM
GM (i) I= =
mass M with (ii) When point lies on the (i)) V= R2
R
centre at O surface of sphere, i.e., r = R
GM (iüi) l= 0
(ii) When point lies inside (iii) v =
R
the sphere, i.e., r < R
Sample Problem The distance between the moon and earth is 3-8 x 10° m. Find the
of the earth is
gravitational potential at the mid point of the line joining them. Given that the mass
6x 1024 kg ; mass of moon = 7-4 x 102 kg and G= 667x 10- Nm² kg2,
Sol. Here M, =6x 102 kg ; M,, = 7:4 x 102 kg;r=3-8x 10 m
is
Gravitational potential due to the earth at the mid point Oof the line joining earth and moon
-GM e
-2 GM,e
(r/2)
and moon is
Gravitational potential due to the moon at the mid point O of the line joining the earth
-GM m -2GM m
(r/2)
Total gravitational potential at 0 is
-2G
V=V+V, =M, +M!
-2x(667x10-)
[6 x 1024 +7-4 x 1022]
3-8x108
=-213 x 10 J kg
8.24. GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
The potential energy of a body at a given position is defined as the energy stored in the body
while bringing it from the position of zero potential energy to that position.
1, When the body is at infinity with respect to another body, the gravitational attraction on the body is
zero, Then the potential energy of body is zero, which is called zero levelof potential energy.
2. If the position of a body changes on account of the forces acting on i, then change in its potential
energy is equal to the amount of work done on the body by the forces acting on it, for the given change in
 8/22
Pradee'e Fundamental Physics (XI) Vo
position. As this work done is independent of the path followed, so the gravitational forces are
forces.
3. If W, is the zero level of
conservative
the position of zero level potentialpotential energy of body and Wis the work done in bringing the
energy present location, then
to body from
P.E. of body = W+ Wo:
II initially the body is at infinity, then the zero level of P.E. is zero, i.e., Wo =0.
Now P.E. of body = W.
Gravitational potential energy of a body at a point in a gravitational field of another body is
defined as the amnount of work done in bringing the given body from infinity to that point
wthout acceleration.
Expression for gravitational potential energy
Consider a gravitational field due to earth of mass M, radius R. The mass of the earth can be supposed
to be concentrated at its centre O. Let us calculate the gravitational potential energy of the
body of masS
placed at point P in the gravitational field, where OP = r and r> R, Fig. 8.17. Join OP and produce it onwards.
Take two points A and B on this line such that OA = x and AB = dx.
The gravitational force of attraction on the body at A will be
F= GM mlx?
Small amount of work done in bringing the body without acceleration through a very small
AB (= dx) is given by distance
GM m
dW = F dx= dx

Total work done in bringing the body from infinity to point P is given by
r GM m

W-J dx = GM m 2 dx =-GM GM m
..(31)
Since, this work done is stored in the body as its
potential energy of the body of mass m placed at point gravitational potential energy U. Therefore, gravitational
P in the gravitational field of earth of mass M at
distancer will be
GM m
U= .(32)
From (30) and (32), we note that U= V, x m.
i.e., Gravitational
Discussion of Result
potential energy = gravitational potential x mass of the body.
1. In (32), negative sign
by earth on the body. It meansshows that the potentialenergy is due to
to bring a body from infinity to point P,attractive gravitational force exerted
gravitational field of earth, i.e., by attractive force. the work has been performed by the
2. From (32), we note that if the
it becomes less negative. When r = value of r increases, the value of gravitational potential energy
o, the value of gravitational increases as
potential energy becomes zero (i.e., maximum).
3. If a body of mass m is moved
from a point at a distance r to a point at a
potential energy of the body is given by distance r,, then change in
GM m
AU = dx = GM
...(33)
If r, > r, then AU is negative. It
means as the body is brought closer to the
decreases (i.e., becomes mnore negative). earth, its potential energy
 GRAVITATION 8/27

8.27. CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre ofgravity ofa body placed in the gravitational field is that point where the net gravtao
force of the field acts.

