Module -2 -Information Representation:

Introduction, Digitization principles, Text,

Images, Audio and Video.

Quote of the day

“Imagination is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is
limited but imaginations encircles the world”.
―Albert Einstein
1
 Multimedia information representation

• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Digitization principles
• 2.3 Text
• 2.4 Images
• 2.5 Audio
• 2.6 Video

2
 Introduction

• The conversion of an analog signal into a digital form ( Audio, Image,

Video)
• Signal encoder, sampling, signal decoder
• Codeword generations for texual information

3
 Multimedia Information Representation

• Multimedia Information is stored and processed within a computer in a

digital form.
• Codeword: Combination of a fixed number of bits that represents each
character, in the case of textual information.
• Analog signal: Signal whose amplitude (magnitude of the sound/image
intensity) varies continuously with time.
• Signal encoder: Electrical circuit used for the conversion of an analog
signal into a digital form.
• Signal decoder: Electrical circuit that converts stored digitized samples into
time-varying analogue form.

4
 2.2 Digitization principles
2.2.1 Analog signals
• As mentioned earlier the amplitude of the signal varies
continuously with time
• The Fourier analysis can be used to show that any time varying
signal is made up of infinite number of single-frequency
sinusoidal components
• The range of frequencies of the sinusoidal components that make
up the signal is called the signal bandwidth
• Speech bandwidth: 50Hz – 10kHz
• Music Bandwidth: 15Hz – 20kHz 5
Analog Signals –Signal Properties

6
 Analogue Signals –Signal Properties fig 2.1 contd..

• To transmit an analogue signal through a network the bandwidth of the transmission

channel should be equal to or greater than the signal bandwidth
• If the bandwidth of the channel is less than the signal bandwidth then channel is called the
bandlimiting channel 7
 Encoder Design

Figure 2.2 Signal encoder design: (a) circuit

components;

8
 2.2.2 Encoder design
• A bandlimiting filter and an analog-to-digital converter(ADC), the latter
comprising a sample-and-hold and a quantizer
• Remove selected higher-frequency components from the source signal (A)
• (B) is then fed to the sample-and-hold circuit
• Sample the amplitude of the filtered signal at regular time intervals (C)
and hold the sample amplitude constant between samples (D)
• Quantizer circuit which converts each sample amplitude into a binary
value known as a codeword (E)
• The signal to be sampled at a rate which is higher than the maximum rate
of change of the signal amplitude
• The number of different quantization levels used to be as large as possible

9
 Encoder Design

• Sample and hold Circuit: Samples

amplitude of the filtered signal at regular
intervals and holds the sampled
amplitudes between samples
•Quantizer: Converts the samples into
their corresponding binary form

Figure 2.2 Signal encoder design: (b)associated wavefor

10
 Encoder Design – Data representation

• The most significant bit of the codeword represents the sign of the
sample
• A binary 0 indicates a positive value and a binary 1 indicates a negative
value
• The signal must be sampled at a much higher rate than the maximum
rate of change of the signal amplitude
• The number of quantization levels should be as large as possible to
represent the signal accurately

11
 Sampling Rate

• Nyquist sampling theorem: To obtain an accurate representation

of a time-varying analogue signal, its amplitude must be sampled at
a minimum that is equal to or greater than twice the highest
sinusoidal frequency component that is present in the signal
• Nyquist rate is represented either in Hz or more correctly in
samples per seconds (sps)
• Antialiasing filter: Another name for bandlimiting filter. Since it
passes frequencies that are within the Nyquist rate

