Shot peening

Shot peening
Shot blasting and shot peening

Sand blasting Shot peening

a) Micro shot peening
b) Water jet peening
c) Oil jet peening
d) Cavitation shotless peening
e) Ultrasonic Peening
Shot peening micro structural changes
•

(a) welding and (b) ultrasonic shot peening.

Micro shot peening
Roughness and residual stress
The cross-section of specimens showing modified surface layer after shot peening
using the pressure of 0.4 MPa:
(a) unmodified surface (reference sample); (b) shot made of CrNi steel; (c) nutshell
granules; (d) ceramic beads
Water jet peening
Water jet machining
Ultra sonic machining
Laser shot peening
Surface rolling process
• Surface Rolling is a cold working surface finishing process used to improve
surface hardness, fatigue strength, corrosion and wear resistance of
components by plastic deformation.
• It involves pressing hard rollers or balls against the surface of a rotating
workpiece, causing localized plastic flow that smoothens peaks and
compresses the surface.
• Principle
• The roller exerts a compressive force greater than the material’s yield
strength.
• This flattens surface irregularities and induces residual compressive
stresses.
• The process does not remove material, but redistributes it plastically.
Surface rolling process
Surface modification by changing surface
chemistry
The process involves altering the chemical composition of the surface
or transforming its microstructure through heat treatment and
diffusion processes such as:
• Carbon
• Nitrogen
• Carbon + Nitrogen
• Boron
Change in the surface composition
• Case hardening
Fe-C diagram
Martensite
Role of Martensite structure
During case hardening (e.g., carburizing, carbonitriding, flame or
induction hardening), the surface layer is enriched in carbon.
Upon quenching, this high-carbon surface transforms into martensite—
a hard, supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron.
This martensitic layer provides the hard wear-resistant case, while the
core remains softer and tougher (usually ferrite–pearlite or bainite).
Carburizing process
• Carburizing is a case hardening process in which carbon atoms are
diffused into the surface of low-carbon steel at high temperature
(usually 870–950 °C) to increase surface hardness.

• After carburizing, the part is quenched, converting the high-carbon

surface to hard martensite, while the low-carbon core remains tough
and ductile.
Carburizing
Types of carburizing

Type Carbon Source Process Details Applications

Parts packed in a sealed
Solid carbon (charcoal +
Pack Carburizing box and heated in a Gears, cams, shafts
activator BaCO₃)
furnace for several hours
Continuous control of
Carbon-containing gases Automotive gears,
Gas Carburizing carbon potential in
(CO, CH₄, propane) bearings
furnace atmosphere
Molten cyanide or Fast carbon transfer but
Liquid Carburizing Small parts, tools
carbonate salt bath toxic; less common now
Acetylene or hydrocarbon
Vacuum / Plasma Uniform case, clean Aerospace, high-precision
gases in low-pressure
Carburizing surface, eco-friendly parts
chamber
Nitriding and Cyaniding process
Nitriding process
• Nitriding is a thermochemical diffusion process in which nitrogen atoms are
diffused into the surface of alloy steels at temperatures of 480–550 °C to form
hard nitrides.
Cyaniding process
• Cyaniding is a case hardening process that introduces both carbon and nitrogen into the steel
surface by immersing it in a molten sodium cyanide (NaCN) bath.
Chemical conversion coatings
Conversion coatings
• Conversion coatings are chemically formed layers on a metallic surface,
produced by controlled chemical reactions between the metal and a
suitable solution.
• The metal surface is partially dissolved, and a sparingly soluble compound
of the metal forms in situ, adhering tightly to the substrate.
• These coatings provide:
• Corrosion resistance
• Better paint/adhesive bonding
• Enhanced wear resistance and aesthetic appeal
• Common base metals: steel, aluminum, zinc, magnesium, and titanium.
Phosphate Coatings
Formed by immersion of steel or zinc in phosphoric acid solutions containing
metal phosphates (Zn, Mn, Fe).
• Metal dissolves slightly → releases metal ions.
• Phosphate ions react to form insoluble crystalline metal phosphate
(e.g., Zn₃(PO₄)₂·4H₂O).