When abody is lying on the surface of carth, then the weight of abody acts at the centre of gravity of the body.
The centrof gravity ot abody may or may not be the same as its centre of mass. For a body of smallsize, havin8
unifon density throughout, the centre of gravity of he body coincides with the centre of mass. In case of a solid
sphen, the centre of gravity and centre of mass be at its centre. For a body of very large dimensions, but having
nm-unifom density, the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of mass.
In case of an inegular body whose different parts are made of different density, then the centre of
ravity will not coincide with the ccntre of mass of the body.
S.28. SATELLITE

A satellite is a body which is revolving continuously in an orbit around a comparatively much

larger body.
For cxample,earth is asatellite of sun and moon in turn is a satellite of earth. In our solar system, each
planet is a satellite of sun, but some of these planets have got satellites around them. The planets Jupiter and
Saturn have sixty three and sixty two satellites (called moons) respectively. Since all these satellites were
made by nature, these are called natural satellites.
With the advancement of science and technology, since 1957, many man made satellites have been put
in different orbits around earth. Such satellites are called Artificial satellites. Russians were the first to
launch an artificial satellite Sputnik 7,on October 4, [Link] launched its first artificial satellite, Aryabhatta
in 1975. Since then, India has put many satellites in various orbits around earth e.g., Bhasker, Rohini, Apple,
IA, IB, Insat, IRS etc.
8.29. PRINCIPLE OF LAUNCHING A SATELLITE
Consider a very high tower on the surface of earth whose height is FIGURE 8.19

more than the height of the earth's atmosphere. Let a body be projected Satellite
from top of this tower with some horizontal speed. The body will describe
earth at
aparabolic path under the effect of gravity and hit the surface of
the body is
point A,. If the initial horizontal speed of projection of farther
increased, the body will hit the surface of earth at point A,, from A3
R

in second
the foot of the tower, Fig. 8.19. Clearly, the horizontal range the initial Earth
increasing
case is more than that in the first case. If we go on
range will also
horizontal speed of projection of the body, its horizontal
body will not hit the
increase and finally a stage will come when the
in an attempt
carth, but willalways be in a state of free fall under gravity
stable circular path around
to fall to earth. Then the body will describe a
the earth and becomes a satellite of earth.
into iüs orbiü around earth is called orbital
The minimum speed required to put the satellite
speed of satellite.

RETAIN
of a freely falling body.
IN The motion of a satellite around the carth is a case
MEMORY
8/28
Pradece'a Fundamental Physics (XI)P
OF SATELLITE
8.30. ORBITAL SPEED. TIME PERIOD AND HEIGHT
satellite
Orbital speed. Orbital speed of asatellite is the minimum speed required to put the
()
into a given orbtaround earth.
speed is different for different orbits around earth and is independent of the mass o
The value of orbital
satellite. Let FIGURE 8.20

M= mass of earth, R=radius of earth,

m= mass of the satellite,
'=orbital speed of the satellite,
field
h= height of satellite above the surface of earth,
r= radius of the orbit of the satellite = R+h gravit
satcllite in its
The centripetal force required to keep the Earth
orbit,
F=myIr R
of
gravitational Bound
According to Newton's Law of Gravitation,
pull acting on the satcllite
= GM ml2
Inequilibrium, the gravitational pull provides the required
centripetal force to the satellite.
m y2 GM m GM ...(39)
Or V=
2
of earth, then g= GMIR or GM = g R'
If gis the value of acceleration due to gravity on the surface
/& R2 "..(40)
Putting this value in (39), we get V= =R
VR+h
It is clear from (40), that orbital speed of a satellite
(i) is independent of the mass of satellite.
(ii) decreases with an increase in the radius of orbit or increase in the height of satellite.
of satellite is
(iii) depends upon the mass and radius of the earth/planet around which the revolution
taking place.
The direction of orbital speed of a satellite at an instant is along the tangent to the orbital path of
satellite at that instant.
When a satellite is orbiting very close to the surface of earth, h << R, then
r=R+h R and V=Vo (say)
From (40), Vo =RglR = Jg R
Substituting, g = 9-8 m s and R=6-4 x 10° m,

We get, v = V9.8 x6-4 x10 =7.92x 10 ms-!=7.92 km s-!