12
 Alias signal generation due to undersampling

• In reality the transmission channel used often has a lower bandwidth

• To avoid distortion the source signal is first passed through the BLF which
is designed to pass only the frequency components that are within the channel
bandwidth
• This avoids alias signals caused by undersampling
13
 Example : Determine the rate of the sampler and the bandwidth of the bandlimiting filter
in an encoder which is to be used for the digitization of an analog signal which has a
bandwidth from 15 Hz through to 10 kHz assuming the digitized signal:
(i) is to be stored within the memory of a computer,
(ii) is to be transmitted over a channel which has a bandwidth from 200Hz through to
3.4kHz.
• Solution : The Nyquist sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency
component of the signal or transmission channel. Hence:
(i) The sampling rate must be at least 2  10 kHz = 20 kHz or 20 ksps
and the bandwidth of the bandlimiting filter is from 0 Hz through to 10 kHz.
(ii) The sampling rate must be at least 2  3.4 kHz = 6.8 kHz or 6.8 ksps
and the bandwidth of the bandlimiting filter is from 0 Hz through to 3.4 kHz.
• In practice, it should be noted that, because of imperfections in filters, some higher
frequency components above the filter cut-off frequency may be passed and hence the
sampling rate is normally higher than the two derived values. In the case of (ii), for
example, it is common to assume that frequency components of up to 4 kHz may be
passed by the bandlimiting filter and hence a sampling rate of 8ksps is normally used.

14
 Quantization Intervals
• Representation of the analogue samples would require an infinite
number of digits

Quantization procedure: (a) source of 15

Quantization Intervals

16
 Quantization noise polarity

Quantization procedure: (b) noise polarity.;

• Quantization error is the difference between the actual signal

amplitude and the corresponding nominal amplitude (also known
as quantization noise since values vary randomly)

17
 Dynamic Range

• With high-fidelity music it is important to be able to hear very

quiet passages without any distortion created by quantization noise
• Dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the maximum signal
amplitude to the minimum.
D = 20 log10 (Vmax/Vmin) dB

18
 Digitization Principles (Analog Digital)

As we can see from these values, with 6 bits the quantization noise is greater than Vmin and hence is
unacceptable. With 10 bits, however, the quantization noise is an order of magnitude less than Vmin and
hence will have a much-reduced effect.
19
 Decoder Design

Encoder+decode = Codec

• A signal decoder is an electronic circuit that performs the conversion prior

to their output back again into their analogue form through a digital-to-
analogue converter and a low pass filter
• Low-pass filter: Only passes those frequency components that were filtered
through the bandlimiting filter in the encoder
•Audio/Video encoder decoder is used at both ends for faithful transmission
and reception (Audio/video Codec). 20
 Signal Decoder: Associated waveform

• (A) digital codeword is converted

into an equivalent analog sample
using a circuit called a digital-to-
analog converter or DAC (B), the
amplitude of each level being
determined by the corresponding
codeword. In order to reproduce the
original signal, the output of the DAC
is passed through a low-pass filter
which, as its name implies, only
passes those frequency components
that made up the original filtered
signal (C).

21
 Text

• Unformatted text: Known as plain text; enables pages to be created which

comprise strings of fixed-sized characters from a limited character set
• Formatted Text: Known as richtext; enables pages to be created which
comprise of strings of characters of different styles, sizes and shape with
tables, graphics, and images inserted at appropriate points
• Hypertext: Enables an integrated set of documents (Each comprising
formatted text) to be created which have defined linkages between them

22
 Unformatted Text – The basic ASCII character set

• Printable characters
(alphabetic, numeric, and
punctuation)
•Control characters
(Format control: Back space,
escape, delete, form feed,
line feed, CR etc.)
(Transmission control
characters)
(Information Separators: FS
& RS)
• The American Standard Code for Information Interchange is one of the most widely
used character sets and the table includes the binary codewords used to represent each
character (7 bit binary code) 23
 Unformatted Text – Supplementary set of Mosaic
characters

• The characters in columns 010/011 and 110/111 are replaced with the set of
mosaic characters; and then used, together with the various uppercase
characters illustrated, to create relatively simple graphical images
24
 Unformatted Text – Examples of
Videotext/Teletext

• Although in practice the total page is made up of a matrix of symbols and characters
which all have the same size, some simple graphical symbols and text of larger sizes can
be constructed by the use of groups of the basic symbols
•Application of this is in Videotext or Teletext 25
 Formatted Text
Formatted
Text string

Printed version of the string

• It is produced by most word processing packages and used extensively in the

publishing sector for the preparation of papers, books, magazines, journals and
so on..
• Documents of mixed type (characters, different styles, fonts, shape etc)
[Link] control characters are used at appropriate points.
•With print preview what you see is what you get(WYSIWYG). 26
 Hypertext – Electronic Document in hypertext

• Hypertext can be used to create an electronic version of documents with the index,
descriptions of departments, courses on offer, library, and other facilities all written in
hypertext as pages with various defined hyperlinks 27
 Hypertext – Electronic Document in
hypertext

