Teaching Aptitude Notes

Unit-1 Paper Code 00 UGC NTA NET EXAM

• Teaching

awaken of joy in creative expression and knowledge albert einstein

you cannot teach a man anything , you can only help him to find it himself
– galileo galieleo

• Aptitude

a natural – ability to do something

a components of a competency to do a certain kind of work at certain

level

present capacity to predict future

Types Of Teaching

• Autocratic Teaching

• Democratic Teaching

• Laissez-faire Teaching

• Autocratic Teaching- An intimate contact between a more mature

personality and a less mature one which is designed to further the
education of the later.
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• Democratic Teaching- Interpersonal influence aimed at changing

the behaviour potential of another person

• Laissez – faire Teaching- is an arrangement and manipulation of

situation in which there are gaps and obstructions which an individual will
seek to overcome and from which he will learn in the course of doing so

Nature And Characteristics

• Provision for desirable information

• It is causing to learning

• Need an efficient planning

• It is selective

• Empathetic

• Co operative

• Organize the learning

• democratic

• Progressive

• Leads to emotional stability

• Both diagnostic and remedial

• Helping the child to adjust himself to his environment

Teaching Objective

• Helping the pupil to understand the realities properly and may

adjust in a better way

• Enabling the student to establish the contact with truth and

to take the decision by teaching

• To make the pupil the best worker and best thinker

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• It is to help the students to acquire new experience and may

perform some constructive tasks.

Basic Requirements Of Teaching

• Teacher – pupil – teaching method

• Teacher – pupil – curriculum

• Teacher – pupil – society

• Teacher – pupil – teaching learning activities

• Teacher – pupil – parent

Teaching Style

• FORMAL AUTHORITY

• DEMONSTRATOR

• FACILITATOR

• DELEGATOR

FORMAL AUTHORITY

• Teachers who have a formal authority teaching style tend to focus

on content.

• This style is generally teacher-centred, where the teacher feels

responsible for providing and controlling the flow of the content and the
student is expected to receive the content.

DEMONSTRATOR

• Teachers who have a demonstrator or personal model teaching

style tend to run teacher-centred classes with an emphasis on
demonstration and modelling.

• This type of teacher acts as a role model by demonstrating skills

and processes and then as a coach/guide in helping students develop and
apply these skills and knowledge.
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FACILITATOR

• Teachers who have a facilitator model teaching style tend to focus

on activities.

• This teaching style emphasizes student centred learning.

• Teachers typically design group activities which necessitate active

learning, student-to-student collaboration and problem solving.

DELEGATOR

• Teachers who have a delegator teaching style tend to place much

control and responsibility for learning on individuals or groups of students.

• This type of teacher will often give students a choice designing and
implementing their own complex learning projects and will act in a
consultative role

Phases Of Teaching

• Pre - active

• Interactive Phase

• Post – Active Phase

Pre – Active Phase

• Goal setting

• Fixing subject matter

• Arranging and sequencing the content

• Decision making about the strategies

• Distribution of teaching strategies

INTERACTIVE PHASE

• Sizing up the class

• Diagnosis of the learner

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• Action and reaction

• Selection of stimuli

• Presentation of stimuli

• Feedback and reinforcement

• Deployment of strategies

Post – Active Phase

• Defining the exact dimension of the changes caused by teaching

• Selecting appropriate testing devices and techniques

• Identifying the outcomes of teaching process

• Changing the strategies in terms of evidence gathered

Maxims Of Teaching

• From simple to complex

• From known to un known

• From seen to unseen

• From concrete to abstract

• From empirical to rational

• Training of senses

• Encouragement to self study

Methods & Strategies Of Teaching

Methods

• Telling methods

• Doing methods

• Showing methods Strategies

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• Autocratic

– Lecture

– Demonstration

– Tutorial

– Programmed instruction

• Democratic

– Discussion

– Discovery

– Heurism

– project

Methods Of Teaching

• Lecture method

• Text book method

• Socialized recitation – Seminar, panel discussion, symposium

• Supervised study

• Problem solving method – Inductive and deductive methods

• Assignment method

• Story telling method

• Source method

• Role play

• Dramatization

• Play way method

• Case study
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• Counseling

• Cooperative and collaborative learning

Levels Of Teaching

• Memory level

• Understanding level

• Reflective level

Memory Level

• Herbart ( proponent )

• Initial stage of teaching

• The teaching – learning process is basically ‘stimulus – response’

in MLT

• Evaluation – oral , written ,essay type examination

Understanding Level

• Morrison

• Memory plus insight (beyond just memorizing of )

• develop ‘intellectual behaviour’

• Evaluation – both essay and objective type questions

• Hunt

Reflective Level

• Include ULT & MLT

• Problem centred teaching

• Class room environment ‘open and independent’

• Pupil primary place – teacher secondary

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• Students adopt research approach to solve problem

• Attitude , belief and involvement are also evaluated mostly use

essay type

• Motivation

Teaching Aids

• Principle of activity

• Clarification

• Meaningful experience

• Discouragement of cramming

• Increase in vocabulary

• Efficiency in teaching Audio aids – Radio, tape recorder, I

pod, smart phone Visual aids – graphical, I pad, pictures, boards etc Audio
visual aids – TV, video, computer, PDA, Cinema, drama , episcope ,
epidiascope

Evaluation System

• Formative

• Summative

• Paper pencil tests

• Objective and descriptive

• Tools for evaluation

Tools Of Evaluation

• Anecdotal record

• Cumulative record

• Checklist
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• Rating scale

• Questionnaire

• Tests

• Observation

• Interview

• Teacher made test

• Standardized test

New Trend In Evaluation

• Process is more important than product

• CCE ( continuous comprehensive evaluation )

• Grading system

• Internal assessment

• Relaxed examination

• Psychological approach

• No significance for learning by heart

Concepts Related To Teaching

• Action research

• Micro teaching

• Interaction analysis

• Verbal and non verbal communication

• Simulated teaching

• Team teaching

• Technology enabled teaching

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• Computer assisted teaching

• Online teaching

Learners Characteristics

• Learner

• Learning process

• Preparing the learner

• Motivation

• Interest, attitude, aptitude

• creativity

• Intelligence, memory, personality

• Adjustment

• Differentially able

• Children with special needs

Classification of Teaching and

Instructional Objectives

• There are two ways of classifying instructional objectives. One

classification is given by Bloom et al, whereas another classification is

Bloom's Classification of Teaching

and Instructional Objectives

• According to Bloom's classification, instructional objectives fall

under one of the following three categories:

• 1. Cognitive domain : It is related to development of intellectual

capability and it is the core learning domain. The other domains least
some cognitive components. It functions at six levels, which are as
follows:
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• (a) Knowledge : It is basically about recalling information or

contents.

• (b) Comprehension : It is the ability to grasp the meaning of a

material.

• (c) Application : It is applying the gained knowledge in practical

situations, that is, converting abstract knowledge into practice.

• (d) Analysis : It involves breaking down a communication into its

constituent parts in

• (e) Synthesis : It is basically about combining the constituent parts

to make it a whole. It is antonym of analysis.

• (f) Evaluation : It involves judgement made about the value of

methods and materials for particular purposes.

2-Affective domain : It deals with attitude, motivation, willingness to

participate, valuing what is being learned, and ultimately incorporating the
values of discipline into a way of life. It asks for better student
participation. It includes the following levels of affective domain.

• (a) Receiving: Willing to listen

• (b) Responding : Willing to participate

• (c) Valuing : Willing to be involved

• (d) Organizing : Willing to be an advocate of an idea

• (e) Characterization : Willing to change one's behaviour, lifestyle, or

way of life.

Psychomotor domain : It is mainly concerned with the acquisition of

technical skills. Following are the five different levels of instructional
objectives in psychomotor domain:

• (a) Imitation : Demonstration of a skill by another individual is

essential for imitation. An individual performs the act under the guidance
of a skilled person.
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• (b) Manipulation : A learner tries to experiment with various aspects

like manipulating machinery, equipment, etc.

• (c) Precision : Accuracy in performing various acts increases with

practice.

• (d) Articulation : Achieving a desired level of efficiency and

effectiveness through practice.

• (e) Naturalization : Skill is internalized and an individual is able to

adapt, modify, or design new techniques, methods, or procedures
according to the requirements of a situation

Gagne and Briggs classification of Teaching and Instructional Objectives

According to Gagne and Briggs classification, the learning outcomes fall

under one of the following categories:

• 1. Intellectual skills : These skills are crucial for dealing with the
environment. They include concept learning, rule learning, and problem
solving.

• 2. Cognitive strategies : These include methods and techniques for

one's own learning, remembering, and thinking skills.

• 3. Verbal information : It refers to organized bodies of knowledge

that an individual acquires.

• 4. Motor skills : They are basically about motions carried out when
the brain, nervous system and muscles work together.

• 5. Attitudes : They refer to an internal state of an individual.

Key Term Related To Teaching

Aptitude

• Definition of heurism/ heuristic - The principle or practice of

enabling students or children to learn by making discoveries for
themselves, rather than being direct.
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• In a deductive classroom, the teacher conducts lessons by

introducing and explaining concepts to students, and then expecting
students to complete tasks to practice the concepts; this approach is very
teacher- centred. Conversely, inductive instruction is a much more
student-centred approach and makes use of a strategy known as ‘noticing’

Learner’s Characteristics - Adolescent and

Adult learner
Learner’s Characteristics

• A learner is someone who is learning about something rather it is

about a subject or a topic or related to practical knowledge.

• Being a decision maker, it is important to know the learner’s

characteristics. It is essential to know what factors affect their learning.

• Learning can be described that the process of acquiring new or

modifying existing knowledge, skill values, behaviour and preferences.

• Thus, learning is strongly based on the intellectual level, cognitive

ability, perception, personality and attitude of a learner. There are

many factors affect the learning and define the characteristics of learner.

• For deciding the most suitable form of learning it is important to

understand the characteristics of learners.

• Learner characteristics can be identified by collecting the

information based on their cognitive, academic, emotional, and social

characteristics.

• So we can define the Learner’s characteristics under four heads

cognitive, academic, emotional, and social

• Cognitive Characteristics- It can be described such as memory,

mental pressure, solve problems, intellectual skill, remembers,

organizes and store information in the brain.

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• Academics characteristics- these characteristics of respondents

including the education type, education level, and knowledge.

• Emotional Characteristics- it includes unpredictability of mood

swings, self consciousness, emotional attachment etc.

• Social Characteristics- it includes understanding of complexities of

moral issues, values, cultural and religious issues, politics etc.

Characteristics of Adolescent Learner

• Academic Characteristics-

• Demand the relevance in learning and what is being taught.

• Moving from concrete to abstract thinking.

• High achievement when challenged and engaged.

• Prefers active over passive learning experiences.

• Interest in interacting with peers during learning activities.

• Social characteristics-

• Modeling behavior after that of older students, not necessarily that

of parents and other adults.

• Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of

searching for a social position with peers.

• Exploring questions of racial and ethnic identity and seeking

peers who share the same background.

• Feeling frightened by the initial middle school experience.

• Liking fads and being interested in popular culture.

• Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting

behaviors.

• Emotional Characteristics-
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• Mood swings marked by peaks of intensity and by unpredictability.

• Needing to release energy, with sudden outbursts of activity.

• A desire to become independent and to search for adult identity

and acceptance.

• Self-consciousness and being sensitive to personal criticism.

• Concern about physical growth and maturity.

• A belief that their personal problems, feelings, and experiences are

unique to themselves.

• Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.

• Cognitive Characteristics-

• An understanding of the complexity of moral issues

(question values, cultural expressions, and religious teachings).

• Being capable of and interested in participating in democracy.

• Impatience with the pace of change, and underestimating how

difficult it is to make social changes.

• An intense curiosity and wide range of intellectual pursuit,

few of which are sustained over the long term.

• An ability to be self-reflective.

Characteristics of Adult Learner

• Academic Characteristics-

• Adults require the big picture view of what they’re learning. They
need to know how the small parts fit into the larger landscape.

• Adults are results-oriented. They have specific expectations for

what they will get out of learning activities and will often drop out of
voluntary learning if their expectations aren’t met.
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• Many adults prefer to learn by doing rather than listening to

lectures.

• Social characteristics-

• Many self-directed adult learners prefer a learning

community with whom they can interact and discuss questions and
issues.

• Most adult learners have numerous responsibilities and

commitments to family, friends, community and work. Carving out time for
learning affects adult learners.

• They want to be treated with respect.

• Emotional characteristics-

• Adults typically prefer a sense of control and self-direction. They

like options and choice in their learning environment. Even adults who feel
anxiety from self-direction may learn to appreciate this approach if given
proper initial support.

• Depending on their age and physical condition, adult learners may

acquire psychomotor skills more slowly than younger students and have
more difficulties reading small fonts and seeing small images on the
computer screen.

• Through experience, adults may fear a subject, have anxiety about a

subject or feel anger about forced changes in job responsibilities or
policies. These emotions can interfere with the learning process.

• Adults like to gain competence in workplace skills as it boosts

confidence and improves self-esteem.

• Cognitive characteristics-

Adult learners often take responsibility for their own success or failure at learning.

They are self motivated and they are ready to earn they are more intellectually stable
than adolescents.
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• They are autonomous and self directed.

• They want to apply new knowledge and skill immediately.

Point of comparison

• Social and Personal quality

• Growth and development

• Willingness to learn

• Interests and attitude of learner

• Easily Adjustment to Change

• Internal Motivation

• Social-cultural background

• Learning power

• Nervousness

• Application of mind & Creativity

Individual Differences
• No two individuals can be exactly alike in their resulting development and
adjustments. The unique characteristics and traits emerges as children pass from one
stage to another.

• The rate of development is not the same for all individuals. Some develop and
learn faster than the others. Sometimes the gap is wide

• Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s language, cultural, and

social behaviour are taken into account.

• Individual Differences is the uneven rate of growth and development among

individuals.
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Heredity
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• 1- Intelligence ( mental ability)-

• Some are more intelligent than the others. And those who are more intelligent
progress and grow faster than those who are less intelligent.

• People differ in intellectual abilities and capacities like reasoning and thinking,
power of imagination, creative expression, concentration etc.

• On the basis of these differences they are usually classified as idiot, imbecile,
moron, border line, normal, very superior and genius

• Recent psychologists viewed intelligence as multiple abilities. It is necessary for

a teacher to have a thorough understanding of intellectual abilities of students.

• 2. Physical condition –

• It has been observed that some people are born bigger, healthier, and
stronger than the others. Naturally, healthier, and stronger than the others. Difference in
motor ability

• There exist wide differences in motor abilities such as reacting time, speed of
action, steadiness, rate of muscular moment, manual dexterity and resistance to fatigue
etc.

• But there are also people who are born with handicaps such as deafness,
muteness, defective arms or legs, and the like.

• Naturally, normal people develop faster and better and are able to attain higher
status than the handicapped people.

• 3. Aptitude and special talent-

• gifted with special aptitudes and talents in music, painting, acting, science,
mathematics and the like.

• These children often show excellence of performance and leadership in their

respective fields of specializations far above the ordinary individuals. Variations occur
among the individuals in relation to the specific tastes and interests.

• In a similar way, people are found to have different aptitudes. Some have
mechanical aptitude, while the others have scholastic, musical or artistic aptitudes.
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• 4. Gender –

• Males are expected to be aggressive, fearless, and capable of doing heavier

work. Females are expected to be passive, demure, prim, and the like.

• Hence, to a large extent, gender determines the direction of the growth and
development of individuals

• 5. Age –

• age is a big factor in making one different from another. Generally , older learners
have more physical strength and higher level of comprehension than younger ones.

• Maturation and readiness are important in learning. Mature learners have greater
capacity to receive instruction.

• 6. Temperament

• (emotional maturity and stability)those who are easily irritated and tensed even
with trivial things, symptomatic of emotional immaturity and stability.

• In some individuals, positive emotions like love, affection and amusement and
the like are prominent whereas, in some negative emotions are more powerful.
Individuals also differ in the manner they express their emotions. Some are emotionally
stable and mature, while others are emotionally unstable and immature.

• Generally, children who are more emotionally mature and stable are more patient
in studying their lessons, hence, learn faster than those who are more temperamental.

• 7. Introversion- extroversion –

• Extroverts are usually gregarious and like the dominants, enjoy interacting
with people

• Introverts prefer to work/ jobs that can performed in peace, quiet, and with less
contact with other people

• 8. Effort – making capacity –

• an important trait , one with much effort- making capacity studies and works
harder, concentrates more, and exhibits steadiness in his work.
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• Those who have more of this trait usually ahead faster than those who have less.

• 9. Criminal tendency –

• Psychologists can prove that criminal tendency is inherited.

• Children who have this tendency are usually bullies, trouble makers, and they
commit many anti-social acts, in or out of school.

• Usually end up in early death, or in prison, or in perpetual hiding from the agents
of the law unless the criminal tendency is redirected or softened by the environment

Environment

1. Family background – includes level of education and value orientation of parents is

an other determinant.

• If the parents suffer from ignorance and wrong values, the children likewise
suffer and the adverse consequences because such parents with the right values can
grow and develop more progressively than children coming from poor families.

• Naturally, children of affluent families can pursue higher education which is

usually denied to children of poor families

• 2. Community background –

• It can be observed that children of individuals coming from these different types
of communities differ markedly in their values, manners, actions, and thinking

• The city children has an edge over the rural children in the field of informal
learning

• 3. School – It is very important factors in learning and development. Good school

can develop pupils better than the poor ones.