Types
• Zinc phosphate: General corrosion protection & paint base.
• Manganese phosphate: High wear resistance, used for engine parts, gears,
bearings.
• Iron phosphate: Cheaper, thin coatings for painting pre-treatments.
Chromate Conversion Coatings
Formed by treating metals (Al, Zn, Mg, Cu) in chromic acid or dichromate solutions.
A thin gel-like Cr(OH)₃ / Cr₂O₃ film forms via oxidation–reduction.
• Self-healing property due to soluble hexavalent Cr species that migrate to
damaged sites.
• Aircraft aluminum parts, galvanic coatings, marine hardware.

Advantages:
• Excellent corrosion resistance
• Good paint adhesion
Limitations:
• Hexavalent chromium (Cr⁶⁺) is toxic, so trivalent Cr (Cr³⁺) alternatives are being
developed.
Anodization process- electrochemical
conversion coating
Anodization
Electrochemical oxidation process
• The metal acts as anode, forming a dense, adherent oxide film (Al₂O₃ or
TiO₂).
• Porous layer can be sealed or impregnated with corrosion inhibitors or
dyes.
Applications:
Aerospace, architectural aluminum, decorative and functional coatings.
Benefits:
• Excellent hardness, wear, and corrosion resistance.
• Good base for painting or PEO (plasma electrolytic oxidation).
Circuit

Anode- metal to be coated

Voltage – up to 100 V
 Colouring

This means that the anodic After a dye has been embedded into
The layer grows in capillary- these pores, you can again close the
coating is anchored directly in
like pores from the surface oxide layer by the so-called sealing.
the original aluminium and can
into the metal. This means that aluminium oxide
no longer be removed
mechanically. These pores are reacts with water and crystallizes to
able to absorb liquids, e. g. dyes, hydrate alumina (Al2O3 x H2O) which
after the anodization process. clogs the pores.
Plasma electrolytic oxidation process
• Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO), also known as Micro Arc
Oxidation (MAO), is an advanced surface treatment technique used to
form thick, hard, and corrosion-resistant ceramic oxide coatings on
lightweight metals such as: Aluminum, Magnesium, Titanium,
Zirconium
• It’s an upgraded version of anodizing, where high voltage leads to
plasma micro-discharges on the surface.
Plasma electrolytic oxidation process- setup
Plasma electrolytic oxidation coating
formation
• The process is based on anodic oxidation under high voltage, typically
300–700 V.
• The metal surface acts as an anode, and when voltage exceeds the
dielectric breakdown of the growing oxide film, plasma micro-
discharges occur.
• These discharges generate localized temperatures of 2000–10000 K,
leading to melting, sintering, and phase transformation of oxides.
Micro-discharges during coating
Anodized coating PEO coating
morphology-
nanotubes
morphology
Physical vapour deposition
• PVD uses physical process (such as heating or sputtering) to produce
a vapor of material, which is then deposited on the object which is
called physical vapor deposition.

• PVD describes variety of vacuum deposition techniques.