• An example of a hypertext language is HTML used to describe how the contents of a

document are presented on a printer or a display; other mark-up languages are: Postscript,
SGML (Standard Generalized Mark-up language) Tex, Latex. 28
 Video Class.
• Circuit switching & Packet switching

29
 Images: Graphics
• Images include computer-generated images (referred to as computer graphics
or simply graphics) and include digitized images of both documents and
pictures
• All types of images are displayed in the form of a two-dimensional matrix of
individual picture elements (pixels or pels), but represented differently within
the computer memory (file)
• Each type of these images are created differently.
•Various s/w packages or programs are used to generate these graphical
images.
•E.g. paintbrush ( select objects or draw by pencil), clipart images
•Textual information or overlapping objects shall also be added in these 30
 Graphics: Display screen

• VGA is a common type of display that consists of a matrix of 640 horizontal pixels by 480
vertical pixels with for example, 8 bits per pixel which allows each pixel to have one of 256
different colours

31
 Graphics

• Colouring a solid block with the

same colour is known as
rendering.

• All objects are made up of a series of lines that are connected to each other
and, what appear as a curved line, in practice is a series of short lines each
made up of a string of pixels
• Each object has a number of attributes associated with it. These include
its shape, size in terms of pixel position, colour of the border etc..
32
 Graphics - Conclusions

• There are two forms of representation

- high-level representation (similar to a source code of a program) –
requires less memory to store the image and less bandwidth for transmission
- actual picture image of the graphic ( similar to the low-level machine
code and generally known as bit-map format) – e.g. GIF (graphical
interchange format), TIFF ( tagged image file format)
• A graphic can be transferred over the network in either form
• A software called SRGP (simple raster graphics package) - used to convert
high-level form into a pixel-image form

33
 Digitized Documents: Fax Principles

• The scanner associated with fax machines operates by scanning

each complete page from left to right to produce a sequence of scan
lines that start at the top of the page and end at the bottom
• Vertical resolution is either 3.85 (100 lines/inch) or 7.7 lines/mm
(200 lines/inch)

34
 Digitized Documents- Digitization format

• Fax machines uses a single binary digit to represent each pel, a 0 for a white pel and a 1
for a black pel. Hence the digital representation of a scanned page produces a stream about
2 million bits.
• Single binary digit per pel means fax machines are best suited for bitonal images. 35
 Digitised Pictures
• For digitizing continuous-tone mono-chromatic images - more than a single bit is used to
digitize each picture element.
• For example, good quality black-and-white pictures can be obtained by using 8 bits per
picture element.
• This yields 256 different levels of gray per element-varying between white and black-
which gives a substantially improved picture quality over a facsimile image when
reproduced.
• In the case of color images, in order to understand the digitization format used, it is
necessary first to obtain an understanding of the principles of how color is produced and
how the picture tubes used in computer monitors (on which the images are eventually
displayed) operate.

36
 Colour Derivative Principles – additive
colour mixing ( R + G + B)

•Black is produced when all three primary colours (R,G,B) are zero.
• Useful for producing a colour image on a black surface as is the case in display
applications

37
 Colour Derivative Principles - Subtractive
colour mixing

• White is produced when the three chosen primary colours cyan,

magenta and yellow are all zero.
• Useful for producing a colour image on a white surface as is the
case in printing applications.
38
 Digitized Pictures- Television/computer monitor
principles

• The picture tubes used in most television sets operate using what is
known as a raster-scan; this involves a finely-focussed electron
beam being scanned over the complete screen 39
 Digitized Pictures- Raster Scan

• Progressive scanning is performed by repeating the scanning operation that

starts at the top left corner of the screen and ends at the bottom right corner
follows by the beam being deflected back again to the top left corner
40
 Digitized Pictures-Pixel format on each scan

• The set of three related colour-sensitive phospors associated with

each pixel is called a phospor triad and the typical arrangement of
the triads on each scan line is shown.