• “Since we supposedly are teaching individuals, not groups of individuals, it is the

function of the school within its budgetary personnel and curricular limitations to
provide adequate schooling for every learner no matter how much he differs from every
other learner.” -crow and crow

• Role of school…
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• 1. Proper knowledge of the individual’s potentialities

• 2. Ability grouping

• 3. Adjusting the curriculum

• 4. Adjusting the method of teaching

• 5. Adopting special programmes or methods for individualizing instruction

• Educational implications of individual differences…

• • It is wrong to expect uniformity in gaining proficiency or success in a particular

field from a group of students. On account of their subnormal intelligence, previous
background, lack of proper interest, aptitude and attitude etc. some students lag behind
in one or the other area of achievement.

• • All students cannot be benefited by a particular method of instruction and a

uniform and rigid curriculum.

• A teacher should be sensitive to individual differences.

• A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the differences among

children and work to maximize the growth in each child.

Factors Affecting Teaching

Introduction

• There are different factors that affect teaching and these factors can be
categorized under four heads and these are factors related to teacher, learners, learning
environment and institution.

• Lets discuss these factors in detail.

Factors Affecting Teaching Related

To Teacher

• Appropriate Training/Educational qualification

• Clear and Concise

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• Skills

• Innovative Teachers

• Managing students behavior

• Personality

• Background

• Values

• Experience of Teacher

• Personal nature

Factors Affecting Teaching Related to Learner

• Intellectual Ability

• Attention Spans

• Prior Knowledge

• Physical factor

• Emotional and social factor

• Readiness

Factors Affecting Teaching Related to Learning Environment

• Use of technology in the classroom

• A quality library

• Up-to-date textbooks and other instructional materials

• safe, caring, welcoming and inclusive environment.

• Equipments and school supplies

Factors Affecting Teaching Related

Institution
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• Reputation

• Facilities

• Geographical location

• Poor funding

• Lack of frequent curricular review

• Overpopulation

• Staff strike

• Poor relation between institute and law makers

• Inadequate teaching and research facility

• Administrative policies

Methods of Teaching in Institution of Higher learning

• The main purpose of HE is to deliver information and ideas at a level beyond that
which is possible at school.

• There are two methods of teaching in higher learning 1) student centric 2)

teacher centric

• There are certain barriers in both methods

• They can be termed as teacher’s behaviour, prerequisites of teacher’s outlook,

students behavior and their outlook, professor’s operations and other things related to
laws and regulation.

• The best method of teaching is one which motivates students to learn.

• TLM (Teaching and Learning Methods)

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• HE (Higher Education)
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Methods of Teaching
Teaching System

• Traditional Teaching System

• Modern Teaching System

What is Online Methods of Teaching?

• Online teaching is the process of teaching in an online, virtual environment or
networked environment in which teachers and learners are separated by time and
space.

• Online teaching, as a reflection of the diversity of the wider Internet, is

practiced using many different approaches and is addressed to distinct sets of users

• It is also known as virtual teaching or online tutoring or E-learning.

What is Offline Method of Teaching?

• Traditional classes, on the other hand, offer the future of education a practical
approach to teaching, meaning that they can still be as important as the teacher makes
them be. For example, practical workshops and team exercises are always done better
in an offline, analog environment

• Offline education means you have to opt for any institution or academy for
learning purpose .

Examples of Online Methods of

• Virtual classroom Teaching

• Pre recorded video tutorials

• Swayam

• MOOCs

• Swayamprabha
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• open source educational resources (OERs)

• Learning management systems (LMSes)

Examples of Offline Methods of

Teaching

• Classroom lectures

• In-house teaching

• Coaching and tuitions

• Discussion

• Demonstrations

• Simulations

• Case Studies

Difference between Methods of Teaching

• The main difference between online and offline learning is location. With offline
learning, participants are required to travel to the training location, typically a lecture
hall, college or classroom. With online learning, on the other hand, the training can be
conducted from practically anywhere in the world. Participants simply need to log on to
the internet from their home, work or even their local coffee shop.

• Another difference is the flexibility offered. Online learning usually has a more
flexible timescale. As a trainer, you can offer your

support via email or through an online chat system. With offline learning, it is typically
carried out between office hours and doesn’t offer as much flexibility to the learner or
the trainer.

Benefits Of Online Vs Offline

Learning
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• With online training courses, you and the course attendees benefit from a more
casual, flexible approach. Being unrestricted in regard to location and times means
every learner can benefit from the courses.

• With offline learning, it’s easier to ensure attendees are paying attention to the
training. Some learners also find it easier to retain the knowledge and skills they’ve
learnt through offline training than they do with online training.

• ‘Study Webs of Active Learning for Young

Aspiring Minds’ (SWAYAM).
• SWAYAM provides an integrated platform and portal for online courses, using
information and communication technology (ICT).

• It was launched by Shri Pranab Mukherjee on July 9, 2017.

SWAYAM is a:

1. One-stop web and mobile based interactive e-content for all courses from High
School to University level.

2. High quality learning experience using multimedia on anytime, anywhere basis.

3. State of the art system that allows easy access, monitoring and certification.

4. Peer group interaction and discussion forum to clarify doubts

5. Hybrid model of delivery that adds to the quality of classroom teaching.

• SWAYAM is a programme initiated by Government of India and designed to

achieve the three cardinal principles of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality.

• This indigenous developed IT platform hosting of all the courses, taught in

classrooms from 9th class till post- graduation to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at
any time.

The Four Quadrant Approach

• The courses hosted on SWAYAM are in 4 quadrants –

(1) Quadrant-I is e-Tutorial: video lecture

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(2) Quadrant-II is e-Content: specially prepared reading material that can be

downloaded/printed

(3) Quadrant-III is Web Resources: self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes

(4) Quadrant-IV is Self-Assessment: an online discussion forum for clearing the

doubts.

• Nine National Coordinators have been appointed: They are

• AICTE for self-paced and international courses

• NPTEL for engineering

• UGC for non technical post-graduation education

• CEC for under-graduate education

• NCERT & NIOS for school education

• IGNOU for out of the school students

• IIMB for management studies

• NITTTR for Teacher Training programme

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• Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners,
however students wanting certifications shall be registered, shall be offered a
certificate on successful completion of the course, with a little fee. At the end of each
course, there will be an assessment of the student through proctored examination and
the marks/grades secured in this exam could be transferred to the academic record of
the students. UGC has already issued the UGC (Credit Framework for online learning
courses through SWAYAM) Regulation 2016 advising the Universities to identify
courses where credits can be transferred on to the academic record of the students for
courses done on SWAYAM.

• SWAYAM platform is indigenously developed by Ministry of Human Resource

Development (MHRD) and All India Council

for Technical Education (AICTE) with the help of Microsoft and would be ultimately
capable of hosting 2000 courses and 80000 hours of learning: covering school, under-
graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law and other professional courses.

• Regulations shall be called the AICTE (Credit Frame work for online learning
courses through SWAYAM) Regulation 2016.

• ‘Academic Council’ is the body empowered to take decisions regarding all

academic matters in an institution including the decision regarding permitting online
learning courses through SWAYAM.

Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs)

• ‘MOOCs’: Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are such online courses which
are developed as per the pedagogy stated herein; following the four quadrant approach
and made available on the SWAYAM platform of Government of India.

• ‘National MOOCs Coordinator’ (NMC) is a Nation level agency designated as

such by the Government, for the purpose of coordinating the production of the online
courses and for overseeing their quality in a designated sector of learning.

Important Abbreviations

• Massive Open Online Course (MOOCs)

• SWAYAM (Study Web of Active learning by Young and Aspiring Minds)

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• Principal Investigator (PI)

• Subject Matter Expert (SME)

• choice based credit system (CBCS)

• National Coordinators (NC)

• Expression of Interest (EoI)

• MOOCs National Committees (MNC)

• information and communication technology (ICT)

• ‘National Integrated Portal (NIP)’ (also called eAcharya)

• ‘Academic Advisory Council (AAC)

• Course Coordinator (CC)

• Subject Matter Expert Groups (SMEGs)’

• SWAYAM Academic Board (SAB)

ABOUT SWAYAM PRABHA

• The SWAYAM PRABHA is a group of 32 DTH channels devoted to telecasting of
high-quality educational programmes on 24X7 basis using the GSAT-15 satellite. Every
day, there will be new content for at least (4) hours which would be repeated 5 more
times in a day, allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience. The
channels are uplinked from BISAG, Gandhinagar. The contents are provided by NPTEL,
IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The INFLIBNET Centre maintains the web
portal.

• ‘Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds’ (SWAYAM).

• It was launched by Shri Pranab Mukherjee on July 9, 2017.

The DTH Channels shall cover :

a) Higher Education: Curriculum-based course contents at post-graduate and

under-graduate level covering diverse disciplines such as arts, science, commerce,
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performing arts, social sciences and humanities, engineering, technology, law, medicine,
agriculture, etc. All courses would be certification-ready in their detailed offering
through SWAYAM, the platform being developed for offering MOOCs courses

b) School education (9-12 levels): modules for teacher's training as well as teaching
and learning aids for children of India to help them understand the subjects better and
also help them in preparing for competitive examinations for admission to professional
degree programmes.

c) Curriculum-based courses that can meet the needs of life-long learners of Indian
citizens in India and abroad.

d) Assist students (class 11th & 12th) prepare for competitive exams.

Operationalising SWAYAM PRABHA

a) The Programme Approval Board (PAB) of NME-ICT headed by the Secretary (HE)
has approved the proposal for operationalizing these transponders using the satellite
up-linking station at the Bhaskaracharya Space Application Centre of Gujarat (BISAG).

b) The Department of Space has allocated two transponders i n GSAT-15 satellite

for launching 32 Educational DTH channels. The subscribers of Free DTH service of
Doordarshan ca n view these Educational channels using the same Set Top Box and TV.
No additional investment is required.
 33

• c)M/s Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) and Bhaskarac harya

Institute for Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG) would be responsible for
setting up the necessary infrastructure a nd running it. An amount of Rs.68.40 crores
has been allocated for a period of three years.

• d)MHRD has nominated six National Massive Open Online Cour ses
(MOOCs) Coordinators for the development and implement ation of
MOOCs. Their video lessons would be converted into appr opriate format and
transferred to BISAG for transmission on the D TH channels. This will provide about
15,000 hours of Education al transmission. Arrangements have been made for
transmission of (20)‘live classrooms’ from the Teaching Ends (TE) set up at Indian I
nstitutes of Technology located at Madras, Bombay, Delhi, Kharagp ur, Kanpur and
Guwahati.

• e)Organisational structure for operationalising the channels by pro viding high

quality content (@ 4 hours of fresh content every day) i s proposed to be set up as per
the structure given below.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE & ROLES

• The project will be implemented by the Department of Higher Education, MHRD

as an NME-ICT project. The Ministry have 4-tier s tructure:
 34

• [Link] and Monitoring Group (OMG): Headed by Director IIT Gandhinagar,

this committee is consisting of experts in the field of DTH and would be responsible for
the overall management and operations of the project. OMG will meet once a quarter to
review the quality of the content on the channels based on th

e feedback from the stakeholders/end-users, and would give furt her directions to the
other agencies involved.

• II. Technical Committee:

This will supervise the up-linking arrangements from The Bhask aracharya Institute of
Space Applications Gujarat (BISAG). BISAG will be responsible for the uplinking of the
channels and mainten ance of all equipment that is procured and installed by ECIL. B
ISAG will maintain a dedicated facility for this purpose with re quired equipment to run
this on a 24X7 basis.

Important Abbreviation

DTHTV- Direct-to-home television

GAGAN- GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation PAB- Programme Approval Board

BISAG- Bhaskaracharya Space Application Centre of Gujarat

ECIL- Electronics Corporation of India Limited OMG- Operations and Monitoring

Group INFLIBNET- Information and Library Network

A massive open online course (MOOC) is an online course aimed at unlimited particion
and open access via the web.

In addition to traditional course materials such as filmed lectures, readings, and

problem sets, many MOOCs provide interactive courses with user forums to support
community interactions among students, professors, and teaching assistants (TAs) as
well as immediate feedback to quick quizzes and assignments.

MOOCs are a recent and widely researched development in distance education which
were first introduced in 2006 and emerged as a popular mode of learning in 2012.

• Early MOOCs often emphasized open-access features, such as open licensing of

content, structure and learning goals, to promote the reuse and remixing of resources.
 35

Some later MOOCs use closed licenses for their course materials while maintaining free
access for students.

• The first MOOCs emerged from the open educational resources (OER)
movement, and from work by researchers who pointed out that class size and learning
outcomes had no established

connection. The term MOOC was coined in 2008 by Dave Cormier of the University of
Prince Edward Island in response to a course called Connectivism and Connective
Knowledge (also known as CCK08).

Benefits

• Improving access to Higher Education

• Providing an affordable alternative to formal education

• Sustainable Development Goals

• Offers a Flexible Learning Schedule

• Online Collaboration

Challenges

• The MOOC Guide suggests six possible challenges for MOOCs:

• Relying on user-generated content can create a chaotic learning environment

• Digital literacy is necessary to make use of the online materials

• The time and effort required from participants may exceed what students are
willing to commit to a free online course

• Once the course is released, content will be reshaped and reinterpreted by the
massive student body, making the course trajectory difficult for instructors to control

• Participants must self-regulate and set their own goals

• Language and translation barriers

MOOCs in India and Abroad

 36

• NPTEL (India): Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institute of

Science (IISc.) offer online courses through this platform which require no registration
and are free of cost.

• WizIQ (India and USA): IIT Delhi, India offers this course through this platform
which requires registration and fees to study courses offered by them.

• Open2Study: The headquarters of this platform for online courses is based out of
Australia.

• Coursera: The headquarters of this platform for online courses is based out of
USA.

• edX: The headquarters of this platform for online courses is based out of USA.

• udemy: The headquarters of this platform for online courses is based out of USA.

MOOC program in India

• The University Grants Commission (UGC) along with the HRD (Human Resource
Development) Ministry has launched the MOOC program in India for higher secondary,
bachelors and masters degrees. This will cover a wide range of subjects that may or
may not be taught in regular campus studies.

• A new portal for MOOCs named ‘Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young
Aspiring Minds’, in short, SWAYAM, is said to present students with an opportunity to
study anything from a list of 2000 courses out of which 200 are currently available for
registration. Audio-visual medium, illustrations, research and case studies with self-
assessment are few of the mediums chosen to approach the study of these courses.

• To provide further information on SWAYAM and MOOCs in general, Professor

[Link], Chairman of the Centre for E-Learning, said, “These online courses have
been developed by a team of senior academicians and are expected to enhance the
gross enrolment ratio in higher education without compromising with the quality. These
courses will also help in bridging the digital divide in the country.”

Important Abbreviations

Teaching Assistants (TAs)

Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) Open Educational Resources (OER)

 37

Connectivism and Connective Knowledge (CCK08) Connectivist MOOCs (cMOOCs)

Extended MOOCs(xMOOCs)

Distributed Open Collaborative Courses (DOCC) Self-Paced Online Course (SPOC)

Teaching Support System

• Teacher Support System is a set of tools that will improve student achievement
by building capacity in teachers.

Traditional Teaching Support System

• Traditional education, also known as back-to- basics, “chalk and talk’’,

conventional education or customary education, refers to long-established customs
that society traditionally used in schools.

• traditional teacher-centered methods focused on rote learning and

memorization

Traditional Teaching methods

• Direct instruction and lectures

• Seatwork

• Students learn through listening and observation

• Instruction based on textbooks, lectures, and individual written assignments

• The usual traditional teaching methods are blackboards, textbooks, charts,

pictures, posters, maps, atlases, globes, flash cards, flip

cards, worksheets, science lab apparatus and materials, models, crossword puzzles,
quizzes, story telling, dramatization, one act plays, dictionaries, encyclopedias,
reference books, learning toys and abacus.

Examples

• Gurukuls
 38

• Vedic education

• One room school

• A-B-C darianism

• New math

• American Indian boarding school

• Initial Teaching Alphabet

Modern Teaching Support System

• modern education approaches based

on developmental psychology, or alternative education also known as progressive

Modern Teaching Methods

• Hands-on activities

• Student-led discovery

• Group activities

• Project-based instruction using any available resource including library and

outside experts

• modern teaching support system includes computers, internet surfing,

laptops, electronic note books, e- readers, computer educational games, online
dictionaries, online encyclopedias, picture dictionaries, talking dictionaries, online tests,
online e-books,

• audio – video teaching aids for learning various subjects including languages;

• PowerPoint slides and games;

• flash educational games;

• Educational CDs and DVDs, projectors

• interactive white boards also called smart boards etc.

 39

ICT based Teaching Support System

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education is the mode of
education that use information and communications technology to support, enhance,
and optimise the delivery of information. Worldwide research has shown

that ICT can lead to an improved student learning and better teaching methods.

ICT based Teaching methods

• Teacher Directed Learning (TDL)

• Learner Directed Learning (LDL)

• Open Educational Resources(OER)

• Video and Interactive video tutorials

• Virtual Lab

• Virtual Reality

• Individualize learning using portable devices

• Blended learning and Flipped Learning

• Learning Management System (LMS)

• Small Private Open Learning (SPOCs)

• Massive Open Online Learning Courses (MOOCs)

 40

Types of Evaluation System

Evaluation can be classified into different categories in many ways.

• 1. Placement Evaluation:
• Placement evaluation is designed to place the right person in the right place. It
ensures the entry performance of the pupil. The future success of the instructional
process depends on the success of placement evaluation.