[Link] evaporation (resistive heating, e-beam, pulsed laser)
2. Sputtering (DC sputtering, DC magnetron, RF, sputtering )
PVD Process
• Step 1: generation of vacuum.
• Step 2: Evaporate the source material and transport.
• Step 3: condensation of evaporate on the substrate and formation of
thin film.
SPUTTERING:
• When a solid surface is bombarded with energetic particles such as
accelerated ions, surface atoms of the solid are scattered backward
due to collisions between the surface atoms and the energetic
particles.
• This phenomenon is called sputtering. The source materials used in
this process are generally an alloy, ceramic or a compound.
• In sputtering technique, a high energy atom in ionized form (usually
Ar+) is used to hit the surface atoms of the targeted source (Cathode)
material.
• Then the knocked out atoms in vapour form are deposited on the
surface of the (Anode) substrates to produce an uniform coating.
DC sputtering:
• This composed of a pair of planar electrodes. One of the electrodes is a cold
cathode and the other is the anode.
• The front surface of the cathode is covered with target materials to be deposited.
• The substrates are placed on the anode.
• The sputtering chamber is filled with sputtering gas, typically argon gas at 5 Pa
(4x10-2 torr). The glow discharge is maintained under the application of DC
voltage between the electrodes.
• The Ar+ ions generated in the glow discharge are accelerated at the cathode fall
(Sheath) and sputter the target, resulting in the deposition of the thin films on
the substrates.
• In the DC sputtering system, the target is composed of metal since the glow
discharge (current flow) is maintained between the metallic electrodes.
Thermal spray coatings
Thermal spray coatings
• Thermal spraying is a group of processes wherein a feedstock material is
heated and propelled as individual particles or droplets onto a surface.
• The thermal spray gun generates the necessary heat by using combustible
gases or an electric arc. As the materials are heated, they are changed to a
plastic or molten state and are confined and accelerated by a compressed
gas stream to the substrate.
• The particles strike the substrate, flatten, and form thin platelets (splats)
that conform and adhere to the irregularities of the prepared substrate and
to each other.
• As the sprayed particles impinge upon the surface, they cool and build up,
splat by splat, into a laminar structure forming the thermal spray coating.
Thermal spray process
Effect of particle melting on to the coating
behaviour

A- partially melted particle

B- fully melted particles
C- over melted particles
Coating Microstructures
• The coating that is formed is not homogenous and typically contains a certain
degree of porosity, and, in the case of sprayed metals, the coating will contain
oxides of the metal.
• Feedstock material may be any substance that can be melted, including metals,
metallic compounds, cements, oxides, glasses, and polymers.
• Feedstock materials can be sprayed as powders, wires, or rods. The bond
between the substrate and the coating may be mechanical, chemical, or
metallurgical or a combination of these.
• The properties of the applied coating are dependent on the feedstock material,
the thermal spray process and application parameters, and post treatment of the
applied coating
Surface Preparation
• Before a coating is deposited, the surface of the part being coated needs to be
prepared to allow the coating to bond to the surface. This is typically done by
roughening the surface by grit blasting.
• Jagged interface between the substrate and coating, which was created by grit
basting. This surface morphology allowed the coating to anchor itself by the
molten particles conforming and solidifying around the rough substrate
asperities.
• Sometimes, however, grit from the grit blast process can get imbedded into the
coating by not being cleaned from the surface prior to depositing the coating.
• An embedded grit feature can be seen in center of the coating/substrate
interface. Normally a small degree of embedded grit does not affect the coating’s
performance, but a larger degree of grit can degrade coating adherence to the
part.
Lamellar Structure
• When a thermal spray coating is produced, the hot molten or semi-molten
particles impinge and solidify on the surface forming a layered structure.
• Upon impacting the surface the particles flatten and solidify in milliseconds, and
the coating buildup is known as a lamellar structure.
Oxidation
• Most thermal spray coatings are produced in normal, atmospheric conditions.
• Since oxygen is typically present when spraying metal materials, the molten particles
will react with the oxygen and form an oxide layer around the surface of the particle.
• Controlling oxide content can be a critical attribute in engineering a coating.
• When a coating is needed to provide corrosion protection, minimizing oxide content
is important because corrosive attack of a coating can be accelerated along metal-
oxide boundaries.
Un-melted and Semi-melted Particles
• When a powder particle is not melted completely in the spray process, it can still stick
to the surface, maintain its shape, and get emended into the coating by subsequent
buildup of additional molten particles.
• Unmelts are usually not desired in a coating structure because they are poorly
adhered and can cause the formation of porosity.
• Poorly adhered unmelts can fall out of a coating structure as the coating is attacked
by a wear mechanism. Eliminating unmelts is accomplished by proper sizing of the
feedstock powder and optimized process parameters for the thermal spray device.
Porosity
• Coating porosity is an important attribute that also needs to be
controlled when engineering a coating.
• For most coatings, it is desirable to minimize porosity content to
maximize coating’s wear and/or corrosion resistance. In some cases,
some coating porosity can be beneficial, such as thermal barrier
coatings for high temperature protection.
• In this case, the porosity can provide increased thermal insulation
enhancing the performance of the coating.
 RF Sputtering:
• An rf diode and a dc diode are visually the same thing. The only real difference is
that, for diodes, the power supply is operated at high frequency.
• The most common frequency is 13.56 MHz, although experiments have run the
gamut from 60 Hz to 80 MHz or more. Most manufacturing systems use 13.56
MHz.
• The rf diode operates in a slightly different way than the dc diode: for a small part
of the rf cycle, the cathode and anode are electrically reversed and shielded by
guard rings.
• This eliminates charge buildup on an insulating surface by providing an equal
number of ions, then electrons, then ions, and so on.
• This allows insulators to be sputtered or metals to be sputtered in reactive
environments.
• By simple substitution of an insulator for the metal target in the dc sputtering
discharge system, the sputtering discharge cannot be sustained because of the
immediate buildup of a surface charge of positive ions on the front side of the
insulator.
Chemical vapour deposition
• In this process, the substrate (often referred to as wafer) which is
placed inside a chamber is exposed to one or more volatile precursors
which get deposited on the substrate to produce the desired film.
Since there is a chemical reaction involved, so very frequently by-
products are released which are removed by gas flow through the
reaction chamber.
• In micro-device fabrication, CVD is widely used to deposit materials in
various forms such as: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous
and epitaxial.
• The materials which are often deposited by CVD are: Sulfides, Oxides,
Nitrides, carbides, silicides etc.
 CVD
• CVD is a process where a solid material is deposited onto a surface
from a gaseous state through chemical reactions.
• Imagine a fine mist settling and chemically bonding to an object,
building up a layer atom by atom, but in a highly controlled vacuum
chamber.