41
 Digitized Pictures – Raster scan display architecture

•Frame: Each complete set of horizontal scan lines (either 525 for North & South America
and most of Asia, or 625 for Europe and other countries)
•Flicker: Caused by the previous image fading from the eye retina before the following
image is displayed, after a low refresh rate ( to avoid this a refresh rate of 50 times per
second is required) 42
 Raster scan display architecture
•Pixel depth: Number of
bits per pixel that
determines the range of
different colours that can
be produced
• Colour Look-up Table
(CLUT): Table that
stores the selected
colours in the subsets as
an address to a location
reducing the amount of
memory required to
store an image 43
 Digitized Pictures – Concepts

• Aspect Ratio: This is the ratio of the screen width to the screen
height ( television tubes and PC monitors have an aspect ratio of 4/3
and wide screen television is 16/9)
44
 Digitized Pictures – Screen Resolutions

• NTSC = 525 lines per frame (480 Visible)

• PAL,CCIR,SECAM=625 lines ( 576 visible)
•Example display resolutions: VGA (640x480x8),
XGA (1024x768x8) and SVGA (1024x768x24) 45
 2.4.3 Digitized pictures

• Aspect ratio
• Both the number of pixels per scanned line and the number of
lines per frame
• The ratio of the screen width to the screen height
• National Television Standards Committee (NTSC), PAL(UK),
CCIR(Germany), SECAM (France)
• Table 2.1

46
2.4.3 Digitized pictures

47
 Digitized Pictures(5)

 Example 2.3
Derive the time to transmit the following digitized images at both 64Kbps and 1.5Mbps networks
 a 6404808 VGA-compatible image
 a 102476824 SVGA-compatible image

 Solution
The size of each image in bit is as follows
 a VGA image = 6404808 = 2.46Mbits
 an SVGA image = 102476824 =18.88Mbits
The time to transmit each image is given as follows

2.46𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 2.46106 18.88𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 18.88106

 at 64Kbps 𝑉𝐺𝐴 = = = 38.4 sec. & 𝑆𝑉𝐺𝐴 = = = 295 sec
64𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠 64 103 64𝐾𝑏𝑝𝑠 64 103

2.46𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 2.46106 18.88𝑀𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 18.88106

at 1.5Mbps: VGA = = = 1.64sec. & 𝑆𝑉𝐺𝐴 = = = 1259 sec
1.5𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 1,5 106 1.5𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠 1,5 106
48
 Digitized pictures

• Digital cameras and scanners

• An image is captured within the camera/scanner using an image sensor
• A two-dimensional grid of light-sensitive cells called photosites
• A widely-used image sensor is a charge-coupled device (CCD)
• Fig 2.16
• Photosites: Silicon chip which consists of a two-dimensional grid of light-sensitive
cells, which stores the level of intensity of the light that falls on it

49
 Digitized Pictures – Colour Image Capture: Schematic

• Typical arrangement that is used to capture and store a digital

image produced by a scanner or a digital camera (either a still
camera or a video camera) 50
 Digitized Pictures – Colour Image Capture: Schematic

•Charge-coupled devices
(CCD): Image sensor that
converts the level of light
intensity on each photosites
into an equivalent electrical
charge

[Link] color associated with each photosite is determined by O/p of R,G or B together with
nearby 8 neighbours.
[Link] uses three separate exposure filters for obtaining charges with each RGB filter
[Link] exposure comprising of split three light beams for a separate image sensor(RGB)51
 Audio
• Two types of audio
– Speech
– Music type audio
• An audio produced by
– Naturally with Microphone  Analog
– Electronically using some synthesizers  Digital
• Nyquist rate
– Speech is 20 KHz (20Kbps)
– Audio is 40 KHz(40Kbps)
• To limit the quantization noise use of 12 bits for speech and 16 bits for music are
tested to prove this consideration
• In case of stereophonic sounds a double bit rate is used that of mono signal.

52
 Audio
Example 2.4
Assuming the bandwidth of a speech signal is from 50 Hz through to 10kHz and that of a music signal is
from 15 Hz through to 20 kHz, derive the bit rate that is generated by the digitization procedure in each
case assuming the Nyquist sampling rate is used with 12 bits per sample for the speech signal and 16 bits
per sample for the music signal. Derive the memory required to store a 10-minute passage of stereophonic
music.