• Placement evaluation aims at evaluating the pupil’s entry behaviour in a

sequence of instruction. In other words the main goal of such evaluation is to determine
the level or position of the child in the instructional sequence.

• We have a planned scheme of instruction for classroom which is supposed to

bring a change in pupil’s behaviour in an orderly manner. Then we prepare or place the
students for planned instruction for their better prospects.

• Formative Evaluation:
• Formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of students during
the period of instruction. Its main objective is to provide continuous feedback to both
teacher and student concerning learning successes and failures while instruction is in
process.

• Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and

identifies the specific learning errors that need correction. Feedback to teacher provides
information for modifying instruction and for prescribing group and individual remedial
work.
 41

• Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress from time to

time. At the end of a topic or unit or segment or a chapter the teacher can evaluate the
learning outcomes basing on which he can modify his methods, techniques and devices
of teaching to provide better learning experiences.

• Examples:

• i. Monthly tests. ii. Class tests. iii. Periodical assessment. iv. Teacher’s
observation

• Diagnostic Evaluation:
• It is concerned with identifying the learning difficulties or weakness of pupils
during instruction. It tries to locate or discover the specific area of weakness of a pupil
in a given course of instruction and also tries to provide remedial measure.

• When the teacher finds that inspite of the use of various alternative methods,
techniques and corrective prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he
takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis through specifically designed tests called
‘diagnostic tests’.

• Diagnosis can be made by employing observational techniques, too. In case of

necessity the services of psychological and medical specialists can be utilised for
diagnosing serious learning

handicaps.

• Summative Evaluation:
• Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to know to
what extent the objectives previously fixed have been accomplished. In other words, it is
the evaluation of pupils’ achievement at the end of a course.

• The main objective of the summative evaluation is to assign grades to the pupils.
It indicates the degree to which the students have mastered the course content. It helps
to judge the appropriateness of instructional objectives. Summative evaluation is
generally the work of standardised tests.
 42

• It tries to compare one course with another. The approaches of summative

evaluation imply some sort of final comparison of one item or criteria against another. It
has the danger of making negative effects.

Criterion-Referenced Evaluation:
• When the evaluation is concerned with the performance of the individual in terms
of what he can do or the behavior he can demonstrate, is termed as criterion-
referenced evaluation. In this evaluation there is a reference to a criterion.

• But there is no reference to the performance of other individuals in the group. In

it we refer an individual’s performance to a predetermined criterion which is well
defined.

Norm Referenced Evaluation

• Norm-referenced evaluation is the traditional class-based assignment of
numerals to the attribute being measured. It means that the measurement act relates to
some norm, group or a typical performance.

• It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of the performance of a

certain group. This group is a norm group because it serves as a referent of norm for
making judgements.

• Test scores are neither interpreted in terms of an individual (self- referenced) nor
in terms of a standard of performance or a pre- determined acceptable level of
achievement called the criterion behaviour (criterion-referenced). The measurement is
made in terms of a class or any other norm group.

Introduction

• There can be different elements in evaluation system which are associated with
teacher, student and evaluation system.
 43

• Let’s understand them in detail.

What to evaluate?

• The purpose of evaluation

• Why is the evaluation being conducted? a.) to improve the study material? b.) to
determine learner’s outcome? c.) to satisfy administrative requirements?

Whom to evaluate?

• Who are the target recipients of the evaluation? The audience will determine the
type of information collected and reported.

How to evaluate?

• These determine what data collection instruments and analysis are needed to
provide answers to the questions/objectives that have been determined. What
resources will be needed to conduct the evaluation? Resources differ between
objectives.

• Evaluation Techniques

Who will evaluate?

• Examiner,

• Student himself

• Instructor

• Third person
 44

Analysis of Result

• What is the outcome of result? Is it favorable or unfavorable? What is the degree

of learning? What changes should be introduced

Reporting

• How, to whom, and when will the results of the evaluation be reported? An
evaluation report is distributed to the identified

CBCS in Higher Education

Introduction

• Presently Indian higher education system follows credit system of assessment

and evaluation.

• A credit system is a systematic way of describing an educational programme by

attaching credits to its components.

• The credits in higher education systems may be based on different

parameters, such as student workload, learning outcomes and contact hours.

• University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System
(CBCS), a programme in which the students while choosing the prescribed course,
which is the core, can opt for any elective or minor or soft skill courses and the entire
assessment is graded, based on a credit system. The CBCS provides choice for
students to select the elective components in any other institution as well.

• Choice based credit system (CBCS), or a cafeteria like system is the solution for
this type of transformation from the traditional teacher oriented education to a student-
centred education.

• Taking responsibility for their own education in this way, students can benefit the
most from all the available resources.

• In CBCS, a student can earn a few credits from one college and transfer the
credits to some other college.

• A student who is working on a part-time basis can earn a few credits and stretch
his studies to four or five years according to his convenience.
 45

• There is no compulsion to complete a degree programme in three years.

• There is a provision to change the college after earning a few credits if desired.

• CBCS has the facility to transfer the credits from one institution to another and
considers few credits earned in a related industry within the curriculum.

• Students can also add credits from creative and performing arts which are
becoming popular in campuses

• Students are allowed to choose courses of inter- disciplinary nature as well and
based on their choice ensure depth of study.

• Hence, with faculty advising, CBCS can offer a very flexible open system
for quality improvement in higher education.

• As per UGC, the choice based credit system not only offers opportunities and
avenues to learn core subjects but also exploring additional avenues of learning beyond
the core subjects for holistic development of an individual and facilitate to bench mark
Indian courses with best international academic practices

• University Grants Commission (UGC) has suggested the Choice Based Credit
System (CBCS) to be adopted in Indian universities in which the students have a choice
to choose from the prescribed courses, which are referred as core, elective or minor or
soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace and the entire assessment is
graded based on a credit system. The basic idea is to look into the needs of the
students so as to keep up-to-date with development of higher education in India and
abroad. CBCS aims to redefine the curriculum keeping pace with the liberalisation and
globalisation in education. CBCS allows students an easy mode of mobility to various
educational institutions spread across the world along with the facility of transfer of
credits earned by students

• CBCS has following features :

• (1) CBCS is uniformly implemented in all central, state, and other recognized
universities in India.

• (2) CBCS consists of three types of main courses categorised as Core courses,
Elective courses and Foundation courses.
 46

• (3) CBCS also has non-credit courses to be chosen from a pool which will be
assessed as ‘Satisfactory’ or “Unsatisfactory’. Non-credit courses are not included in the
computation of SGPA/CGPA.

• (4) All the three main courses will be evaluated and accessed for
calculation of total credit and grade to provide for an effective and balanced result.

• (5) Core course consists of compulsory subjects to be studied by a student to

get the specified degree.

• (6) Elective courses consist of a pool of subjects from which student has to
choose a specified number of subjects for his/her studies to get degree. The elective
courses may contain pool of subjects which may be very specific or specialized or
advanced or supportive to the discipline/ subject of study or which provides an
extended scope or which enables an exposure to some other discipline/subject/domain
or nurtures the candidate’s proficiency/skill.

• (7) The elective courses are further subdivided into following three
categories :

• (a) Discipline Specific Elective (DSE) Course: These are the elective courses may
be offered by the main discipline/subject of study. The College may also offer discipline
related Elective courses of interdisciplinary nature.

• (b) Dissertation/Project: It is an elective course designed to acquire

special/advanced knowledge, such as supplement study/support study to a project
work, and a candidate studies such a course on his own with an advisory support by a
teacher/faculty.

• (c) Generic Elective (GE) Course: It is an elective course chosen generally

from an unrelated discipline/subject, with an intention to seek exposure.

• (8) Foundation Courses are also called Ability Enhancement Courses (AEC) and
are of two types :

• (a) Ability Enhancement Compulsory Courses (AECC) : These courses are based
upon the content that leads to Knowledge enhancement; (i) Environmental Science and
(ii) English/MIL Communication. These are mandatory for all disciplines. SEC courses
are value-based and/or skill-based and are aimed at providing hands-on-training,
 47

competencies, skills, etc. Ability Enhancement Compulsory Courses (AECC) include

Environmental Science, English Communication/MIL Communication

• (b) Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC) : These include the courses may be chosen
from a pool of courses designed to provide value-based and/or skill-based knowledge.

• CBCS comprises following basic features :

• (1) Semesters: Each year is divided into two semesters and the assessment of
students is done semester wise. A student progress is calculated on the basis of the
courses taken rather than time taken to complete the course like three years for
science, arts, commerce or four years for engineering etc. Each semester will have 15–
18 weeks of academic training and assessment which is equal to 90 teaching days.
There is flexibility in creating the curriculum and assigning credits based on the course
content and hours of teaching.

• (2) Credit system: Each course is assigned a certain credit. When the student
passes that course, he earns the credits which are based on that course. If a student
passes a single course in a semester, he does not have to repeat that course later. The
students can earn credits according to his pace by taking any amount of time.

• (3) Provision of Credit transfer: If for some reasons, a student cannot cope with
the study load or if he falls sick, he has the freedom to study fewer courses and earn
fewer credits and then he can compensate this in the next semester. A student can also
take the remaining credits in another college.

• (4) Comprehensive continuous assessment : There is a continuous evaluation of

the student not only by the teachers but also by the student himself through
assignments, open book exams along with semester end examinations.

• (5) Allotment of Grading: UGC has introduced a

10-point grading system in CBCS to allot grading as shown in the following table 1.

• (6) Counting of Credits in Credit System : One credit per semester is equal to one
hour of teaching, which includes both lecture (L) or tutorial (T) or two hours of practical
work/field work (P) per week. A study course can have only L component or only T or P
component or combination of any two or all the three components. The total credits
earned by a student for each semester is L+T+P.
 48

• (7) In compliance with the global grading system

: All the major higher education institutions across the world are implementing this
credit system. For instance, the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) in Europe’s
universities, the ‘National Qualifications Framework’ in Australia, the Pan-Canadian
Protocol on the Transferability of University Credits The UK Credit Accumulation and
Transfer System (CATS), and even in the US system, Japan system, etc. are based on
credit system.

Opportunities for CBCS

(1) Students can choose papers outside of their core area so that they can be
specialised in multi-discipline.

(2) Students have opportunity to take extra credits more than minimum requirement
to complete the course which will give weightage to encashing further opportunities.

(3) Higher education gradings are acceptable internationally so that students can
compete international opportunities.

(4) Credit-transfer opportunity and possibility of taking different courses in different

colleges simultaneously to complete the total credit requirement within minimum
period.

Challenges for CBCS

(1) For any new system, usually there will be a strong resistance to change from
every quarter of the academic world.

(2) Accepting grade points in subject instead of marks and letter grade
instead of exact total marks is difficult due to the fact that allotment of individual
ranking is not possible by merely referring grade points and letter grades.

(3) Opportunity to take credits outside the core subject area may dilute the depth in
core area of studies.

(4) Students may face dilemma in choosing the subjects due to their inexperience in
predicting future demand.

Strength of CBCS
 49

(1) Student centric

(2) Focus on continuous assessment

(3) More elective courses

(4) Opportunity to choose Dissertation/Project

(5) Opportunity to transfer credit between universities

(6) Loss of year/semester due to attendance shortage in any one subject is avoided.
Student who fails to maintain required attendance in one subject has to reappear only
for that subject in order to clear the entire course.

Weakness of CBCS

(1) Less focus and credits for core area or main subjects

(2) Students are compelled to study languages in higher education level

(3) The option to take courses according to their ability and pace is limited.
There is no freedom for the first year student to take an advanced course or a third year
student to take an introductory course.

(4) Students are compelled to be inside the classroom for the entire five hour per
day schedule leaving no scope for independent study.

Advantages

• (1) The CBCS offers a ‘cafeteria’ approach in which the students can choose
courses of their own choice from out of a given menu. This will help a student to study
the subjects of his own interest.

• (2) The credit system allows a student to study what he prefers based on
his own interest. This feature allows a student to utilize his free time and manipulate
financial situations.

• (3) Students can learn without rigidity of following fixed set of subjects in each
semester. This would help them to work outside during certain semesters.

• (4) Students can opt for additional courses and can achieve more than the
required credits to show their efficiency and weightage in their specialization.
 50

• (5) Students can also opt for an interdisciplinary approach to learning.

• (6) Inter college/university migration within the country and outside the country
becomes easy with the transfer of Credits. This means that it will be easier for foreign
universities to come and offer courses in India.

• (7) Can opt for part of the course in one institute and the other part in another
institute. This will help in making a clear choice between good and bad colleges/
institutes.

• (8) The students have more scope to enhance their skills and more scope of
taking up projects and assignments, vocational training, including entrepreneurship.

• (9) The system improves the job opportunities of students.

• (10) The system will help in enabling potential employers assess the
performance of students on a measurable and uniform scale.

Benefits

• (1) Shift in focus from the teacher-centric to student-centric education.

• (2) Students may undertake as many credits as they can cope with
(without repeating all courses in a given semester if they fail in one/more courses).

• (3) CBCS allows students to choose inter-disciplinary, intra- disciplinary courses,

skill oriented papers (even from other disciplines according to their learning needs,
interests and aptitude) and offer more flexibility for students).

• (4) CBCS makes education broad-based and at par with global standards. One
can take credits by combining unique combinations. For example, Physics with
Economics, Microbiology with Chemistry or Environment Science etc.

• (5) CBCS offers flexibility for students to study at different times and at different
institutions to complete one course (ease mobility of students). Credits earned at one
institution can be transferred.

• (6) Students get better exposure and networking through attending the course in
many colleges.

Constraints
 51

• (1) For the institutions, the number of students in a give class is not constant due
to the fact that students can take any subject in any college for a given course.

• (2) The workload of a faculty member may vary during different semesters of a
year.

• (3) The college is compelled to provide good infrastructure, best faculty, large
number of elective at low fees to attract more students for a given course.

• (4) It is time consuming and expensive if a student takes different subjects in

different colleges during a same period of time.

• (5) Students cannot stay in a hostel of a particular college due to their study in
different colleges.

• (6) Students have to pay college fee for different colleges for their subjects taken
in such a way that the sum of the fees paid will be always higher than the fee paid to an
individual college.

Disadvantages

• (1) Not very easy to pinpoint the achievers.

• (2) Teachers’ workload may fluctuate beyond prediction.

• (3) Needs proper and good infrastructure for a universal spread of education.

• (4) Difficult to estimate the exact marks due to the reason that the marks card
contains letter grades and grade points than individual marks scored in a subject.

• (5) Demand good infrastructure for dissemination of education

• (6) Since there is no pressure to complete all subjects of a course within a fixed
time, many students once takes break, may not continue to complete the course due to
many reasons.
Conclusion

• The UGC has always initiated measures to bring efficiency and excellence in the
Higher Education System of India. The basic motive is to expand academic quality in all
aspects, right from the curriculum to the learning-teaching process to examination and
evaluation systems. However, multiple methods are followed by different universities
 52

across the country in examination, evaluation and grading system. Considering this
diversity, the implementation of the choice based credit system seems to be
qualitatively superior although it is not to be considered s ultimate.

Computer- Based Testing

• Computer-based testing, Electronic assessment, also known as e-assessment,
online assessment, computer assisted/mediated assessment and computer-based
assessment, is the use of information technology in educational assessment.

• This may utilize an online computer connected to a network.

• This definition embraces a wide range of student activity ranging from the use of
a word processor to on-

screen testing.

• Specific types of e-assessment include multiple choice, online/electronic

submission, computerized adaptive testing and computerized classification testing.

• Different types of online assessments contain elements of one or more of the

following components, depending on the assessment's purpose: formative, diagnostic,
or summative. Instant and detailed feedback may (or may not) be enabled.

• In education assessment, large-scale examining bodies find the journey from

traditional paper-based exam assessment to fully electronic assessment a long one.

• Practical considerations such as having the necessary IT hardware to

enable large numbers of student to sit an electronic examination at the same time, as
well as the need to ensure a stringent level of security are among the concerns that
need to resolved to accomplish this transition.

Advantages of CBT

• 1) Computer exams are more efficient than paper based exams.

• 2) Flexible Scheduling

• 3) Year round testing

 53

• 4) Individual Testing Environment

• 5) Faster Scoring

• 6) Easier Accessibility

• 7) Faster Global Reach

• 8) Consistency and Security

• Timely feedback; the teacher can provide feedback.

• Automatic feedback; some forms of on-line assessment answers (i.e. multiple

choices).

• Monitoring and tracking of learners' results behavior.

• Choice of assessment modes, such as multimedia, interactivity, etc.

• Time-saving; an assessment can be created using software tools and adapted

and reused as needed. They can be distributed and collected using a web- based
system which saves development and distribution

• Computers are more accurate at scoring selected- response tests than human
beings are.

• Computers are more accurate at reporting.

• Computers can give immediate feedback.

• Diagnostic feedback can be provided very quickly to each students on those

items answered incorrectly if that is the purpose of the test.

• Flexible and comfortable environment; on-line tests afford students the

opportunity to take tests on their own terms.

• Time-consuming grading can be done by assessment software.

• Once taken and graded can be reconfigured for multiple attempts, providing
practice tool for students.

• Reduces resources needed by replacing human resources with computer

resources.
 54

• Reduces turnaround time; as the systems enables assessments to be corrected

by computers. Reduced time further enables students to use the knowledge obtained
from corrected assessment to address further assessment sooner.

• Keeping records of results that can be stored centrally and assessed by

interested parties, such as students and staff.