Simplified scheme of a CVD

reactor for CNT (Carbon nano
tube) synthesis
The basic steps

• Transport: One or more volatile precursors (the source materials) are

transported into a reaction chamber.
• Reaction: These precursors react or decompose on a heated
substrate surface.
• Deposition: A solid material forms and adheres to the substrate as a
thin, high-quality film.
• Byproduct Removal: The chemical by-products and unreacted gases
are emitted from the chamber.
Plasma-enhanced Chemical Vapor
Deposition (PECVD)
• PECVD is a specialized form of chemical vapor deposition. In this
method, the reactive gases are ionized into plasma using a
combination of radio frequency or direct current discharge.
• This ionization process occurs within the space between two
electrodes, where the gases are introduced and transformed into
plasma.
• This technique enhances the deposition process by allowing the films
to be deposited at lower temperatures compared to standard CVD
methods.
PECVD
• Conventional CVD applies heat to the substrate to be coated or to the area
immediately around the substrate to drive the chemical reactions. Precursor reactive
gases are introduced into the deposition chamber which either react immediately
with the surfaces to be coated, or combine in the deposition chamber to form new
compounds which grow films on the substrate surface.
• It is this precursor gas driven chemical reaction, which is deposition from a gas to a
solid state as a thin film on the surface of the substrate, that defines the CVD
process.
• A plasma is a gas where a high percentage of the atoms or molecules are ionized
that is usually created using radio frequency (RF) current, but can also be performed
with alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) discharge activated by energetic
electrons between two parallel electrodes.
• A vacuum-based process, PECVD is usually performed in pressures <0.1 Torr,
allowing for relatively low substrate temperatures of room temperature to 350°C. By
utilizing plasma to provide some of the energy for these deposition reactions to
occur rather than having to heat the substrate to such a high degree to drive these
reactions, PECVD enables substrates to be coated at lower temperatures with less
stress to the thin film interfaces which allows for stronger bonding.
Thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition

In Thermal CVD, coatings are easily deposited on the substrates in the

open atmosphere. In this process, the precursor material is added to
burning gas, making the precursor highly reactive.
This method facilitates the deposition of thin films directly onto
substrates at atmospheric pressure, utilizing the enhanced reactivity of
the precursors facilitated by the heat from the burning gas to achieve
efficient and uniform coatings.
 Hot-filament Chemical Vapor Deposition (HFCVD)