• Solution
(i) Bit rates: Nyquist sampling rate = 2 fmax
Speech: Nyquist rate = 2  10 kHz = 20 kHz or 20 ksps
Hence with 12 bits per sample, bit rate generated = 20 k  12 = 240 kbps
Music: Nyquist rate = 2  20 kHz = 40 kHz or 40 ksps
Hence bit rate generated = 40 k  16 = 640kbps (mono)
or 2  640k = 1280 kbps (stereo)
(ii) Memory required: Memory required = bit rate (bps)  time (s)/8 bytes
Hence at 1280 kbps and 600 s,
1280 × 103 × 600
𝑀𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 96 𝑀𝑏𝑦𝑡𝑒𝑠
8 53
 AUDIO:PCM speech

• It is a digitization process.
• Defined in ITU-T recommendations G.711
• PCM consists of encoder and decoder
• It consists of expander and compressor
• As compared to earlier where linear quantization is used – noise level same for both
loud and low signals.
• As ear is more sensitive to noise on quite signals than loud signals, PCM system
consists of non-linear quantization with narrow intervals through compressor
• At the destination expander is used.
• The overall operation is companding.
• Before sampling and using ADC, signal passed through compressor first and passed to
ADC and quantized.
• At the receiver, codeword is first passed to DAC and expander
• Two compressor characteristics – A-law and µ-law
54
 PCM Principles
• Figure 2.17 PCM principles: (a) signal encoding and decoding schematic;

BW of Speech circuit 200Hz to 3.8KHz

Sampling frequency used 8 KHz

No of bits /Sample = 7 bits for North America, Japan
and 8 bits for European countries including sign bit 55
Figure 2.17 Continued (b) compressor characteristic;

56
 Figure 2.17 Continued (c) expander characteristic;

• Note that in the G.711 standard a 3-bit segment code and 4-bit quantization code are used.
57
 2.5.2 CD-quality audio
Standard for CD players and CD ROMS –CD-DA(CD digital Audio) standard
• Music –audible BW of 15Hz to 20KHz and min sampling rate of 40ksps.
• Actual rate is higher than this to allow imperfections in band limiting filter used,
and the resulting bit rate is then compatible with one of the higher transmission
channel bit rates available in public networks.
• One of the sampling rates used is 44.1ksps which means that the signal is sampled at
23 microsecond intervals.
• BW of recording channel on a CD is large, a high number of bits per sample can be
used.
• The standard defines 16 bits per sample, which is the minimum requirement with
music to avoid the effect of quantization noise.
• Linear quantization can be used with these number of bits that yields 65536 equal
quantization intervals.
• For stereophonic music, two separate channels are required and hence the total bit
58

rate required is double that for mono.

 2.5.2 CD-quality audio
• Bit rate per channel = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
= 44.1 × 103 × 16 = 705.6𝑘𝑏𝑝𝑠
• 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2 × 705.6 = 1.411𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠
• Example 2.5 :Assuming the CD-DA standard is being used, derive:
(i) the storage capacity of a CD-ROM to store a 60-minute multimedia title,
(ii) the time to transmit a 30 second portion of the title using a transmission channel of bit rate:
• 64 kbps
• 1.5Mbps.
• Solution:
(i) The CD-DA digitization procedure yields a bit rate of 1.411Mbps.
Hence storage capacity for 60 minutes = 1.411 ×60 ×60 Mbits
= 5079.6 Mbits or 634.95 Mbytes
(ii) One 30 second portion of the title = 1.411 ×30 = 42.33 Mbits
42.33×106
Hence time to transmit this data: at 64 Kbps =
64×103
= 661.4 sec( about 11 minutes)
42.33×106
at 1.5 Mbps =
1.5×106
= 28.22 sec
59
 Audio/sound synthesizer schematic
• .
SYNTHESIZED AUDIO:
• Synthesized audio uses less memory
• It is easier to edit synthesized audio
• Mix several passages together
• Three components are- computer, keyboard,
sound generators
• Keyboard sends commands to computer which
is sent to sound generators which produces
• Sound waveform via DAC to drive speakers
• For each key different codeword known as the
message with a synthesizer keyboard is
generated and read by the computer program
• The control panel has switches and sliders
which indicate the volume and sound effects
for the prog
60
 Synthesized Audio/sound
• Secondary storage interface store the entire piece of audio in sec storage like
floppy/CD
• Editing, mixing of existing several stored passages
• Sequencer program associated with the synthesizer then ensures that the resulting
integrated sequence of messages are synchronized and output to sound generators
• Even in the keyboard, there are keys for diff instruments (guitar)
• To distinguish between these, a std set of codewords are used (both i/p and o/p)
• These are defined in a standard-Music Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
• In addition to the messages used by synthesizer, the type of connectors, cables and
electrical signals that are used to connect any type of device to the synthesizer