• Increasing ease with which data can be used as corrected assignment corrected
and stored electronically can be analyzed easier and the data can be used in
spreadsheets and other statistical packages.

Disadvantages of CBT

• 1) You Can't Write Stuff Down on Your Screen

• 2) Difficult to Navigate Back

• 3) Computer Glitches

• 4) Errors in the Content/Problems

• 5) Staring at a Computer Screen

• A high level of organization is required across all parties involved in assessment

(academics, support, staff, computer services and administrators)

• Assessors and invigilators need training in assessment design, IT skills and

examination management.

• Hardware and software must be carefully monitored to avoid failure

during examination, and students require adequate IT skills and experiences of the
assessment type.

• Construction of good objective tests requires skills and practice and so is

initially time consuming and because of this, testing of higher other skills is difficult.

• Computer anxiety

• 6. Differences in the degree to which students are familiar with using computers.

• 7. Technical malfunctions; computer equipment may not always be available or

in working order.
 55

• 8. Cheating will arise.

• 9. Absence of instructor; instructor is not on- demand when has a question about
a problem or when a student may be confused by the language of the problem.

Outcome Assessments: Primary

Trait Analysis

The process of providing credible evidence that an instructor’s objectives have been
obtained.

Outcome assessment enables faculty to determine what students know and can do as
a result of instruction in a course module, an entire course, or a sequence of courses.
This information can be used to indicate to students how successfully they have
mastered the course content they are expected to assimilate.

Formative Evaluation by Students

• Research has shown that the best way to improve teaching is to provide
individual faculty members, particularly in their first years of teaching,

with ongoing individualized formative feedback from students and colleagues.

Instructors are best served by informal evaluation activities that take place throughout a
course, especially when coupled with consultations with learning experts.

Direct Questioning of Students

• The easiest way to find out whether students understand what is being said is to
ask them directly. instructors should pose questions that encourage more specific
responses, (e.g., “How many of you are understanding what we are talking about?”).

Minute Papers and Just-in-Time

Teaching

• At the end of a class, instructors can ask students to write for a minute or two on
one of the following kinds of questions: “What is the most significant thing you’ve
learned today?” “What
 56

points are still not clear?” or “What question is uppermost in your mind at the end of
today’s class?” Responses can help instructors evaluate how well students are learning
the material.

Student Teams

Another documented approach involves asking a team of students to work throughout

the term on continuous course evaluation The team members are encouraged to
administer questionnaires and interview their peers about how the instructor is or is not
promoting learning.

Students’ Course Notes

• With students’ permission, instructors can ask to borrow a set of notes. This
technique allows teachers to see what students consider to be the main points
presented and whether there is misinformation or confusion about various topics

Chain Notes

• In small classes, it may be possible to pass around a piece of paper midway

through a session and ask students to jot down the main

Student Study Groups

• Students can be encouraged to form small study groups and to send

representatives to discuss any difficulties or questions with the instructor. Study groups
provide students with opportunities to learn from one another, and a group may find it
easier to seek assistance from the instructor.

Informal Conversations

• Instructors can seek feedback through informal conversations with students

during office hours, before or after class, or through e-mail. They can ask students
about what has been working well or what is problematic. Instructors should not pose
these questions to students in ways or at times that might force them to answer
quickly.

Index Cards

• Several times during the term, an instructor can pass out index cards to students
and ask them to respond to two questions, one on the front of the card, the other on the
 57

back. General questions can be posed, such as “What are your overall impressions of
the course?”

Outside Evaluators

• Midway through the term, an instructor can invite an instructional improvement

specialist from the campus-wide or discipline-based teaching and learning center or a
departmental colleague to conduct an oral evaluation with his or her students.

Formative Evaluation by Graduate Teaching Assistants

• Teaching assistants can be an invaluable source of feedback for faculty

members about successes and problems that are occurring in classes, discussion
sections, and teaching laboratories. Such feedback can be especially illuminating if
teaching assistants are encouraged to attend class sessions regularly and to meet with
the faculty member in charge of the course and with each other.

Formative Evaluation by Faculty Colleagues

• Traditionally, faculty members have willingly and candidly judged their

colleagues’ scholarly work through a variety of means but have hesitated when asked to
judge their colleagues’ teaching effectiveness. Yet many senior faculty have the
background and perspective needed to provide judgments about such matters as the
candidate’s knowledge of the subject, course content, appropriateness of course
objectives and instructional materials, examination skills, testing proficiency, and
breadth and depth of student learning.

Self-Evaluation

• Self-reports and self-reflections on an instructor’s teaching and promotion of

student learning can be important sources of information for evaluating a teacher’s
effectiveness (Hutchings, 1998). These self-reports, which may be part of a required
annual report or a teaching portfolio, are more useful and appropriate for formative or
professional development purposes than for summative personnel decisions.

Muddiest Point

• Similar to One-Minute Paper but only ask students to describe what they didn’t
understand and what they think might help.
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Application Article

• During the last 15 minutes of class, ask students to write a short news article
about how a major point applies to a real-world situation. An alternative is to have
students write a short article about how the point applies to their major.

Student-generated test questions

• Divide the class into groups and assign each group a topic on which they are
each to write a question and answer for the next test. Each

Blended and Flipped Learning

Blended learning

• Blended learning is a term increasingly used to describe the way e-learning is

being combined with traditional classroom methods and independent study to create a
new, hybrid, integrative

teaching methodology.

• It represents a much greater change in basic technique than simply

adding computers to classrooms; it represents, in many cases, a fundamental change in
the way teachers and students approach the learning experience.

• Blended learning is an approach to education that combines online educational

materials and opportunities for interaction online with traditional place-based
classroom methods.

• It requires the physical presence of both teacher and student, with some
elements of student control over time, place, path, or pace.

• While students still attend "brick-and-mortar" schools with a teacher present,

face-to-face classroom practices are combined with computer-mediated activities
regarding content and delivery. Blended learning is also used in professional
development and training settings.

• The terms "blended learning", "hybrid learning", "technology-mediated

instruction", "web-enhanced instruction", and "mixed-

mode instruction" are often used

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Models

• Face-to-face driver – where the teacher drives the instruction and augments with
digital tools.

• Rotation – students cycle through a schedule of independent online study and

face-to-face classroom time.

• Flex – Most of the curriculum is delivered via a digital platform and teachers are
available for face-to-face consultation and support.

• Labs – All of the curriculum is delivered via a digital platform but in a consistent
physical location. Students usually take traditional classes in this model as well.

• Self-blend– Students choose to augment their traditional learning with online

course work.

• Online driver – Students complete an entire course through an online platform

with possible teacher check-ins. All curriculum and teaching is delivered via a digital
platform and face-to-face meetings are scheduled or made available if necessary

Advantages

• More effective than purely face to face purely online.

• Teacher act as facilitator here

• Teachers can now streamline their instruction to help all students reach their full
potential.

• The use of ICT have been found to improve student attitudes towards learning

Disadvantage

• It has a strong dependence on the technical resources or tools.

• IT literacy can serve as a significant barrier for students.

• It can be challenging is group work because of difficulties with management in

an online setting.

• Using e-learning platforms can be more time consuming than traditional

methods and can also come with new costs.
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Flipped Learning

• Flipped learning also known as the inverted classroom is a pedagogical

approach in which the conventional notion of classroom-based learning is inverted, so
that students are introduced to the learning material before class, with classroom time
then being used to deepen understanding through discussion with peers and problem-
solving activities facilitated by teachers.

• A flipped classroom is an instructional strategy and a type of blended learning

that reverses the traditional learning environment by delivering instructional content,
often online, outside of the classroom. It moves activities, including those that may
have traditionally been considered homework, into the classroom. In a flipped
classroom, students watch online lectures, collaborate in online discussions, or carry
out research at home while engaging in concepts in the classroom with the guidance of
a mentor.

Advantages

• Students can consume lecture materials at their own pace

• The teacher is present while students apply new knowledge.

• Flipped Classroom uses a more application-based approach for students (i.e.

hands on and problem solving activities)

• Flipped Classroom utilizes a student-centered teaching model

• Communication is greatly emphasized in a Flipped Classroom setting

Disadvantage

• Students may struggle due to their developing personal responsibility.

• Flipped classroom leads to increased computer time.

• Time taking process

• Required Learning atmosphere at home as well.

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Teacher-centered education
In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. Teachers
talk, and the students exclusively listen. During

Advantages

When education is teacher-centered, the classroom remains orderly. Students are quiet,
and teacher retain full control of the classroom and its activities.

• Because students learn on their own, they learn independence and make their
own decisions.

• Because teacher direct all classroom activities, you don’t have to worry that
students will miss an important topic

Disadvantages

• When students work alone, they don’t learn to collaborate with other students,
and their communication skills may suffer.

• Teacher-centered instruction can be boring for students. Their minds may

wander, and they may miss important facts.

• Teacher-centered instruction doesn’t allow students to express themselves, ask

questions, and direct their own learning.

Student-centered instruction

• When a classroom operates with student- centered instruction, students and

instructors share the focus. Instead of listening to the teacher exclusively, students and
teachers interact equally. Group work is encouraged, and students learn to collaborate
and communicate with one another.

Advantages

• Students learn important communicative and collaborative skills through group

work.

• Students learn to direct their own learning, ask questions, and complete tasks
independently.
 62

• Students are more interested in learning activities when they can interact with
one another and participate actively.

Disadvantages

• Because students are talking, classrooms may often be noisy or chaotic.

• Teachers may have to attempt to manage all students’ activities at once, which
can be difficult when students are working on different stages of the same project.

• Because the teacher doesn’t always deliver instruction to all students at once,
some students may miss important facts.

• Some students prefer to work alone, so group work can become problematic.

Differences Between Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered

Learning
 63

Unit- 2 Paper Code-01

Meaning

• The term RE- SEARCH means to make known of an existing thing.

• Thus Research means (search of searched) means to elicit some facts out of
known thing.

• R- retain

• E- enroot
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• S- search

• E- enigma

• A-articulate

• R- res Gestae

• C- contingency

• H- herald

• The word Research is derived from French word which means ‘to know’ or ‘to go
about seeking’

• The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577

• Research is a process in which a series of steps are used to collect and analyze
the information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue

• It involve three steps-

1. Pose a question

2. Collect data to answer that question

3. Present answer of that question

To search for facts in any branch of knowledge

An attitude of inquiry. An attempt to elicit facts

A systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method

A state of mind

The purpose of research:

To discover answers to questions through application of scientific procedure

Characteristics of Research

• It is a scientific investigation. Research means

to "search again". It defines patient study and scientific investigation.

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• It involve long term planning and the basic research related to topic.

• It develops concepts and the theories. One reason for conducting research is to
develop and evaluate concepts and the theories.

• It is a naturalistic inquiry.

• It has holistic prospective.

• It expands the limits of knowledge. The basic or pure research attempts to

expand the limits of knowledge. It is conducted to verify the acceptability of a given
theory or to know more about a certain concept

• It requires personal contact and insight.

• It cannot be implemented immediately. It does not directly involve the solution to

a particular problem; its findings generally cannot be implemented immediately.

• It is an essential tool for good decision making. The task of educational

research is to make the information used in decision making more accurate.

• Educational research is a tool that provides information essential for good

decision making. Research in teaching, training, organizing, or management areas of an
institution are within the scope of training research.

• Organizational research reduces the risk of making wrong decisions. It is an aid

to management judgment, not a substitute for it.

• Unique case orientation

Aims and Objectives of Research

The main aim is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered
as yet.

Research objectives can be different types such as

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else.
 66

To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

Why you decided to do research?

Possible motives or desires:

Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits

To face challenge in solving unsolved problems To get intellectual and self actualisized
joy of doing some creative work

To provide service to society by doing social research

Fundamental Research/Pure

Research/Basic Research:

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.

This research helps in developing theories by discovering broad generalization and

principles.

It is organized through different procedures of research like sampling, hypothesizing

facts, etc. It can experiment in a psychological laboratory. Research concerning some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, research studies concerning
human behavior carried on with a view to making generalizations about human behavior
are examples of fundamental research.

Used when developing theories, generalizations, and principles

Evidence for the three body force (3BF) derived from neutron-neutron (n-n) scattering
length data and nuclear data for science and technology.

Applied Research

Utilizes principles made by fundamental research to know the problems with best
possible manner

Undertaken to solve an immediate problem Aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business

organization.
 67

Solve the practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge sake.

Marketing research is an example of applied research

How does tobacco use in various forms affect humans?

Action Research

It is type of applied research

To solve a existing/immediate problem.

We try to find workable solution by launching projects in field.

Its aim is an immediate application but not any development of theory. It also help in
altering unsatisfied conditions.

It is research either initiated to solve the immediate problem or if the researcher finds
any problem during the course of his field investigation and observation he applies it.

Exploratory Research

It is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar

problem about which researcher has little or no knowledge.

The objective of exploratory research is

the development of hypothesis rather than their testing.

Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis

Descriptive study (Ex-Post Facto Research)

Includes surveys and fact findings inquiries of different kinds.

The major purpose of descriptive research is a description of the state of affairs, as it

exists at present.

In social science and business research, the term often used is ex-post fact research.
 68

The researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened
or what is happening.

Evaluation Research
It is a type of applied research.

It is made for assessing and taking stock of effectiveness of social or economic

programs. For example Family planning scheme, Irrigation project etc.

The emphasis of measurement is on a single aspect.

Diagnostic Research

Similar to descriptive study but with a different focus, which is directed towards
discovering what is happening?

Why is it happening and what can be done about it?

It aims at identifying the causes of problems and possible solutions for it.

Inter disciplinary and group research

• When the range is beyond one person and requires different individual having
knowledge of different skill set, they come together and

Operations research

• This term was associated with military context but these types of research are
used to solve any types of managerial problem in the organizations.

• There are several scientific methods, tools and techniques are designed to solve
these types of problems.

• Example of decision-making research. Provides a quantitative basis for taking up

a decision

One time research

• Confined to a single time period

• Non repetitive in nature

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Longitudinal research
• Research carried over several time periods

• Also known as long term research

Historical Research
• Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past.

Problem-oriented research
To look for solutions to the problem

Decision-oriented Research
• Decision-oriented: Done for the need of the decision maker.

Analytical Research
• Has to use facts that are readily available

• Facts analyzed to make a critical evaluation

Quantitative Research
• Phenomena that can be quantified

Qualititative Research
• Used in behavioural sciences

• Used when studying human behavior

• Projective techniques used

• Phenomena involves quality or kind

Conceptual Research
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• Based on some ideas on theory

• Used by philosophers and thinkers

Empirical Research
• Relies on experience or observation

• Data-based research

• Experimental research

Positivism
• Positivism is a philosophical theory stating that certain ("positive") knowledge is
based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations. Thus, information
derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the
exclusive source of all certain knowledge. Positivism holds that valid knowledge
(certitude or truth) is found only in this a posteriori knowledge.

• Positivism asserts that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all
authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

• Thinkers such as Henri de Saint-Simon(1760– 1825), Auguste Comte (1798–

1857) believed the scientific method, the circular dependence of theory and
observation, must

replace metaphysics in the history of thought.

Post-Positivistic/ Post-Positivism
• While positivists emphasize quantitative methods, post positivists consider both
quantitative and qualitative methods to be valid approaches.

• Postpositivism recognizes that the way scientists think and work and the way we
think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common
sense reasoning are essentially the same process.

• Postpositivism recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that
all theory is revisable.
 71

• the goal of science is to hold steadily to the goal of getting it right about reality,
even though we can never achieve that goal.

• Robert Dubin describes the basic components of a postpositivist theory as being

composed of basic "units" or ideas and topics of interest, "laws of interactions" among
the units, and a description of the "boundaries" for the theory.

• A postpositivist theory also includes "empirical indicators" to connect the

theory to observable phenomena, and hypotheses that are testable using the scientific
method.

• According to Thomas Kuhn, a postpositivist theory can be assessed on the basis

of whether it is "accurate", "consistent", "has broad scope", "parsimonious", and "fruitful"

All the methods and techniques which are used for conducting research are termed as
research methods.

• Experimental

• Descriptive

Experimental Research Method

• This research method uses qualitative data. Based on cause and effect
relationship exists between the independent and dependent variable. Matter of logic not
location Special laboratories to control conditions Labs are generally located in
universities or a research institute

• Experimental studies are done in carefully controlled and structured

environments and enable the causal relationships of phenomena to be identified and
analysed. The variables can be manipulated or controlled to observe the effects on the
subjects studied. For example, sound, light, heat, volume of work levels etc can be
managed to observe the effects. Studies done in laboratories tend to offer the best
opportunities for controlling the variables in a rigorous way, although field studies can
be done in a more ‘real world’ environment. However, with the former, the artificiality of
the situation can affect the responses of the people studied, and with the latter, the
researcher has less control over the variables affecting the situation under observation.

• Quasi Experimental Design- to eliminate some alternative hypothesis

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• True Experimental Design- to eliminate many alternative hypothesis

• Single subject design- experimental design with one subject

• Meta Analysis- re-analyzing the previously amassed experimental data

Descriptive Research Method

• Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This
methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject rather than the “why”
of the research subject.

• No control over the variables

• Observational Method

• The observational method is the most effective

method to conduct descriptive research and both quantitative observation and

qualitative observation are used in this research method.

• Case Study Method

• Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case
studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon.

• Survey Research
• In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires, or
polls.

Historical Research Method

• The process of learning and understanding the background and growth of a
chosen field of study or profession can offer insight into organizational culture, current
trends, and future possibilities.