• HFCVD, also known as catalytic chemical vapor deposition,

utilizes a heated filament to decompose precursor gases. In
this process, the hot filament serves as a catalyst,
significantly enhancing the breakdown of the gases.
• Positioned above the substrate, which is maintained at a
lower temperature compared to the filament, this method
ensures efficient deposition of materials onto the
substrate.
• The differential temperature between the hot filament and
the cooler substrate facilitates a controlled deposition
environment, leading to uniform and high-quality coatings.
•
Flame spraying.
• The oldest form of thermal spray, flame spraying, may be used to apply a wide variety of
feedstock materials including metal wires, ceramic rods, and metallic and nonmetallic powders.
• In flame spraying, the feedstock material is fed continuously to the tip of the spray gun where it is
melted in a fuel gas flame and propelled to the substrate in a stream of atomizing gas.
• Common fuel gases are acetylene, propane, and methyl acetylene-propadiene. Air is typically
used as the atomization gas.
• Oxyacetylene flames are used extensively for wire flame spraying because of the degree of
control and the high temperatures offered by these gases.
• By gauging its appearance, the flame can be easily adjusted to be an oxidizing, neutral, or
reducing flame.
• The lower temperature propane flame can be used for lower melting metals such as aluminum
and zinc as well as polymer feedstocks.
• The basic components of a flame spray system include the flame spray gun, feedstock material
and feeding mechanism, oxygen and fuel gases with flowmeters and pressure regulators, and an
air compressor and regulator
HVOF spraying
• Newest methods of thermal spray, HVOF, utilizes oxygen and a fuel gas at
high pressure.
• Typical fuel gases are propane, propylene, and hydrogen.
• The burning gas mixture is accelerated to supersonic speeds, and a
powdered feedstock is injected into the flame.
• The process minimizes thermal input and maximizes particle kinetic energy
to produce coatings that are very dense, with low porosity and high bond
strength.
• HVOF systems are field portable but are primarily used in fabrication shops.
HVOF has been used extensively to apply wear resistant coatings for
applications such as jet engine components. The Corps has conducted
• The HVOF setup consists of a combustion chamber and a nozzle with
connecting orifices and a tube that allows injection of the powder into the
nozzle.
• Carefully metered oxygen and fuel gas are introduced into the combustion
chamber.
• The fuel gas is usually propane, propylene, or hydrogen, although other
hydrocarbons can be used.
• Continuous combustion of the oxygen and fuel gas occurs in the
combustion chamber and the resulting hot, high pressure gas is allowed to
expand and accelerate through orifices into the nozzle.
• A carefully measured flow of powder is introduced axially into the nozzle,
allowing sufficient heating and acceleration of the powder particles.
• The powder is heated and accelerated by the products of the combustion,
usually to temperatures above its melting point and to velocities
approaching or occasionally exceeding 1800 ft/sec (550m/sec).
Cold spray coating
Cold spray coatings
• Cold Spray coatings is a material deposition technique from the broad
family of thermal spray coatings with the difference of depositing
spray particles at the temperature below melting point as it is a solid
state process.
• The spray particles are impinged on the substrate with supersonic
velocities.
• A solid-state coating process where particles are accelerated to
supersonic speeds by a compressed gas jet, impacting a substrate and
forming a coating below the melting point of the powder material.
Laser cladding
Laser cladding
• Laser cladding is an advanced manufacturing and surface
modification process that uses a high-energy laser beam to melt and
fuse a thin layer of filler material (powder or wire) onto a base
material, creating a metallurgically bonded surface coating.
• This process is used to enhance or restore a part's surface properties,
such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and thermal resistance,
and is popular for repairing high-value components.
 Laser cladding process
• A focused laser beam creates a molten pool on the
surface of the base material.
• Simultaneously, a stream of filler material in
powder or wire form is fed into this molten pool.
• The laser's heat melts the filler material, and it
fuses with the substrate, forming a high-quality,
metallurgically bonded layer upon solidification.
• The laser and filler material are moved across the
workpiece, depositing the coating as it goes.