(ii) Time period of satellite. It is the time taken by satellite to complete one revolution around
the earth and is denoted by T. Thus,
distance travelled in one revolution 2nr
T=
orbital velocity
2 Ttr 2 3 2T (R+ h)
T= ...(41)
R V8 R8 R
 GRAVITATION 8/29

If the earth is supposed to be a sphere of mean density p. then the mass of the earth is
M =- R'p and
GM G 4n GRp
R2 R23 3
Substituting this value of gin (41), we get
2n 3(R+ )3 4n? 3(R+ h)
T= =
3r (R+ h ...(42)
R 4T GRp R2 4 r GRp Gp R3
For satellite orbiting close to the surface of earth, h<<R .. h+ R= R.
3T
From (42), T=
YGp
2T R R
From (41), T = =2n ...(43)
RV 8
By substituting g =9-8ms² and R=6-4 x 106m in (43), we get the value of
T= 5-08 x 10 sec. = 84-6 minutes.
It means asatellite orbiting close to the surface oftheearth has atime period of revolutionabout 84-6
minutes.

It is clear from (42), that the period of revolution of a satellite depends only upon its height above the
earth's surface. The larger is the height of asatellite above the surface of earh, greater will be its period of
revolution.
(üi) Altitude or Height of satellite above the earth's surface.
Squaring both sides of (41), we get
T'= 41? (R+ h³ or (R+ h)³= T² Rg
R& 4n
/3 \1/3
or R+h= or h - R ...(44)
41 412

Knowing the values of T,Rand g, the height hof the satellite above the surface of earth can be calculated
from (44).
(iv) Angular Momentum L. When a satellite of mass mis orbiting with linear speed v on the orbital
path of radius r around the earth, its angular momentum is given by
L=mvr =mr GMIr =[m² GM r]/2
From above, it is clear that angular momentum of asatellite depends on both, the mass of the satellite (m)
and the mass of planet (M). It also depends upon the radius of the orbit(r) of the satellite.
(v) Energyof an orbitting Satellite. The total mechanicalenergy (E) of a satellite revolving around the
earth is the sum of its potential energy (U) and kinetic energy (K).
The potential energy of asatellite is due to its position w.r.. earth. It appears because of gravitational
pullacting on satellite due to earth. Ifa satell1te of mass m Is revolving around the earth of mass M. radius R
with orbital velocity v, inan orbit of radius r, then potential energy of satellite is
U=-GM mlr
my' = GM
The kinetic energy of a satellite, K=
2 (:v=VGM Ir|
8/30
Pradeep?'e Fundamental Physics (XI)
Thus,total mechanical energy of a satellite is, voLM
E= U+ K = GM m 1GM n GM m GM m GM m
or E=
2 2r 2 (R+ h)
2r
If the satellite is orbiting close to earth, then r= R. Now, total energy of satellite, E = GM m
2R
The above expression has been obtained considering the circular orbit of the satelite. When the orhit
satellite becomes elliptical, both the P.E. and K.E. of satellite vary from point to point but the total eneroy
remains constant and is negative, as in the case of circular orbit.
In the totalenergy of a circularly orbiting satellite which is negative, the potential energy is negative and
magnitude of potential energy is twice the magnitude of the positive kinetic energy.
The variation of kinetic energy K, potentialenergy Uand total energy Energy FIGURE 8.21
E with radius r for a satellite in a circular orbit is shown inFig. 8.21 by
curves marked K (r), U (r) and E (r) respectively.
(v) Binding energy of a satellite. The energy required to
remove the satellite from its orbit around the earth to infinity K (r)
is called Binding energy of the satellite. Binding energy is
E (r)
equalto negative value of total mechanical energy of a satellite
in its orbit,
U(r)

Thus, binding energy = -E = GM m GM m

2r 2(R+ h)

RETAIN 1. The negative total energy of a satellite orbiting around the earth signifies that the satellite
IN is bound to revolve around the earth in a circular orbit and the energy has to be
supplied
MEMORY to the satellite to remove it from its orbit around the earth, i.e., to make it free.
2. If total energy of an orbiting satellite around the earth becomes equal to or greater than
zero, then the satellite will not remain in its orbit but will escape out of the earth's pull.
3. If the kinetic energy of an orbiting satellite around the earth is doubled, then the satellite
will escape from the gravitational pull of earth because its total energy will become zero.