• The historical method of research applies to all fields of study because it

encompasses there: origins, growth, theories, personalities, crisis, etc.
 73

• Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of

historical information. Once the decision is made to conduct historical research, there
are steps that should be followed to achieve a reliable result. Historical methods of
research are the process of systematically examining an account of what has happened
in the past. It is not facts and dates or even a description of past events. The dynamic
account of past events that involves an interpretation attempt tor ecapture the nuances,
personalities, and ideas that events.

• The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which

historians use primary sources and other evidence, such as secondary sources and
tertiary sources, to research and then to write history.

Qualitative Research Method

• Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms, scientific

research consists of an investigation that:

• seeks answers to a question

• systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question

• collects evidence

• produces findings that were not determined in advance

• produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the
study

• Qualitative research shares these characteristics.

• Additionally, it seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the

perspectives of the local population it involves.

Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information

about the values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular populations.

Some qualitative research methods-

• Participant observation

• In-depth interviews
 74

• Focus groups

Quantitative Research Method

• Quantitative research, is defined as a the systematic investigation of phenomena

by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. Quantitative research gathers information from existing and
potential customers using sampling methods and sending

out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires etc., the results of which can be depicted
in the form of numericals.

• An example of quantitative research is, the survey conducted to understand the

amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the
hospital.

• Methods of quantitative research

• Survey Research.

• Correlational Research

• Causal-Comparative Research

• Experimental Research.

Formulating the research problem

Identifying a broad area of interest Dividing broad areas into subareas

Focusing on and selecting an area of interest Identifying the gaps and raising research
questions Formulation of broad objectives

Assessing and reviewing objectives

Factors to be Consider in Selecting

a Research Problem

• Interest
 75

• Manageable magnitude of topic

• Concept measurement- concept clearity

• Level of expertise

• Relevance

• Availability of data

• Ethical issues

Review of Literature (ROL)

• The procedure for reviewing literature covers searching the existing literature,
reviewing it, and developing a theoretical and conceptual framework.

• The main sources of literature review are books and journals.

• Bibliography given at the end of a project gives a clear and complete description
of the sources that were used while preparing the report.

Purpose of ROL
• It broadens the knowledge of researcher about the research problem.

• It brings better clarity and focus to the research problem

• It improves the authenticity of research.

• It helps to improve the research methodology.

• It reduces the redundancy of data.

Formulation of Objectives
• They inform the reader what the researcher wants to accomplish through the
research work. The wording of the objective should be very precise and specific.
Objectives can be written under two headings:

• 1. Main objectives or aims

• 2. Sub-objectives
 76

Types of Variables
• Independent variables (IV) also known as the manipulated, experimental, or
treatment variable are presumed to be the cause of another variable. The independent
variable

• Dependent variables (DV) also known as the outcome or response variable are
the presumed effect or outcome. Dependent variables are influenced by one or more
independent variables.

Variables Measurement Scales

• Nominal scale: It is also known as classificatory scale. A variable which has
more than one sub category is measured on this scale. Ex- Subjects of course
curriculum.

• Ordinal or ranking scale: It usually ranks the subgroups in a certain sequence or

order. Ex marks obtained in each subjects.

• Interval scale: It uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and

terminating points. Example -students marks in each quarter.

• Ratio scale: They are used to gather quantitative information. It combines the
properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. It has a fixed starting point.

Attitudinal Scale
• If we want to ascertain the attitude of your population this scale is used the
attitudinal scales are very important in qualitative research, the different types of
attitudinal scales are

• Likert scale: It is also termed as summated rating scale. It is the easiest one to
construct. It is based upon the assumption that each statement or item on the scale has
equal attitudinal value, importance, or weight.

• Thurstone scale: It may assign weightages the different variables, and the scores
are calculated accordingly.

• Guttman scale: It is mainly based on ratio scale. It is quite difficult to develop.

 77

Formulating Hypothesis

• A hypothesis is an idea which is suggested as a possible explanation for a

particular situation or condition, but which has not yet been proved to be correct.

• These are the questions that they want to address, or predictions about possible
relationships between the things they want to investigate (variables).

• It can also be termed as an educated guess or assumption about some

phenomenon.

Types of Hypothesis
• Descriptive hypothesis: It is formulated to describe characteristics.

• Relational hypothesis: They indicate the relationship between two variables.

• Explanatory hypothesis: They guide about the cause-and-effect relationship

between two variables.

• Null hypothesis (Ho): it is a general statement or default position that there is no

relationship between two measured phenomena, or no association among groups.

• Alternative hypothesis (HA) is the hypothesis that sample observations are

influenced by some non-random cause. It is contrary to the null hypothesis.

Preparing the Research Design

Research design is an activity and time-based plan keeping in view of the research
objectives. It guides about the types of information to be collected and their sources. It
is a framework for specifying the relationship among the variables under study. It
outlines the procedures. It also answers questions such as, is an intensive study of a
small sample more effective than a less intensive study of a large sample? and, should
the analysis be primarily qualitative or quantitative?

• Research design is also defined as plan, structure, and strategy of investigation

conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. It is a
master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the
information needed.
 78

• - Means of obtaining the information

• - Ability and skill of the researcher and staff

- Explaining the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be

organized and the reasoning leading to selection

- Time available for research

• - Cost factor relating to research

• The main types of research designs are:

• Exploratory. A flexible research design which provides an opportunity for

considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the
purpose of the research study.

• Descriptive. An accurate description of a situation or of an association between

variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed.

• Diagnostic. An attempt to detect and discover nuances of a problem by way of

series of clinical, laboratory and field tests and trials which aim to shed more light on
the nature of a given problem.

• Experimental. A series of tests and trials is performed on a set of given variables

which are either controlled or experimental in order to determine a better solution or
outlook based on the results obtained.

Factors to be considered in Research Design

• 1. Objectives of research study

• 2. Selection of method of data collection

• 3. Source of information

• 4. Tools for data collection

• 5. Methods of Data analysis

Objectives of Research Design

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• 1. It makes research efficient

• 2. Optimum utilization of resources—time, and money

Developing Research (Data Collection) Instrument

• Data are defined as the information recorded to represent facts.

• Types of data-
• On the basis of source- Primary Data and Secondary Data

• On the basis of dependency- Objective Data and Subjective Data

• On the basis of nature- Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data

Primary Data
• Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from first-hand sources,
using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with the research
project in mind, directly from primary sources.

• Primary data are collected for the purpose of current research project. Primary
data is original data – from the first source.

Sources of collection of primary data

• Interview (personal interview, telephone, e- mail)

• Self-administered surveys

and questionnaires

• Field observation

• Experiments

• Life histories

• Action research

• Case studies
 80

• Diary entries, letters, and other correspondence

• Eyewitness accounts

• Ethnographic research

• Personal narratives, memoirs

Observation Method

• This is used in behavioural sciences. It is about collecting primary data by

investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions, and situations without
asking from the respondent.

• Types of observations

• 1. Structured

• 2. Unstructured

• 3. Participant observation

• 4. Non-participant observation

• 5. Disguised observation

Survey Method

• Survey data is defined as the resultant data that is collected from a sample of
respondents that took a survey. This data is comprehensive information gathered from
a target audience about a particular topic of interest to conduct research on the basis of
this collected data.

• It is of two types: structured and unstructured surveys.

Personal Interviewing

• It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information.

Trained interviewers can hold the respondent’s
 81

Advantages of primary data

• Resolve specific research issues

• Better accuracy

• Higher level of control

• Up-to-date information

• You are the owner of the information

Disadvantages

• More expensive

• Time consuming

• Can have a lot of limits

• Not always possible

Secondary Data
• Secondary data refers to data which is collected by someone who is someone
other than the user.

• Secondary data is the data that have been already collected for another
purpose but has some relevance to your research needs. In addition, the data is
collected by someone else instead of the researcher himself.

• Secondary data is a second-hand information. It is not used for the first time.
That is why it is called secondary.

• Secondary data sources provide valuable interpretations and analysis based on

primary sources. They may explain in details primary sources and often uses them to
support a specific thesis or a point of view.

Sources Of Collection Of Secondary

• Previous research

• Encyclopedia
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• Monographs

• Journal articles

• Biography

• Research analysis

• Dissertations

• Works of criticism and interpretation Data

• Mass media products

• Government reports

• Official statistics

• Letters

• Diaries

• Web information

• Historical data

• Financial sources such as profit and loss statements balance sheets, inventory
records, sales records and etc.

Advantages of Secondary Data

• Ease of Access

• Low Cost or Free

• Time-saving

• Generating new insights and understandings from previous analysis

• Larger sample size

• Longitudinal analysis

• Anyone can collect the data

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Disadvantages

• Not specific to your needs

• Lack of control over data quality

• Biasness

• Not timely

• Not proprietary Information

Selecting Sample Design

• Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.

• A sample is a subset of the population selected to represent the population as a

whole.

• A representative sample should be an unbiased indication of what the population

is like.

• The factors affecting inferences drawn from a sample are

1. Sample size: The larger the sample, the more is the accuracy.

2. Variation in population: The greater the variation in population, the greater

will be the uncertainty of outcome.

Types of Sampling Techniques

• Probability Sampling Techniques - Each has an element of being included in the
sample and are based on Random, Systematic, Stratified, Cluster/Area Sampling.

•Non-Probability Sampling Techniques - Based on Consciences Sampling, Judgement

Sampling and Quota Sampling

Probability Sampling Techniques

[Link] Random Sampling - Each and every item in the population has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample and each one has the probability of being selected.
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[Link] Sampling- An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind

of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. Useful
when sample frame is in form of a list. Selection process starts by picking some
random point on the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number
is secured

[Link] Sampling- If the population from which a sample is to be drawn doesn't

constitute

a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a

representative sample. The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling, the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling is known as stratified
random sampling.

[Link] sampling- Grouping of population and then selecting the groups or the groups
or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Sample size
must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of
accuracy as in cluster sampling there is a chance of various biases and error. However,
this procedure is relatively easier than others and can be used in the case of personal
interviews

[Link]-stage Sampling- Meant for large geographical areas like an entire country

6. Area Sampling- Area is divided into smaller non-overlapping areas = geographical

clusters and a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected. Field interviewing
is made more efficient through this technique and when there's no list of the population.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

1- Quota Sampling- When interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different

strata, the actual selection of the items for sample being left to the interviewer's
judgment. Size of quota is proportionate to size of stratum in the population. A form of
non probability sampling.
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2. Convenience sampling- The researcher selects the easiest population members

from which to obtain information.

3. Haphazard Sampling- where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying

to simulate randomness. However, the result may not be random at all and is often
tainted by selection bias.

4. Deliberate Sampling- Purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the

universe for constituting a sample that represents the universe. When population
elements are selected based on access it's known as convenience sampling

5. Judgment sampling- is when a researcher's judgment is used to select

items he considers to be representative of the population

6. Sequential Sampling- Ultimate size of the sample is determined as the survey

progresses

7. Purposive Sampling- where the researcher chooses a sample based on their

knowledge about the population and the study itself. The study participants are chosen
based on the study’s purpose. There are several types of purposive sampling.

8. Expert Sampling- in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of
experts in the field.

9. Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling- a type of sampling where you

deliberately choose members so that all views are represented. However, those views
may or may not be represented proportionally.

10. Modal Instance Sampling- The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.

11. Quota Sampling- where the groups (i.e. men

and women) in the sample are proportional to the groups in the population.

12. Snowball Sampling- where research participants recruit other members for the
study. This method is particularly useful when participants might be hard to find.

Determining Sample Design

• 1. Sample itself – Who will be surveyed? It further depends upon what type of
information is required.
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• 2. Sample size – How many people should ideally be surveyed?

• 3. Sampling – How should the sample be chosen? Sampling can be done by

adopting either probability or non-probability method.

Writing A Research Proposal

• A research proposal is a document of usually three to seven pages that informs
others of a proposed piece of research.

• A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a

detailed description of the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research
process that gives the reader a summary of information discussed in the project.
Research proposals are written for various reasons like certification requirements for
research, etc.

Elements of Research Proposal

1. Need of research project

2. Benefits and beneficiaries

3. The type of data to be collected and the means to collect the data

4. Types of analysis

5. Help required from other organization, if any

6. Duration, facilities, and requirement of funds

7. Profile and credentials of the proposers

Data Collection
• There are many alternatives available to collect relevant data. The researcher
should select one of these methods available for collecting data.

• For collection of primary data the various methods can be used such as Personal
interviews, observation, Telephonic interviews, Mailed questionnaires etc.

Factors Should Be Considered In Data Collection

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• nature of investigation

• scope and objective of inquiry

• financial cost

• availability of time

• the desired accuracy

• Ability and experience of researcher.

Processing and Analysing of Data

• After the data have been collected, the next step is to analyse it. It requires a
number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories and the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation, and then drawing
statistical inferences. The large data should be condensed into a few manageable
groups and tables for further analysis. This is done with the help of classification of
data into more relevant, purposeful, and usable categories.

Editing: The process of cleaning the data is called editing.

• Coding: The categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted.

• Content analysis: Qualitative data are processed by content analysis and then
tabulated for classification.

Classification of Data
• Classification of Data- is a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics.

• Simple classification: classification on the basis of one attribute ex- monthly

income of family is more than 1 lakh
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• Manifold classification: In this classification, we consider two or more attributes

simultaneously and divide the data into a number of classes ex- monthly income of
family is more than 1 lakh and more than 4 members.

• Classification according to class intervals: Classification is done with data

relating to income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy, etc. Such quantitative data
are known as the statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class
intervals.

Tabulation of Data
• Tabulation: Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified
data are put in the form of tables. It is the process of summarizing raw data and
displaying the same in compact form for further analysis.

• Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulations.

Analysis of Data
• After tabulation, analysis is done with the help of different mathematical and
statistical techniques such as percentages, averages, coefficients of correlation,
regression, and so on. It largely depends upon whether data is qualitative or
quantitative.

Hypothesis Testing
• After analysing the data the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis.
Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, and F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for this purpose. The hypothesis may be tested through use of one or more
such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis
testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting it.

Generalizations and Interpretation

• Generalization is being done after testing the Hypothesis, after testing a
generalization is being formed which is the result of research it
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Writing A Research Report

• Writing a report is the last and the most difficult step of the research process.
The report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered, and what
conclusions you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an
academic style and the language should be formal.

Research Report Format

Written reports tend to be produced in the following format.

Title Page

1. Title of the research project

2. Name of the researcher

3. Purpose of the research project

4. Date of Publication

• Table of Contents

• In this section, the contents of the report, either in chapter

• Chapter I Theoretical Framework and Review of Related Literatures or in

subheadings are listed.

• Chapter II Research Design Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation Chapter
IV Summary and Conclusion. Suggestions for Further Research
References/Bibliography Appendices Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees Appendix
II Questionnaire for Managers

• List of Tables
• This section includes the title and page numbers of all tables.

• List of Figures

• This section contains the title and page numbers of all graphs, pie charts, etc.

• Acknowledgements
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• In this section, the researcher may acknowledge the institute, principal, faculty
guides (both research guide and technical guide), research participants, friends, etc.

• Introduction

• This section introduces the research, setting out the main aims and objectives. It
is actually a rationale for the research.

• Theoretical framework and review of literature

• This section includes all the background research information that has been
obtained from the literature review

• Research design: This section includes all practical details followed for the
research. After reading this, any interested party should be able to replicate the research
study.

• Data analysis and interpretation: If you have conducted a large quantitative

survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie charts, and associated statistics.

• Summary and conclusion: In this section, you sum up your findings and draw
conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to other research or literature.

• Recommendations: If the research has been conducted for any client

organization, this section could be treated as the most important part of the report.

• Suggestions for further research: This section shows how research could be
continued and scope for further research.

• List of references/bibliography: It includes sources not cited in the main text

matter but are relevant to the subject of study, section to include all the literature that
has been referred to in the report.

• Appendices: This is specifically required in case of questionnaires or interview

schedules constructed for conducting the research. It is a useful way of including
relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by
reading it.

• Certificate

Dissertation And Thesis

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• A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for an

academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author's research and
findings. The term graduate thesis is sometimes used to refer to both master'stheses
and doctoral dissertations.

• Providing references and citations is an important and essential part of any type
of academic writing. The main purpose is to acknowledge the original source of ideas
and work that is not the author's own, and to direct the readers to the original sources of
information. Whenever you use sources such as books, journals, research papers, web
sites, e-resources and others in the writings, one must a give credit to the original author
by properly citing the sources.

• There are a number of different reference citation styles available. Styles are
basically well established practices and conventions. Depending on the discipline in
which one is working and also the widely used style in the respective discipline, one can
decide to select and use a particular style.

• AAA Style (American Anthropological Association)

• ACS Style (American Chemical Society)

• AIP Style (American Institute of Physics)

• American Antiquity Style-Society for American Archaeology

• AMS Style (American Mathematical Society)

• AP Style (Associated Press Style)

• APA Style (American Psychological Association)

• APSA Style (American Political Science Association)

• ASA Style (American Sociological Association)

• ASABE Citation Style (American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers)

• ASME Citation Style (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)

• Chicago Style

• GSA (Geological Society of America) Style

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• Hart's Ruels (Oxford Style)

• Harvard Style

• IEEE Style

• MHRA Style (Modern Humanities Research Association)

• MLA Style (Modern Language Association)

• NLM Style (National Library of Medicine)

• Turabian Style

• Vancouver Style

APA Reference Style

• The APA reference style (named after the American Psychological Association)
goes back to the late 1920s, when a group of scholars from the fields of Psychology,
Anthropology and Business Management met in order to set up a system for giving
references. Today, APA is used within the Social Sciences, as well as within other
academic fields.