61
 MIDI: Musical Instrument Digital Interface
• Use the sound card's defaults for sounds: use a simple scripting language and hardware
setup called MIDI.
• MIDI Overview
(a) MIDI is a scripting language it codes "events" that stand for the production of sounds.
E.g., a MIDI event might include values for the pitch of a single note, its duration, and its
volume.
(b) MIDI is a standard adopted by the electronic music industry for controlling devices, such
as synthesizers and sound cards, that produce music.
(c) The MIDI standard is supported by most synthesizers, so sounds created on one
synthesizer can be played and manipulated on another synthesizer and sound reasonably
close.
(d) Computers must have a special MIDI interface, but this is incorporated into most sound
cards. The sound card must also have both D/A and A/D converters.
62
 MIDI: Concepts
• MIDI channels are used to separate messages.
(a) There are 16 channels numbered from 0 to 15. The channel forms the last 4 bits (the least significant
bits) of the message.
(b) Usually a channel is associated with a particular instrument: e.g., channel 1 is the piano, channel 10 is
the drums, etc.
(c) Nevertheless, one can switch instruments midstream, if desired, and associate another instrument with
any channel.
• A. Channel messages: can have up to 3 bytes:
a) The first byte is the status byte (the opcode, as it were); has its most significant bit set to 1.
b) The 4 low-order bits identify which channel this message belongs to (for 16 possible channels).
c) The 3 remaining its hold the message. For a data byte, the most significant bit is set to 0.
A.1. Voice messages:
a) This type of channel message controls a voice, i.e., sends information specifying which note to play or
to turn off, and encodes key pressure.
b) Voice messages are also used to specify controller effects such as sustain, vibrato, tremolo, and the
pitch wheel.
63
 2.6 Video
2.6.1 Broadcast television
• As per previous discussion the screen is coated with three different color
phosphorous triods each of it is activated by an electronic beam.
• Scanning sequence of the screen is left to right and top to bottom with
resolution of 525 lines (NTSC) and 625 for PAL/CCIR/SECAM.
• It is necessary to use a minimum refresh rate of 60/50 times per second to
avoid flicker
• A refresh rate of 25 times per second is sufficient for smooth production of
motion sequences.
• Field: the first transmission comprising only the odd scan lines and the
second transmission the even scan lines .
• The two field are then integrated together in the television receiver using a
technique known as interlaced scanning 64
 2.6.1 Broadcast television

• Fig 2.19 Interlaced scanning

• The three main properties of a

color source
– Brightness
– Hue: this represents the actual color
of the source
– Saturation: this represents the
strength or vividness of the color
65
 2.6.1 Broadcast television

• The term luminance is used to refer to the brightness of a source

• The hue and saturation are referred to as its chrominance
Ys  0.299Rs  0.587Gs  0.144Bs
• Where Ys is the amplitude of the luminance signal and Rs, Gs and Bs
are the magnitudes of the three-color component signals
• The blue chrominance (Cb), and the red chrominance (Cr) are then
used to represent hue and saturation
• The two-color difference signals:
Cb  Bs  Ys Cr  Rs  Ys

66
 2.6.1 Broadcast television

• In the PAL system, Cb and Cr are referred to as U and V respectively

PAL : Y  0.299 R  0.587G  0.114 B
U  0.493( B  Y )
V  0.877( R  Y )

• The NTSC system form two different signals referred to as I and Q

NTSC : Y  0.299 R  0.587G  0.114 B
I  0.74( R  Y )  0.27( B  Y )
Q  0.48( R  Y )  0.41( B  Y )