Sample Problem 1 An artificial satellite circles around the earth at a distance of 3600 km
from the surface of earth. Find the period of revolution and orbital velocity of satellite.
earth = 6400 km and g = 10 m/s. Given radius ol
Sol. Here, h = 3600 km :R=6400 km = 6.4 × 10° m
Radius of the orbit of satellite, r = R+ h= 6400 +3600
= 10000 km
= 10 m

Time period of satellite, T= 2T (R + h)³ =2T

(R+h)3
R & R2

T=2x3-14
(107 )3
= 98125 s
V10x(64x106)²
Orbital velocity of the satellite
2nr 2x3-14 x107
V= = 6-4 x 10 ms-l
T 9812.5
8/32
Pradeesa Fundamental Physics (XI) VoLN
8.32. POLAR SATELLITE
FIGURE 822
These are those satellites which revolve in polar
orbits around earth. A polar orbit (or sun-synchronous N -Polar Orbit
orbit) is that orbit whose angle of inclination with
equatorial plane of earth is 90°. The polar satellites are
low altitude satellites. They go around the poles of the
earth from north to south direction whereas the earth
rotates around its axis from west to east direction (Fig.
Geo-synchronous
Orbit
8.22). The altitude of polar satellites is about 500 to Eavator-
800 km from the surface of the earth. The time period
of revolution of polar satellites is about 100 minutes. A
Equatonia
Plane
polar satellite crosses any location on earth many times
a day.
If a camera is fitted on a polar satellite, it can
view only a small strip of the earth in one orbit. The
adjacent strips of earth are viewed in the next orbit
because the carth has rotated a little on its axis during
the next revolution of the earth. It means the whole
earth can be viewed by the camera of polar satellite,
strip by strip during the entire day. It is important to note that a single polar satellite can monitor 100% earth's
surface. Every location on earth lies within the observation of polar satellite twice each day.
The polar satellites are not used for communication purposes but are used for remote sensing. That
is why they are also known as remote sensing satellites. The polar satellites are used for getting the information
about the images of cloud, atmospheric data, ozone layer in the atmosphere and to detect the ozone hole over
Antarctica. The information collected through polar satellites is extremely useful for remote sensing, meterology
as well as for environmental studies of the earth.
India has already launched four remote sensing satellites; IRS- 1A, IRS-1B,IRS-1C and IRS-1D. The
last two satellites are currently in operation.
In India the polar satellites are used () for the survey of ground water, (i) for detecting the area under
forest, (iii) for the assessment of drought, (iv) for preparing the wasteland maps, (v) for the assessment of
crop diseases, (vi) for the detection of good fishing zones in river/ocean., (vii) for the spying purposes, i.e., to
locate the position and movement of the enemy troops, (vii) for the location of the place and time when any
nuclear explosion is conducted.
RETAIN 1. Polar satellites are sun synchronous satellites. Everyday, they cross the equator at the
IN same time.
MEMORY 2. The geostationary environmental satellites are used for short range warning where as
polar are satellites used for longer term forecasting.
8.33. IMPORTANT USES OF SATELLITES
1. In communicating radio, T.V. and telephone signals across the oceans,
2. In forecasting weather,
3. In studying the upper region of atmosphere,
4. To determine the exact shape and dimensions of earth,
5. In the study of cosmic rays and solar radiations.
8.34. ESCAPE SPEED
When abody is projected vertically upwards from the surface of earth, with a certain speed, its motion
is opposed by gravitational pull and resistance of earth's atmosphere, due to it, the body rises upto acertain
 8/33
GRAVITATION

height and then falls back to carth. As speed of projection is increased, the body attains a greaer nelgnt
the gravitational field and
betore falling. Finally a stage reaches when the speed is so large that it just crosses
escaped. The minimum speed of projecuon
Will never return back to carth on its own. The body is sajd to have
to achieve this stage is called escape speed.
FIGURE 8.23
Thus, escape speed on earth (or any other planet) is defined as the
minimumn speed with which a body has to be projected vertically upwards
from the surface of earth (or any other planet) so that it just crosses the
gravitational field of earth (or of that planet) and never returns on its d
Own.