• The APA format for book entries in the Reference list looks like this:

• Author's last name, Initial(s). (Year of Publication). Title of book. Place of

publication: Publisher.

• APA is an author-date reference style

• Only initials of author's first name(s) are provided

• "Year of publication" refers to the edition that you have used

• The book title is italicised. Except for names etc., only the first word of the title
(and of any subtitle) is capitalised

• "Place of publication": Being an American reference style, the APA Publication

Manual recommends city + abbreviated name of state for US publications and city +
country for non-US publications.

• "Publisher" is the name of the publishing company

 93

• Ballard, K. (2001). The frameworks of English: Introducing language

structures. Basingstoke, Great Britain: Palgrave.

Harvard Reference style

• Most reference styles are based on manuals published by scholarly associations
or by publishing companies. This is not the case with Harvard, and, consequently, there
are not one but several versions of Harvard style. The differences between the different
versions are small and mainly concern the use of punctuation.

• It is an author-date referencing style.

• The standard reference format for a book is:

• Author(s) family name, Initial(s) Year of publication, Title, Publisher, Place of

publication.

• Example- Holt, DH 1997, Management principles and practices, Prentice-Hall,

Sydney.

MLA Reference Style

• MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is widely used in the humanities,
especially in writing on language and literature. MLA style uses brief parenthetical
citations in the text that refer to an alphabetical list of works cited appearing at the end
of the work.

• MLA Style is generally used by disciplines in the humanities, including:

• English

• Literatures

• Art

• Philosophy

• AuthorLastName, AuthorFirstname. Title. Publisher, Year.

• Example- McCorker, Frank. Storymaking and Mythtelling: Comic Literary and Film
Images. Oxbridge, 1992.
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Chicago Reference Style

• Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by the Chicago
University Press since [Link] Notes and Bibliography style is preferred by many in
humanities disciplines, including history, literature, and the arts. Citations are provided
in footnotes or endnotes and are usually accompanied by a bibliography.

• "Turabian" style, widely used for decades by students, is essentially a simplified

version of the Chicago Manual.

• Last name, First name. Title of Book. Place publication: Publisher, Year of
publication.

• Example- Jack Kerouac, The Dharma Bums (New York: Viking Press, 1958), 128.

• ICT had effects on many facets of research. They can be classified into three
categories which include:

• a) ICT application in pre-data analysis,

• b) ICT application in data analysis, and

• c) ICT application in post-data analysis

• ICT application in pre-data analysis

• refers to examples how ICTs are applied on activities of research before reaching
the stage of data analysis.

• ICT application in pre-data analysis includes:

• i. Article Availability

• ii. Thesis and Dissertation Availability

• iii. Literature Search

• iv. Content Search

• v. Literature Tracking

• vi. Quantitative Data Collection

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• vii. Qualitative Data Collection

• viii. Big Data and Its Analytics

• ICT application in data analysis includes examples how ICTs are applied on
activities during the stage of data analysis and can be divided into:

• i. Quantitative Data Analysis

• ii. Qualitative Data Analysis

• Lastly, ICT application in post-data analysis refers to examples how ICTs are
applied on activities of research after completing the stage of data analysis which
covers:

• i. References and Bibliography Compilation

• ii. Article and Thesis / Dissertation’s Discussion among Researchers,

Supervisors, Supervisees and during Viva Voce

• iii. Plagiarism Detection

• iv. Journal Manuscripts Submission

ICT Products & Services for Research

• E-mail & Document Exchange

• E-journals

• E-books

• Locate, Collect data using internet

• Online databases

• Free /paid online courses for career development

• Preparing manuscripts, proposals & papers

• Discussion forums

• Blogging
 96

• Teleconferencing/Videoconferencing

E- tools for Literature Survey

Examples for Online articles / journals

• [Link]

• [Link]

• [Link] access/open- access-journals

• [Link] ks/ all/open-access

Indexing database services

Examples for Indexing database services Repositories

• [Link]

• [Link] 1

• [Link] t=0&context=686929

• [Link]

E- tools for Data Collection Examples

• [Link]

• [Link]

• [Link]

E-tools for analyses & Interpretation

Examples

• Windows Excel

• [Link]

• [Link]
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E-tools for referencing

Examples

• [Link]

• [Link]

e-tools to check plagiarism & grammar

Examples

• [Link]

• [Link] er

Examples

Presentation Tools

• [Link]

Example

Publish online

• [Link]

Other resources

MOOCs Examples
• [Link] [Link]

• [Link] Search Engines & Apps for

Researchers

• [Link] engines-for- academic-

research/

• [Link] 1864

Merits
 98

• Search more, Research more

• More effective

• Disseminate quickly

• More accountability

• Reliability & validity of the contents and output

Demerits

• Needs browsing skills –Tech-savvy

• Information overload

What can ICT offer for my Research?

• 24/7 access to materials and support.

• Enables more engaging materials to be created for a range of abilities and

preferred learning styles.

• Encourages the development of an independent research culture. Ethics

• ICT has a very valuable role to play in research as long as it is used appropriately.

• Supports genuine research.

• does not detract or distract from the proposed research work.

Introduction
• Ethics are the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we
value.

• Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity.

Research Ethical Guidelines And Principles

1. Honesty in reporting data, results, methods and procedures, and publication
status.
 99

2. Objectivity to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, interpretation, and

peer review.

3. Integrity, acting with sincerity, striving for consistency of thought and action.

4. Carefulness to avoid careless errors and negligence; proper documentation of all

aspects.

5. Openness in sharing data, results, ideas, tools, resources and openness to

criticisms and new ideas.

6. Respect for intellectual property rights such as patents, copyrights, and other
forms of intellectual property.

7. Confidentiality in context of communications, personal records, and privacy

issues.

8. Responsible publication with an aim to serve the society. Avoiding wasteful and
duplicative publication.

9. Responsible mentoring in terms of guiding research students.

10. Respect for colleagues translates to extending fair treatment to the colleagues.

11. Social responsibility means to serve the society and different stakeholders.

12. Non-discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, or

factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

13. Enhancing competence for own professional advancement or lifelong learning;

taking steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

14. Ensuring legality of the whole process by obeying relevant laws, that is,
institutional and governmental policies.

15. Animal care through proper experimental designs.

• The benefits of following ethics in research studies are as follows-

• 1. It helps in promoting the aims and objectives of research.

• 2. It promotes the values that are essential to collaborative work and

collaboration, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
 100

• 3. It holds the researcher accountable to the public and society.

• 4. It helps in building public support for research, which in return can help in
getting participants who take part in the research willingly.

Meaning of communication
What is Communication?

Communication is defined as “the process of passing information and understanding

from one person to another, it is essentially a bridge of meaning between people”

All communication is essentially sharing of information or some message.

We can classify communication as interpersonal, intrapersonal, group communication,

Meta communication, upward, downward, lateral, diagonal, formal, informal, oral, written
or non verbal communication

• Communication means sharing of information

• Communication is the giving and receiving of messages

• Communication is the transfer of information from one or more people to one or

more other people.

• “Communication is the sum of all things, one person does when he wants to
create understanding in the minds of another. It involves a systematic and continuous
process of telling, listening and understanding.”– Allen Louis

Meaning of Communication
• The term communication is derived from the latin word ‘communis’ or
‘communicare’ which means to make common. Thus communication means to make
common facts, information, thoughts and requirements.

• Communication therefore is the exchange of thoughts, message, information etc.

by way of speech, signal or in writing.

• Communication is two way process and works well with feedback, this helps to
confirm that intended message has been successful
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Definition of Communication

Communication has been defined “As the transfer of information from one person to
another whether or not it elicits confidence.”– Koontz and O’ Donell

“Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more

persons.” – George Terry

Leagans defined communication as a process by which two or more people exchange

ideas, facts, feelings or impression in such ways that each gains a common
understanding of the meaning and use of messages.

Communication is the process by which the message is transmitted from the source to
the receiver (Rogers, 1983)

Communication is anything that conveys meaning, that carries a message from one
person to another (Brooker, 1949)

Communication is a mutual interchange of ideas by any effective means (Thayer 1968).

Process of communication
• Communication is effective when a concise and clear message is delivered well,
received successfully and understand fully.

• The process of communication has the following distinct components:

• Communication begins with an impulse (or motivation) to pass on a message

made up of bits of information. In the process of encoding, units of information are
selected and organized for transmission

Input is the sum of experiences that build up in the human brain or computer.

Output is the encoded message transmitted by the information source (an individual
person or group of people).

The interpretation of the message is referred to as decoding.

Feedback is the response, or message that the recipient (decoder) returns to the sender
(encoder).
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• Sender has an idea Sender encodes the idea Sender transmits the message
through medium

• Receiver gets the message Receiver decodes the message Receiver sends
feedback

• Feedback in the communication process is the response that gives us some

indication of how effectively we communicate. It is the gauge of efficiency in
communication

Types of Communication
 103

Based on number of person involved in the process-

• Intrapersonal Communication: It is talking to oneself in one’s own mind.

• Interpersonal Communication: It is the exchange of messages between two

persons. For example, a conversation, dialogue, or an interview in which two persons
interact

• Group Communication: It can be among small or large groups, like an

organization, club or classroom, in which all individuals retain their individual identity.

• Mass Communication: It occurs when the

message is sent to large groups of people, for example, by newspaper, radio, or

television.
 104

• In this process, each person becomes a faceless individual with almost no

opportunity for personal response or feedback.

• Based on the basis of the ‘medium’ employed

• Verbal Communication: It means communicating with words, written or spoken.

Verbal communication consists of speaking, listening, writing, reading, and thinking. It
may further be classified as Oral or Written Communication.

• Non-verbal communication: It includes using of pictures, signs, gestures, and

facial expressions for exchanging information between persons.

• It is done through sign language, action language, or object language.

• Non-verbal communication flows through all acts of speaking or writing. It is a

wordless message conveyed through gestures (sign), movements (action language),
and object language and so on.

• Types of Non-verbal communication

• KINESICS (BODY LANGUAGE)

• HAPTICS (TOUCH LANGUAGE)

• PROXEMICS (SPACE LANGUAGE)

• ARTIFACTS ENVIRONMENTAL

• CHRONEMICS (TIME LANGUAGE)

• SILENCE

• SIGN

• SMELL (OLFACTICS)

• PARALANGUAGE /VOCALIC

• Meta Communication:

• Here the speaker’s choice of words unintentionally communicates something

more than what the actual words state. For example, a flattering remark like “I’ve never
 105

seen you working so hard” could also mean that the regular work of the listener needed
improvement.

• Formal Communication: A formal channel of communication can be defined as a

means of communication that is formally controlled by managers or people occupying
positions in an organization.

• The communication flows through formal channels, that is, officially recognized
positions along the line in the organization. This ensures that the information flows
orderly, timely, and accurately. Any information, decision, memo, reminder etc. will
follow this path.

• Downward Communication: The Communication that flows from Top to Bottom

is known as downward communication.

• Upward Communication: The Communication that flows from bottom to top,

which is from lower hierarchical level to higher level, is called Upward Communication.

• Lateral Communication: When communication takes place between two or more

persons who are subordinates working under the same person, or those who are
working on the same level, it is called lateral or horizontal communication.

• Diagonal or Crosswise communication: includes flow of information among

persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. This kind of
communication is used to speed up information flow for the achievement of
organizational objectives.

• Informal Communication/ Grapevine : Side by side with the formal channel of

communication every organization has an equally effective channel of communication
that is the informal channel. It is not officially sanctioned, and quite often it is even
discouraged or looked down upon. But, then, it is very much there, and has been given
the name ‘grapevine’ precisely because it runs in all directions horizontal, vertical,
diagonal.

Objectives/Purpose Of Communication
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• The objectives of communication are dynamic and ever-changing. Some of the

common objectives of official communication are to get or give information, to ask for
or give instructions or advice or suggestions, to make requests, to persuade other
people to agree with us.

• Sometimes, we communicate with the intention of complaining, or warning; but

unfortunately, we do this angrily and get into arguments. If we learn to complain and
warn in an acceptable and constructive manner, our serious intention can be conveyed
quite effectively without damaging relationships. In order to caution, counsel, clarify,
apprise, evaluate, reprimand, organize and numerous such objectives, we make use of
communication

Evaluation Of Communication Effectiveness

Communication effectiveness can be examined

in relation to the following criteria:

• Fidelity of Communication- the distortion free quality of a message is called

fidelity. An effective person gets the message across to others with minimal
possibilities of misunderstanding.

• Economy- In an effective communication a minimum of energy time, symbols

and cues are used to encode message without losing its fidelity and impact.

• Congruence- An effective communication integrates both verbal and nonverbal.

• Influence- The most important criterion of effectiveness is the influence that the
communicator is able to exercise over the receiver of the communication. Influence
means the communicator achieve the results he intended.

• Relationship Building- An effective communication contributes to the

building of trust and better relationship between the source and the target.

Seven C’s and Four S’s of Effective Communication

Seven C’s of Effective Communication:

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• Completeness- The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts

required by the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the
receiver’s mind set and convey the message accordingly.

• A complete communication always gives additional information wherever

required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.

• Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the

audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial information.

• Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want

to convey in least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication.
Conciseness is a necessity for effective communication. It is both time-saving as
well as cost-saving.

• It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.

• Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words

to the audience.

• Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.

• Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.

• Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”.

Effective communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s
view points, background, mind-set, education level, etc.

• Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their requirements, emotions as well

as problems.

• Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is maintained and their emotions are
not at harm.

• Emphasize on “you” approach.

• Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience.

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• Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather

than “what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed,
thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.

• Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time,

rather than trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following
features:

• It makes understanding easier.

• Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.

• Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

• Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather

than fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message
has following features:

• It is supported with specific facts and figures.

• It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.

• Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

• Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s
expression as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be
sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following
features:

• Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of

the receiver of the message.

• Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.

• It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.

• It is not at all biased.

• Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no

grammatical errors in communication. Correct communication has following features:

– The message is exact, correct and well-timed.

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– If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.

– Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.

– It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the
message.

– It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

Four S’s of Communication

• 4s of Communication are

• Sincerity

• Simplicity

• Shortness

• Strength

Sincerity

• A sincere approach to an issue is clearly evident to the receiver. If the sender is

genuine, it will be reflected in the manner in which he communicates.

• Suppose there is a small element of deceit involved in the interaction or on the

part of the sender.

• If the receiver is keen and observant, he would be able to sense the make-believe
situation and, business transactions, even if going full swing, would not materialize.

Simplicity

• Simplicity both in the usage of words and ideas reveals clarity in the thinking
process.

• It is normally a tendency that when an individual is himself confused that he tries

to use equally confusing strategies to lead the receiver in a maze.

• Reveal clarity in the thinking process by using simple terminology and equally
simple concepts.
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Shortness

• If the message can be made brief, and verbosity did away with, then transmission
and comprehension of messages are going to be faster and more effective.

• Flooding messages with high sounding words do not create an impact.

• Many people harbor a misconception that they can actually impress the receiver
if they carry on their expeditious travails.

Strength

• The strength of a message emanates from the credibility of the sender.

• If the sender himself believes in a message that he is about to transmit, there is

bound to be strength and conviction in whatever he tries to state.

• Halfhearted statements or utterances that the sender himself does not believe in
add a touch of falsehood to the entire.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• It means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal communication
consists of speaking, listening, writing and reading

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE VERBAL

COMMUNICATION

• Consider the objective

• Be sincere

• Use simple language, familiar words

• Be brief and precise

• assume nothing

• Use polite words and tone

• Say something interesting and pleasing

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• More personal and informal

• Makes immediate impact

• Provides opportunity for interaction and feedback

• Help us correct ourselves (our messages according to the feedback and

non-verbal cues from the listener)

• It is fastest and less expensive can be quickly forgotten.

• A word once uttered cannot be taken back

• There is no legal evidence of oral communication

• Impact may be short lived

• Very difficult to be conscious of our body language

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE VERBAL COMMUNICATION

• STATUS- formal and informal status levels affects effectiveness of face to face
communication

• COMPLEXES- lack of confidence or sense of superiority.

• ABSTRACTING- it is partial and selective listening, leading to loss of information

• LANGUAGE BARRIER- listener should be familiar with the language used by the
speaker.

Nonverbal communication

• includes all unwritten and unspoken messages, both intentional and

unintentional

Types of non verbal communication

• Chronemics: The use of time in communication is chronemics, which speaks

about the personality of the sender / receiver like punctuality, the speed of speech, etc.

• Vocalics: The volume, tone of voice and pitch used by the sender for
communicating a message to the receiver is known as vocalics or paralanguage.
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• Haptics: The use of touch in communication is the expression of feelings and

emotions.

• Kinesics: It is the study of the body language of a person, i.e., gestures, postures,
facial expressions, etc.

• Proxemics: The distance maintained by a person while communicating with

others, communicates about the relationship of the person with others like intimate,
personal, social and public.

• Artifacts: The appearance of a person speaks about his personality, i.e. by way of
clothing, carrying jewellery, lifestyle, etc. This kind of communication is known as
artifactual communication.

Characteristics

Non verbal communication flows through all acts of speaking or writing.

They are the wordless messages .

Is a creative activity , which comes through stimuli produced by the mind.

Importance of non-verbal

communication

A person to have quality communication skills must possess the knowledge of non-
verbal communication.