67
 • Example 2.6:Derive the scaling factors used for both the U and V (as used in PAL)
and I and Q (as used in NTSC) color difference signals in terms of the three R, G,
B color signals.
• Solution: PAL: Y = 0.299R + 0.587G + 0.114B
• U = 0.493 (B – Y) and V = 0.877 (R – Y)
• Hence U = 0.493B – 0.493 (0.299R + 0.587 G + 0.114B)
• = –0.147R – 0.289G + 0.437B
• and V = 0.877R – 0.877 (0.299R + 0.587G + 0.114B)
• = 0.615R – 0.515G – 0.100B
• NTSC: I = 0.74 (R – Y) – 0.27 (B – Y)
• = 0.74R – 0.27B – 0.47Y
• = 0.599R – 0.276G – 0.324B
• Q = 0.48 (R – Y) + 0.41 (B – Y)
• = 0.48R + 0.41B – 0.89Y
• = 0.212R – 0.528G + 0.311B
68
 2.6.1 Broadcast television: Signal Bandwidth
• Luminance is occupied by
lower frequency band
• And Chrominance is
transmitted in upper frequency
band with two separate
subscribers, This is to avoid
interference.
• Audio is transmitted separately
with two or more subscribers.

69
 Digital Video

• The advantages of digital representation for video are many. For example:
(a) Video can be stored on digital devices or in memory, ready to be
processed (noise removal, cut and paste, etc.), and integrated to various
multimedia applications;
(b) Direct access is possible, which makes nonlinear video editing
achievable as a simple, rather than a complex, task;
(c) Repeated recording does not degrade image quality;
(d) Ease of encryption and better tolerance to channel noise.

70
 Chroma Subsampling
• Since humans see color with much less spatial resolution than
they see black and white, it makes sense to "decimate" the
chrominance signal.
• Interesting (but not necessarily informative!) names have
arisen to label the different schemes used.
• To begin with, numbers are given stating how many pixel
values, per four original pixels, are actually sent:
(a) The chroma subsampling scheme "4:4:4" indicates that no
chroma subsampling is used: each pixel's Y, Cb and Cr values
are transmitted, 4 for each of Y, Cb, Cr.
71
 Chroma Subsampling

(b) The scheme "4:2:2" indicates horizontal subsampling of the Cb, Cr

signals by a factor of 2. That is, of four pixels horizontally labelled as 0 to
3, all four Ys are sent, and every two Cb's and two Cr's are sent, as (CbO,
YO) (Cro, Y1)(Cb2, Y2) (Cr2, Y3) (Cb4, Y4), and so on (or averag-ing is
used).
(c) The scheme "4:1:1" subsamples horizontally by a factor of 4.
(d) The scheme "4:2:0" subsamples in both the horizontal and vertical
dimensions by a factor of 2. Theoretically, an average chroma pixel is
positioned between the rows and columns as shown Fig.5.6.
• Scheme 4:2:0 along with other schemes is commonly used in JPEG and
MPEG (see later chapters in Part 2).
72
73
 2.6.2 Digital video

• Eye have shown that the resolution of the eye is less sensitive for
color than it is for luminance
• 4：2：2 format
• The original digitization format used in Recommendation CCIR-601
• A line sampling rate of 13.5MHz for luminance and 6.75MHz for the
two chrominance signals
• Sampling rate of 13.5 MHz yields 52 micro seconds of active sweep
time
• 52 × 10-6 × 13.5 × 106= 702 samples per line
• The number of samples per line is increased to 720

74
Figure 2.21 Sample positions with 4:2:2
digitization format.

75
 2.6.2 Digital video

• The corresponding number of samples for each of the two chrominance

signals is 360 samples per active line
• This results in 4Y samples for every 2Cb, and 2Cr samples
• The numbers 480 and 576 being the number of active (visible) lines in the
respective system
• Example 2.7
Derive the bit rate and the memory requirements to store each frame that result from the
digitization of both a 525-line and a 625-line system assuming a 4:2:2 format. Also find the
total memory required to store a 1.5 hour movie/video.