Since the gravitational field of earth (or of a planet) extends up to infinity, hence
have at earth's
the escape speed is apparently that speed which a projectile must R
surface so that it may be projected to an infinite distance into space.
Let earth be a perfect sphere of mass M, radius R with centre at O. Let a body of
mass m is to be projected from a point A on the surface of earth, Fig. 8.23. Join OA and
produce if further. Take twO points P and at a distance x and (+ dx) from the certre
O of the earth.
Gravitational force of attraction on the body at P is, F= GM mly?
This much force has to be applied on the body to take the body in the upward direction.
Work done in taking the body against gravitational attraction from P to Q is

dW = F d=
GM m dx.

= R) to
Total work done in taking the body against gravitational attraction from surface of earth (i.e., x
expression
a region beyond the gravitational field of earth (i.e., X= o) can be calculated by integrating the above
within the limitsx=R tox= o, Thus, total work done is

GM m
w-í -dr = GM mdx = GM
m2+1
=-GM =-GMm- R
R R

This work done is at the cost of kinetic energy given to the body at the surface of the earth. If v, is the
escape speed of the body projected from the surface of earth, then

Kinetic energy of the body mv

1 GM m
Or v= 2GM/R or V, =/2GMR
R
Second Method for the expression of escape speed
Let v, be the speed given to a body of mass m from the surface of earth of mass M, radius R and the body
just goes out of the gravitational fieldof earth, i.e., at infinity. Then total energy of body at infinity is zero.
Now v, is called escaped speed. Using law of conservation of mechanical energy for the body :
(P.E. + K.E.) of the body at the surface of earth= total energy at infinity
GM m + 1 2GM 2GM
R
jmu: =0 or
R
Or
R
...(45)

As &= GMIR? GM =g R'

 Pradee's Fundamental Physics (X1) VoL.M
Putting this valuc in (45), wc get
|2gR?
J2gR DO
R
If p is the mean density of the material of
...(46)
YOU
M=
4
carth then,
KNOW?
1. The cscape specd is
of the independent
mass and direction of
Putting this valuc in (45). we get. projection of the body
surface of earth/planet. from the
2. The body can easily
cscape attain the
|2G 4
8 Tp GR2 specd if it is projected in the
R TR'p = ..(47) direction, the launch site is
as the planet rotates about itsmoving
axis.
Equations (45). (46) and (47) are different expressions for the 3. A given planet will have atmo
speed of the body. From these relations, we escape sphere if the root mean square speed
(i) the value of escape speed of a body conclude that of molecules of a gas in its
atmo
mass (m) of the body and its angle of does not depend upon the sphere (i.e., Vrm.s. = 3
or planet. projection from the surface of earth smaller than the RT/M )is
escape speed for
that planet where M is the molecular
(ii) the value of escape speed depends upon the
the planet from the surface of which the body is to be mass and radius of weight of the gas and R is the gas
the value of escape speed of a body will be projected. Clearly, constant for Imole of a gas.
different for different planets.
(i)As v, « p, so the escape speed on the surface of a
of a planet of low density. planet of high density is more than the surface
(iv) For earth, g = 9-8 ms, R=6-4 x 106 m
.:. From (46), we have u, = /2x9-8
x6.4x106 = 11-2 x 10 msl= 11-2 km s-!
(v) If a body is projected from a
(i.e., v < v), then the body will reach a planet with a speed v which is smaller than the escape speed v,
fall back to the planet. certain height may either move in an orbit
around the planet or may
(vi) If speed of
(v,) of that planet, theprojection
() of the body from the
body will escape out from the surface of a planet is greater than the escape speed
interstaller space with speed v' which can be gravitational field of that planet and will move in the
which obtained using law of conservation of energy. According to

my? mu'2 + 0 2 GM
y2 =y2
|As v, = |2GM
2 or
R
R
or
v'=Ju?-u
RETAIN 1. In deriving the
body by earth's expressions
IN for escape spced, we have
atmosphere. neglected the resistance to the
MEMORY Therefore, in
greater than the value calculated from these reality, the value of escape speed is slightly
2. Escape speed of sun is 618 km relations.
s, of moon is 2-3 km s-, of Jupiter is
3. A planet or a moon will have no 60 km s .
atmosphere
their atmnosphere is greater than their if the rms speed of the gas molecules in
escape speed.