As compared to words and vocal variety non- verbal communication matters a lot more
that 55% of communication is in form of non verbal communication.

Difference between verbal and non-verbal communication

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Intercultural Communication
• Intercultural communication (or cross-cultural communication) is a discipline
that

studies communication across different cultures and social groups, or how culture
affects communication.
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• It describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that

naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from
different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.

Importance Of Intercultural Communication

• programs that advocate intercultural communication and encourage

healthy communication among employees belonging to various cultures, are required to

help each other adjust easily. This is

extremely important because the environment impacts the efficiency of employees,

local or immigrant.

Purpose Of Intercultural Communication

• Intercultural communication is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between

people from different cultural backgrounds. Basically, 'inter-' is a prefix that means
'between', so intercultural communication is the communication between cultures.

Characteristics Of Intercultural Communication

• The following characteristics are tested and observed for the assessment of
intercultural competence as an existing ability or as the potential to develop it:
ambiguity

tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to

perform, empathy, meta communicative competence.

Main Problems In Intercultural Communication

• Since each culture has its distinct aspects, intercultural communication can be
the cause of conflict and disorder. There are three main issues which are at the root of
the problem of intercultural miscommunication : language as a barrier, cultural diversity
and ethnocentrism.

Types Of Intercultural Communication

• There are basically two types of intercultural communication: Verbal

communication and non-verbal communication.
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Verbal communication consists of words used to communicate messages whereas

non- verbal communication is gestures that give out messages.

Group communication

• Group communication is an extension of interpersonal communication where

more than two individuals are involved in exchange of ideas, skills and interests. A
group is a number of people with a common goal who interact with one another to
accomplish their goals, recognize one another’s existence and see themselves as part
of the group. Groups provide an opportunity for people to come together to discuss and
exchange views of common interest.

Advantages of Group communication

Group communication is considered effective as it provides an opportunity for direct

interaction among the members of the group;

Limitation of group communication

Group communication has limitations too, as group interaction is time consuming and
often inefficient, especially in an emergency.

Besides, imbalances in status, skills and goals, may distort the process and the
outcome sharply.

• Classroom is an excellent example of a place of communication in group

situations where teachers spend hours communicating with students to share
information and knowledge.

• Communication is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. Teaching is a

social activity that involves both the teacher and the learners. It is therefore important ,
that two way communication exists between them in order to trigger learning.

• Moreover direct communication between a teacher and learners allows the

teacher to get immediate feedback that can help him her gauge learners' ,
understanding of what has been taught. Based on such feedback the teacher can
improve his her communication.

• Classroom communication, as discussed in the is purposive, positive and

pragmatic in nature. It takes place between teacher and learners and among learners
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both in formal as well as informal situations. It involves speaking, lecturing, describing,

explaining, illustrating on the part of the teacher and engaging the students in debate,
dialogue and discussion. Learners raise questions, doubts and queries to make their
difficulties explicit which need to be effectively responded to and addressed by the
teacher.

Features of Classroom Communication

• Two-way Communication

• Class Size and Communication

• Individual instruction

• Small group instruction

• Large group instruction

USING TECHNOLOGY IN CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION

• OHP- over head projector

• Audio-Video Resources

• Computer Technology

PLANNING CLASS ROOM COMMUNICATION

• The Role of Teacher

• Design and Presentation

• Developing Classroom Culture

• Developing Communication Skills in Learners

CREATING LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

• Participatory Approach

• Empathy

• Appreciation and Patience

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Barriers to Communication
• Communication is not always successful.

• Certain barriers in communication affect the clarity, accuracy and effectiveness

of the message. These barriers hamper the growth of communication and relegate it to
the status of a conversation where feedback is not expected.

• If either the speaker or the listener has problems in adjusting his frequency with
the co- interactants, barriers would automatically be created.

Semantic/ Language Barriers

• Semantic barriers: Different people assign different meanings to one specific
message. This is due to the problems with meaning, significance, and the sending and
reception of the meaning and content of the massage.

1- Faulty language

2- Defective translation

3- Underlying assumptions not clear 4- Use of technical words or jargon

5- Different evaluation and meanings

Individual/ Emotional/ Psychological Barriers

• Individual barriers : The problem of this barrier arises due to differences in
individual competencies to think and act, which would include physical aliments or
handicaps. It is also because of individual skills in receiving and transmitting
information, which would include poor listening and improper reading skills and adverse
psychological conditions.

1- Premature evaluation

2- In-attention

3- Loss in transmission
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4- Under-reliance on written message 5- Failure of communication

6- Filtering

7- Either or thinking 8- Assumptions

9- Snap reaction

10- Differing perception

Organizational Barriers
• Organizational barriers: This type of barrier develops due to the problems with
physical distance between members with respect to their functional specialization of
tasks, power, authority and status relationship, values held, and ownership of
information.

1- Organizational attitude

2- Organizational rule and regulations 3- Status of relationship

4- Structural complexities

5- Inadequate organizational facilities 6- Noise

Cross Cultural/ Geographic Barriers

• Cross Cultural (geographic) barriers: Culture is a shared set of values and

attributes of a group. The communication barriers are also seen because of time,
geographic locations, and the effects of time upon reception of the message and other
cross cultural factors.

Interpersonal Barriers

• Interpersonal barriers: These barriers also develop in the process of

communication. They are based upon the relationships, values

Physical/ Channel/ Media Barriers

• Physical Barriers/Channel and media barriers: The effectiveness and accuracy of

communication is also affected by the physical barriers like distance, noise or channel
and the media used in the process.
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• In this category, problems that confront the media used in the process. In this
category, problems that confront the issue of how best to communicate a message are
included.

Technological barriers

• Technological barriers: They are barriers which arise due to technological

advancements in the field of communication. Technology generates lot of information,
which is beyond the capacity of the recipient. Further, the media advancements on
account of technological process increase the barriers. The ideas and massage have to
reach from the transmitter to receive in the same sense. If it does not happen, it is on
account of barriers in communication.

Overcoming Communication Barriers: –

• Following points should be kept in mind in order to overcome different
communication barriers: –

1) Constructive environment should be created for expression of ideas.

2) Proper communication channel should be used to transfer idea/information.

3) One should try to maintain a positive attitude while communicating by being

open minded.

4) One should use direct, simple language and avoid words that have more than one
meaning.

5) Free flow of information should take place between different levels both
vertically and horizontally.

6) One should try to understand the idea/information through proper listening

before giving feedback.

Theories and models of communication

• There are different ways to understand the principles and processes that define
communication. The convenient and easy ways from these is through models, as they
act as a descriptive tools to approximate things, which otherwise would have trouble
seeing, imagining or describing.
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• The models of communication

• One way communication process: Linear model

• Two way process Shannon Weaver model of communication Murphy’s model of

Communication

• Berlo’s model of Communication

• Thill and Bovee’s Model

• Over the years, numerous models have been offered as representations of what
is involved when human communicate. Different scholars have put forward different
models of communication, main among them are: –

• Shannon- Weaver Model

• In the year 1949 Cloude Shannon, an electrical engineer and Warren Weaver
propounded a mathematical model of communication. This model particularly explains
electronic communication in a simple linear way which is easily understandable.

• a). Information Source: – It is the beginning of the process. It

• represents some purpose on the part of sender.

• b). Message: – It is the information passing between sender and receiver in the
communication process.

• c). Transmitter: – The sender of message is an encoded form is known as

transmitter.

• d). Noise Source: – The model recognizes the potential of noise in distorting the
message while transfer through channel.

• e). Reception: – He is the person to whom communication is passed

• a). Context: – Context is a broad field that includes country, culture, organization,
internal & external cause of action and every message weather oral or written begins
with context.

• b). Sender Encoder: – The second- encoder used symbols, usually words, to
express the message and create desired response. c). Message: – The message is the
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core idea the sender wishes to communicate. It consists of both verbal and nonverbal
symbols. d). Medium: – It is the channel through which a message is communicated. It
can be printed word, e – mail, sound or gesture. e). Receiver decoder: – The
receiver/listener is the person who receives the message and decodes it. f). Feedback:
– It can be oral or written. It can be an action such as receiving an ordered item. Sender
needs feedback in order to determine the success or failure of the communication.

• Thill and Bovee Model: –

• According to Thill and Bovee communication model, business communication is

more than a single act. It is a chain of events consisting of five phases linking sender
and receiver.

• a). Idea: – The sender has an idea. In the process of conceiving an idea about the
real world, the senderleaves out many things but

• assumes some things. This means idea in the mind of sender is a simplification
of the real world.

• b). Message: – The idea in the mind of sender is transformed into words and
thus becomes a message. The message may be expressed in many ways.

• c). Message is transmitted: – The 3rd step in the process is

physicaltransmission of the message through verbal or non-verbal channel, from sender
to receiver.

• d). Receiver gets Message: – For communication to occur, the receiver has to get
the message, and understand the message and store the message mentally.

• e). Feedback: – The receiver reacts after receiving the message and sends
feedback. Feedback is a key element in the communication process because it
enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Then the process is
repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves.

Meaning of Mass Media

• Outside the realm of interpersonal communication exists another form of
communication, which involves communication with mass audiences and hence the
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name mass communication; and the channels through which this kind of
communication takes place are referred to as mass media.

• Mass communication is the term used to describe the academic study of various
means by which individuals and entities relay information to large segments of the
population all at once through mass media.

• Mass communication can also be defined as ‘a process whereby mass produced

messages are transmitted to large, anonymous and heterogeneous masses of
receivers’. By ‘mass produced’ we mean putting the content or message of mass
communication in a form suitable to be distributed to large masses of people.

• ‘Heterogeneous’ means that the individual members of the mass are from a wide
variety of classes of the society. means the individuals in the mass do not know each
other. The source or sender of message in mass communication does not know the
individual members of the mass. Also the receivers in mass communication are
physically separated from each other and share no physical proximity.

Elements of Mass communication

• It is observed that the term mass communication must have at least five
aspects:

• Large audience

• Fairly undifferentiated audience composition

• Some form of message reproduction

• Rapid distribution and delivery

• Low cost to the consumers

Characteristics
• Directs messages toward relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous
audience.

• Messages are transmitted publicly no privacy.

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• Short duration message for immediate consumption

• Feedback is indirect, non-existent or delayed

• Cost per exposure per individual is minimum

• Source belongs to organization or institutions

• Mostly one way

Types of mass media

• Mass media can be classified according to their physical form, the technology
involved and the nature of the communication process.

• The general classification on this basis is as follows:

• Traditional Media- The traditional arts and folk arts combine several art forms
like dance, music, songs and theater to attract audiences. The performances are
spontaneous and most often made on the spot.

• Print Media Print media served as the major means of communication reaching a
wide audience. Major forms of print media are :

• Newspapers

• Magazines and periodicals

• Books

• Electronic Media- The history of electronic media starts with the invention of
cinematographe by Lumiere Brothers who conducted the premier show of cinema in
1895. Later radio was invented by Guglielmo Marconi. The first radio station was set up
in Pittsburg, New York and Chicago in the 1920s.

• In short, the term electronic media mainly include Film , Radio & Television.

• New Media/Social Media & Others- Internet and the World Wide Web opened up
several new avenues for mass communication which include e-mail, websites,
podcasts,
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e-books, blogging, social networking sites, Internet Protocol Television, Internet radio
and the like. These kinds of online and digital means of producing, transmitting and
receiving messages are called new media.

• Social media has brought different people from the different geographical area
on one platform on which they can share their feeling, ideas, emotions, information and
much more.

• The Manifold social networking sites like Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram,

Twitter, LinkedIn, Google +, and others open the door to share ideas, views, and
thoughts on the same platform.

Functions of mass media

• In a society like ours, mass media have a responsible role to play in fostering
democracy, plurality and communal harmony through the functions listed below.

• Information and education.

• Socialization

• Entertainment

• Political awareness

• Cultural transmission

• Catalyst to development

Role of Mass Media in Society

• Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken—that
reaches a large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the
Internet, newspapers, magazines, and so forth.

• Mass media is a significant force in modern culture. Sociologists refer to this as

a mediated culture where media reflects and creates the culture. Communities and
individuals are bombarded constantly with messages from a multitude of sources
including TV, billboards, and magazines, to name a few. These messages promote not
only products, but moods, attitudes, and a sense of what is and is not important.
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Mass Media Effects Theories

• Three main sociological perspectives on the role of media exist:

• the limited-effects theory,

• the class-dominant theory,

• and the culturalist theory.

Limited-effects theory

The limited-effects theory argues that because people generally choose what to watch
or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence. This
theory originated and was tested in the 1940s and 1950s.

Class-dominant theory

• The class-dominant theory argues that the media reflects and projects the view
of a minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the
corporations that produce media comprise this elite.

Culturalist theory

The culturalist theory, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other two
theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of
the images and messages they receive. This theory sees audiences as playing an active
rather than passive role in relation to mass media. One strand of research focuses on
the audiences and how they interact with media; the other strand of research focuses
on those who produce the media, particularly the news.

Importance of Mass media

-Pervasiveness of Mass Media

-Mass Communication Informs

-Mass Media Entertains

-Mass Communication Persuades

-Mass Communication Binds

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Disadvantage of Mass Media

• Spreading fake news rapidly.

• It leads to individualism.

• Some media contents are not suitable for children.

• It can lead to ruin of reputation.

• It can lead to personal injury due to stunts.

• Health problems.

• It glamorize drugs and alcohol.

Unit-7 Data Interpretation

Sources, acquisition and classification of Data

Meaning and Definition of Data Interpretation

• Data Interpretation is the process of making sense out of a collection of data that
has been processed.

• This collection may be present in various forms like bar graphs, line charts and
tabular forms and other similar forms and hence needs an interpretation of some kind.

• Data interpretation is nothing but drawing conclusions and inferences from a

comprehensive data presented numerically in

tabular form by means of an illustration, viz. Graphs, Pie Chart etc.

• Thus the act of organizing and interpreting data to get meaningful information is
Data Interpretation.

Sources of Data

• Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a variable. Data is

plural of datum which literally means to give or something given.
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• Data is thought to be the lowest unit of information from which other

measurements and analysis can be done.

• Data can be numbers, images, words, figures, facts or ideas.

• Data in itself cannot be understood and to get information from the data one
must interpret it into meaningful information.

• There are various methods of interpreting data.

• Data sources are broadly classified into primary and secondary data.

• Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for the
purpose in mind.

• It means someone collected the data from the original source first hand.

• Data collected this way is called primary data.

• Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and
objective.

• Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore its
validity is greater than secondary data

• Secondary data is the data that has been already collected by and readily
available from other sources.

• When we use Statistical Method with Primary Data from another purpose for our
purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data. It means that one purposes Primary Data is
another purposes Secondary Data.

• So that secondary data is data that is being reused. Such data are more quickly
obtainable than the primary data.

• These secondary data may be obtained from many sources, including literature,
industry surveys, compilations from computerized databases and information systems,
and computerized or mathematical models of environmental processes.

Sources of Data in Statistics

• There are two sources of data in Statistics.

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• Statistical sources- refer to data that are collected for some official purposes
and include censuses and officially conducted surveys.

• Non-statistical sources- refer to the data that are collected for other
administrative purposes or for the private sector.

Some Important Keywords

• Statistical Survey

• A statistical Survey is normally conducted using a sample. It is also called

Sample Survey. It is the method of collecting sample data and analyzing it using
statistical methods. This is done to make estimations about population characteristics.
The advantage is that it gives you full control over the data. Y

• You can ask questions suited to the study you are carrying out. But, the
disadvantage is that there is a chance of sample error creeping up. This is because a
sample is chosen and the entire population is not studied. Leaving out some units of the
population while choosing the sample causes this error to arise.

• Census

• Opposite to a sample survey, a census is based on all items of the population

and then data are analyzed. Data collection happens for a specific reference period. For
example, the Census of India is conducted every 10 years. Other censuses are
conducted roughly every 5-10 years. Data is collected using questionnaires that may be
mailed to the respondents.

• Responses can also be collected over other modes of communication like the
telephone. An advantage is that even the most remote of the units of the population get
included in the census method. The major disadvantage lies in the high cost of data
collection and that it is a time- consuming process.

• Register

• Registers are basically storehouses of statistical information from which data

can be collected and analysis can be made. Registers tend to be detailed and extensive.
It is beneficial to use data from here as it is reliable. Two or more registers can be linked
together based on common information for even more relevant data collection.
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• From agriculture to business, all industries maintain registers for record-keeping.

Some administrative registers also serve the purpose of acting as a repository of data
for other statistical bodies in a country.

Acquisition of Data

• Acquisition of primary data-

• Primary data can be acquired from the sources such as

• Personal investigation: The surveyor collects the data himself/herself. The data
so collected is reliable but is suited for small projects.

• Collection Via Investigators: Trained investigators are employed to contact the

respondents to collect data.

• Questionnaires: Questionnaires may be used to ask specific questions that suit

the study and get responses from the respondents. These questionnaires may be
mailed as well.

• Telephonic Investigation: The collection of data is done through asking questions

over the telephone to give quick and accurate information.

• Schedules sent through Enumerators: Under this method enumerators or

interviewers take the schedules, meet the informants and filling their replies.

• Acquisition of secondary data-

The sources of secondary data can broadly be classified under two heads:

1. Published sources, and

2. Unpublished sources.

Published Sources: The various sources of published data are: Clinical and other
personal records, death certificates, published mortality statistics, census publications,
etc.

Examples include:

1. Official publications of Central Statistical Authority

2. Publication of Ministry of Health and Other Ministries

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3. News Papers and Journals and technical publications..