76
 Example 2.7: Solution
• 525-line system: The number of samples per line is 720 and the number of visible lines is
480. Hence the resolution of the luminance (Y) and two chrominance (Cb and Cr) signals
are: Y = 720 × 480
• Cb = Cr = 360 × 480
• Bit rate: Line sampling rate is fixed at 13.5 MHz for Y and 6.75 MHz for both Cb and Cr, all
with 8 bits per sample.
• Hence: Bit rate = 13.5 × 106 × 8 + 2 (6.75 × 106 × 8) = 216Mbps
• Memory required: Memory required per line = 720 × 8 + 2 (360 × 8)
• = 11 520 bits or 1440 bytes
• Hence memory per frame, each of 480 lines = 480 × 11520
• = 5.5296Mbits or 691.2kbytes
• and memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 60 frames per second:
• = 691.2 × 60 × 1.5 × 3600kbytes
• = 223.9488 Gbytes
77
 Example 2.7: Solution contd..
• 625-line system: Resolution: Y = 720 × 576
• Cb = Cr = 360 × 576
• Bit rate = 13.5 × 106 × 8 + 2 (6.75 × 106 × 8) = 216Mbps
• Memory per frame = 576 × 11 520 = 6.63555 Mbits or 829.44 kbytes
• and memory to store 1.5 hours assuming 50 frames per second:
• = 829.44 × 50 × 1.5 × 3600 kbytes
• = 223.9488 Gbytes
• It should be noted that, in practice, the bit rate figures are less than the computed values
since they include samples during the retrace times when the beam is switched off.
Nevertheless, as we can deduce from the computed values, both the bit rate and the
memory requirements are very large for both systems and it is for this reason that the
various lower resolution formats have been defined.

78
Quiz on Circuit
switching and
packet
switching

79
 2.6.2 Digital video
• 4：2：0 format is used in digital video broadcast applications
• Interlaced scanning is used and the absence of chrominance samples in alternative
lines
• The same luminance resolution but half the chrominance resolution
• Fig2.22

80
Figure 2.22 Sample positions in 4:2:0 digitization
format.

81
 2.6.2 Digital video
525-line system Y  720  480
Cb  Cr  360  240

625-line system
Y  720  480
Cb  Cr  360  288

13.5 × 106 × 8 + 2 3.375 × 106 × 8 = 162𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

This is a worst-case bit rate since it includes samples during the

retrace times when the beam is switched off.

82
 2.6.2 Digital video:HDTV
• HDTV formats: the resolution to the newer 16/9 wide-screen tubes can
be up to 1920 × 1152 pixels. (4/3 screen resolution 1440 × 1152 pixels).
• No. of visible lines per frame are 1080.
• Uses 4:2:2 digitization format for studio application & 4:2:0 format for
broad cast applications.
• Frame refresh time 50/60Hz with 4:2:2 and half of this for 4:2:0.
• Worst case bit rate is 4 times the values specified for other formats.

83
 2.6.2 Digital video

• The source intermediate format (SIF) give a picture quality comparable

with video recorders(VCRs)
• The common intermediate format (CIF) for use in videoconferencing
applications
• Fig 2.23
• The quarter CIF (QCIF) for use in video telephony applications
• Fig 2.24
• Table 2.2

84
 Figure 2.23 Sample positions for SIF and CIF.

Worst case bit rate for SIF

6.75 × 106 × 8 + 2 1.6785 × 106 × 8 = 81𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

To improve video quality higher resolution CIF

shall be used
4CIF: 𝑌 = 720 × 576
𝐶𝑏 = 𝐶𝑟 = 360 × 288

16CIF: 𝑌 = 1440 × 1152

𝐶𝑏 = 𝐶𝑟 = 720 × 576

85
 Figure 2.24 Sample positions for QCIF.

Worst case bit rate for QCIF

3.325 × 106 × 8 + 2 0.84375 × 106 × 8 = 40.5𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

S-QCIF: 𝑌 = 128 × 96
𝐶𝑏 = 𝐶𝑟 = 64 × 48

86
87
88
89
2.6.3 PC video

90
 2.6.4 Video content

• In an entertainment applications, the content will be either a broadcast television

program or, in a video-on-demand application, a digitized movie that is accessed from a
suitable server.
• Similarly, in interpersonal applications such as video telephony and videoconferencing.
the video source will be derived from a video camera and the digitized sequence of
pixels relating to each frame are transmitted across the network.
• In addition, in many interactive applications that involve video, the short video clips
associated with the application are obtained by plugging a video camera into a video
capture board within the computer that is preparing the (interactive) page contents.
• In other applications the video may be generated by a computer program rather than a
video camera. This type of video content is normally referred to as computer animation.
• (3-D) graphics accelerator processor uses-move object, rotate object, object fill, and so
on to produce smooth video.
91