4. International Publications like Publications by WHO, World Bank, UNICEF

5. Records of hospitals or any Health Institutions.

6. Data published by Chambers of Commerce and trade associations and boards.

2. Unpublished Sources All statistical material is

not always published. There are various sources of unpublished data such as records
maintained by various Government and private offices, studies made by research
institutions, scholars, etc. Such sources can also be used where necessary

• Precautions in the use of Secondary data

The following are some of the points that are to be considered in the use of secondary
data

1. How the data has been collected and processed

2. The accuracy of the data

3. How far the data has been summarized

4. How comparable the data is with other tabulations

5. How to interpret the data, especially when figures collected for one purpose is
used for another Generally speaking, with secondary data, people have to compromise
between what they want and what they are able to find.

Classification of Data

• The collected data, also known as raw data or ungrouped data are always in an
un organized form and need to be organized and presented in meaningful and readily
comprehensible form in order to facilitate further statistical analysis.

• It is, therefore, essential for an investigator to condense a mass of data into

more and more comprehensible and assailable form.

• The process of grouping into different classes or sub classes according to some
characteristics is known as classification, tabulation is concerned with the systematic
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arrangement and presentation of classified data. Thus classification is the first step in
tabulation.

• For Example, letters in the post office are classified according to their
destinations viz., Delhi, Madurai, Bangalore, Mumbai etc.,

• Objects of Classification:

• The following are main objectives of classifying the data:

• 1. It condenses the mass of data in an easily assimilable form.

• 2. It eliminates unnecessary details.

• 3. It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant aspect of data.

• 4. It enables one to get a mental picture of the information and helps in drawing
inferences.

• 5. It helps in the statistical treatment of the information collected.

• Types of classification:
• Statistical data are classified in respect of their

characteristics.

• Broadly there are four basic types of classification namely

a) Chronological classification

b) Geographical classification

c) Qualitative classification

d) Quantitative classification

a) Chronological classification: In chronological classification the collected data are

arranged according to the order of time expressed in years, months, weeks, etc., The
data is generally classified in ascending order of time.

Example- The estimates of birth rates in India during 1970 – 76 are

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b) Geographical classification: In this type of

classification the data are classified according to geographical region or place. For
instance, the production of paddy in different states in Iraq, production of wheat in
different

c) Qualitative classification: In this type of classification data are classified on the

basis of same attributes or quality like sex, literacy, religion, employment etc., Such
attributes cannot be measured along with a scale. For example, if the population to be
classified in respect to one attribute, say sex, then we can classify them into two namely
that of males and females. Similarly, they can also be classified into ‘married or ‘ single’
on the basis of another attribute ‘marital status’.

Thus when the classification is done with

respect to one attribute, which is dichotomous in nature, two classes are formed, one
possessing the attribute and the other not possessing the attribute.

This type of classification is called simple or dichotomous classification.

A simple classification may be as Population – Male and Female

• The classification, where two or more attributes are considered and several
classes are formed, is called a manifold classification.

• For example, if we classify population simultaneously with respect to two

attributes,
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e.g gender and marital status, then population are first classified with respect to ‘
gender’ into ‘ males’ and ‘ females’.

• Each of these classes may then be further classified into ‘ married’ and single on
the basis of attribute ‘ marital status’ and as such Population are classified into four
classes namely. (i) Male married (ii) Male single (iii) Female married (iv) Female single

• Still the classification may be further extended by considering other attributes

like employment etc.

d) Quantitative classification: Quantitative

classification refers to the classification of data according to some characteristics that

can be measured such as height, weight, etc., For example the group of a children may
be classified according to weight as given below

Tabulation of Data

• Tabulation is the process of summarizing classified or grouped data in the form

of a table so that it is easily understood and an investigator is quickly able to locate the
desired information.

• A table is a systematic arrangement of classified data in columns and rows.

• Thus, a statistical table makes it possible for the investigator to present a huge
mass of data in a detailed and orderly form.
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• It facilitates comparison and often reveals certain patterns in data which are
otherwise not obvious.

• Classification and ‘ Tabulation’ , as a matter of fact, are not two distinct

processes. Actually they go together. Before tabulation data are classified and then
displayed under different columns and rows of table.

Example-

Table: Overall immunization status of children in a school

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

• Quantitative data are the result

of counting or measuring attributes of a population.

• Quantitative data are always numbers.

• Example- Amount of money you have Height

Weight

Number of people living in your town Number of students who take statistics

• Strengh-

• Specific Quantitative data is clear and specific to the survey conducted.

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• High Reliability If collected properly, quantitative data is normally accurate and

hence highly reliable.

• Easy communication Quantitative data is easy to communicate and elaborate

using charts, graphs etc.

• Existing support Many large datasets may be already present that can be
analyzed to check the relevance of the survey.

• Weakness-

• Limited Options - Respondents are required to choose from limited options.

• High Complexity - Qualitative data may need complex procedures to get correct
sample.

• Require Expertise - Analysis of qualitative data requires certain expertise in

statistical analysis.

Qualitative data

• Qualitative data are the result

of categorizing or describing attributes of a population.

• Qualitative data are generally described by words or letters.

• Example- Hair color Blood type

Ethnic group

The car a person drives

The street a person lives on

• Strengh-

• Better understanding - Qualitative data gives a better understanding of the

perspectives and needs of participants.

• Provides Explaination - Qualitative data along with quantitative data can explain
the result of the survey and can measure the correction of the quantitative data.
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• Better Identification of behavior patterns - Qualitative data can provide detailed

information which can prove itself useful in identification of behaviorial patterns.

• Weakness-

• Lesser reachability - Being subjective in nature, small population is generally

covered to represent the large population.

• Time Consuming - Qualitative data is time consuming as large data is to be

understood.

• Possiblity of Bias - Being subjective analysis; evaluator bias is quite feasible.

• Researchers often prefer to use quantitative data over qualitative data because it
lends itself more easily to mathematical analysis. For example, it does not make sense
to find an average hair color or blood type.

• Quantitative data may be either discrete or continuous.

• All data that are the result of counting are called quantitative discrete data.
These data take on only certain numerical values.

• If you count the number of phone calls you receive for each day of the week,
you might

get values such as zero, one, two, or three.

• All data that are the result of measuring are quantitative continuous data
assuming that we can measure accurately. Measuring

angles in radians might result in such numbers as pi6,pi3,pi2,pi,3pi4pi6,pi3,pi2,pi,3pi4 ,

and so on.

• If you and your friends carry backpacks with books in them to school, the
numbers of books in the backpacks are discrete data and

the weights of the backpacks are continuous data.

• The data are the number of books students carry in their backpacks. You sample
five students.
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• Two students carry three books, one student carries four books, one student
carries two books, and one

student carries one book. The numbers of books (three, four, two, and one) are the
quantitative discrete data.

• The data are the weights of backpacks with books in them. You sample the same
five students. The weights (in pounds) of their backpacks are 6.2, 7, 6.8, 9.1, 4.3. Notice
that backpacks carrying three books can have different weights. Weights are
quantitative continuous data because weights are measured.

• The data are the colors of backpacks. Again, you sample the same five students.
One student has a red backpack, two students

have black backpacks, one student has a green backpack, and one student has a gray

Graphical Representation
Introduction
• Statistics is a special subject that deals with large (usually) numerical data. The
statistical data can be represented graphically. In fact, the graphical representation of
statistical data is an essential step during statistical analysis. Statistical surveys and
experiments provides valuable information about numerical scores.

• For better understanding and making conclusions and interpretations, the data
should be managed and organized in a systematic form.

• A graph is the representation of data by using graphical symbols such as lines,

bars, pie slices, dots etc.

• A graph does represent a numerical data in the form of a qualitative structure

and provides important information.

Bar Graphs or Bar-chart

Given quantities can be compared by the height or length of a bar graph. A bar graph
can have either vertical or horizontal bars. You can compare different quantities or the
same quantity at different times. In bar graph the data is discrete.
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Presentation of data in this form makes evaluation of parameters comparatively very

easy.

A bar graph is a pictorial representation of data in the form of bars or buildings on a

graph.

A bar graph is nothing but a pictorial representation of data wherein every independent
variable attains only discrete value.

They are used for representing various types of data.

The bar graph is one of the frequent methods used to present various types of data. It is
usually asked in the data interpretation section of the competitive exams. In data
interpretation, it is the representation of data where the vertical bars are placed at equal
distance from each other. The value of the data represented is given by the height and
length of the bars. The width here is not important it is only used so that the
presentation is clear.

• They are plotted against the horizontal axis known as the x-axis. The value can
be shown by coloured or shaded vertical bars of equal

width. In a horizontal bar graph, the values are plotted against the vertical axis called
the y- axis. They are commonly used as the data can be easily analyzed.

Types

There are types of bar graphs used to represent the data. They are as follows.

1. Simple bar graph

2. Composite bar graph

3. Stacked bar chart

4. Bar charts to show deviation

• Simple Bar Chart

• As the name suggests simple bar chart is the simplest bar graph of all. It is used
to describe one continuous variable along with the one discrete value. The figure below
shows the proper representation of a simple bar chart.
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• Composite Bar Chart

• To solve the limitation of simple bar chart composite bar chart is used. We use a
composite bar chart to show two or more than two continuous variables on the same
graph. This is the figure below that describes how a composite bar- chart looks like.

• Stacked Bar Chart

• Stacked bar charts are used to represent the break-up of the content for
continuous variables. It is very convenient to use it for comparing different sets of data.
It can be used to represent factors such as revenues, profits, losses over a period of
couple years. The figure below describes the same.
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• Bar Charts to Show Deviation

• Mostly bar charts are used to show the deviation. And that is why the bar charts
that are used to show the deviation are very common. Deviation charts can show the
deficit as well as the surplus, imports, and exports, etc. It is usually required to represent
the positive as well as negative values of the continuous variables.

Histograms

• A histogram is an accurate representation of the distribution of numerical data. It

is an estimate of the probability distribution of a continuous variable (CORAL ) and was
first introduced by Karl Pearson. It differs from a bar graph, in the sense that a bar graph
relates two variables, but a histogram relates only one.
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• To construct a histogram, the first step is to "bin" (or "bucket") the range of
values—that is, divide the entire range of values into a

series of intervals—and then count how many values fall into each interval. The bins are
usually specified as consecutive, non- overlapping intervals of a variable. The bins
(intervals) must be adjacent, and are often (but are not required to be) of equal size.

• Histograms are sometimes confused with bar charts. A histogram is used for
continuous data, where the bins represent ranges of data, while

a bar chart is a plot of categorical variables. Some authors recommend that bar charts
have gaps between the rectangles to clarify the distinction.

• The words used to describe the patterns in a histogram are: "symmetric",

"skewed left" or "right", "unimodal", "bimodal" or "multimodal".

Pie charts

• A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a

circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportion.

• Pie charts are different types of data presentation. This data is presented in the
form of a circle.
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• There are segments and sectors into which a pie chart is being divided and each
of these segments and sectors forms a certain portion of the total(in terms of
percentage).

• In the pie-chart, the total of all the data is equal to 360 degrees. The degree of
angles that are used to represent different items are calculated in the form of
proportionality.

• In pie charts, the entire diagram looks like a pie and the components in it
resembles the various slices cut from the pie.

• The pie-chart is thus used to show the break-up of one continuous variable
into its components parts.

• Variants and similar charts- 3D pie chart and perspective pie cake, Doughnut
chart, Exploded pie chart, Polar area diagram, Ring chart, sunburst chart, and multilevel
pie chart, Spie chart.

Table Chart
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A table is an arrangement of data in rows and columns, or possibly in a more complex

structure.

Tables are widely used

in communication, research, and data analysis. Tables appear in print media,

handwritten notes, computer software, architectural ornamentation, traffic signs, and
many other places.

• The precise conventions and terminology for describing tables vary depending on
the context. Further, tables differ significantly in variety, structure, flexibility, notation,
representation and use.

• Table charts display raw data in rows and columns. You can display individual
data rows, or use grouping or aggregation. There is no limit for dimensions or measures
on Table charts. You can view more aggregated measures in a table

chart than most other chart types.

Line Chart

• A line chart or line plot or line graph is a type

of chart which displays information as a series of data points called 'markers'

connected by straight line segments.

• It is a basic type of chart common in many fields. It is similar to a scatter

plot except that the measurement points are ordered (typically by their x-axis value) and
joined with straight line segments.
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• A line chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time – a
time series – thus the line is often drawn chronologically. In these cases they are known
as run charts.

Mapping of Data

• Data mapping is a process used in data warehousing by which different data

models are linked to each other using a defined set of

methods to characterize the data in a specific definition.

• This definition can be any atomic unit, such as a unit of metadata or any other
semantic.

• This data linking follows a set of standards, which depends on the domain value
of the data model used.

Data mapping serves as the initial step in data integration.

• The technique involves evaluating data values in different data sources, as

well as automatically and simultaneously discovering complex mappings between the
sets.
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• Data mapping is also used to consolidate multiple databases into a single

database.

Data and Governance

Data Governance relates to the strategies used for availability, applicability, integrity,
and security of data. It deal with the framework and policies for storing, encrypting,
taking back up of data, accessing and using data, protecting the privacy, etc.

Data governance (DG) is the overall management of the availability, usability, integrity
and security of data. A sound data governance program includes a governing body or
council, a defined set of procedures and a plan to execute those procedures.

• Data governance implementation

The initial step in implementing a data governance framework involves defining the
owners or custodians of the data assets in the enterprise.

This role is called data stewardship.

Processes must then be defined to effectively cover how the data will be stored,
archived, backed up and protected from mishaps, theft or attacks.

A set of standards and procedures must be developed that defines how the data is to
be used by authorized personnel.

Moreover, a set of controls and audit procedures must be put into place that ensures
ongoing compliance with internal data policies and external government regulations,
and that guarantees data is used in a consistent manner across multiple enterprise
applications.

Once an overarching strategy is defined and data owners and custodians are identified,
data governance teams are often formed to implement policies and procedures for
handling data.

These teams can comprise business managers, data managers and staff, as well as
end users familiar with relevant data domains within the organization.

Associations dedicated to promoting best practices in such data governance processes

include the Data Governance Institute, the Data Management Association (DAMA) and
the Data Governance Professionals Organization.
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Goals of data governance

• Increasing consistency and confidence in decision making

• Decreasing the risk of mishaps and security breach

• Improving data security, also defining and verifying the requirements for data
distribution policies

• Designating accountability for information quality

• Enable better planning for data handling and confidentiality

• Minimizing or eliminating re-work

Open Government Data (OGD)

Platform India [Link] - is a platform for supporting Open Data initiative of
Government of India.

The portal is intended to be used by Government of India Ministries/ Departments their

organizations to publish datasets, documents, services, tools and applications collected
by them for public use.

It intends to increase transparency in the functioning of Government and also open

avenues for many more innovative uses of Government Data to give different
perspective.

• The base Open Government Data Platform India is a joint initiative of

Government of India and US Government.

• Open Government Data Platform India is also packaged as a product and made
available in open source for implementation by countries globally.

• The entire product is available for download at the Open Source Code Sharing
Platform "GitHub".

• Open Government Data Platform India has 4 (four) major modules, as detailed
below
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• Data Management System (DMS) – Module for contributing data catalogs by

various government agencies for making those available on the front end website after
a due approval process through a defined workflow.

• Content Management System (CMS) – Module for managing and updating

various functionalities and content types of the Open Government Data Platform India
Platform.

• Visitor Relationship Management (VRM) – Module for collating and

disseminating viewer feedback on various data catalogs.

• Communities – Module for community users to interact and share their zeal and
views with others, who share common interests as that of theirs.

Unit-8 Paper Code-01

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global collection of computer networks that are linked together by
devices called routers and use a common set of protocols for data transmission known
as TCP/IP (transmission control protocol / Internet protocol).

The primary purpose of the Internet is to facilitate the sharing of information. There are
many different tools used on the Internet to make this possible. Some of the more
common tools include email, listservs, newsgroups, telnet, gopher, FTP, and the world
wide web. Probably the most popular of all Internet tools is the world wide web.

What is the World Wide Web (WWW)?

The WWW is a collection of Internet sites that can be accessed by using a hypertext
interface. Hypertext documents on the web contain links to other documents located
anywhere on the web. By clicking on a link, you are immediately taken to another file or
site to access relevant materials. The interesting thing about Hypertext links is that the
links might take you to related material on another computer

located anywhere in the world, rather than just to a file on your local hard drive.
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Basic WWW Concepts

BROWSER -

A WWW browser is software on your computer that allows you to access the World
Wide Web. Examples include Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer.
Please know that a

browser can’t work its magic unless you are somehow connected to the Internet. At
home, that is normally accomplished by using a modem that is attached to your
computer and your phone line and allows you to connect to, or dial-up, an Internet
Service Provider (ISP). At work, it may be accomplished by connecting your workplace’s
local area network to the Internet by using a router and a high speed data line.

HYPERTEXT AND HYPERMEDIA -

Hypertext is text that contains electronic links to other text. In other words, if you click
on hypertext it will take you to other related material. In addition, most WWW
documents contain more than just text. They may include pictures, sounds, animations,
and movies.

Documents with links that contain more than just text are called hypermedia.

HTML (HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE) -

HTML is a set of commands used to create world wide web documents. The
commands allow the document creator to define the parts of the document. For
example, you may have text marked as headings, paragraphs, bulleted text, footers, etc.
There are also commands that let you import images, sounds, animations, and movies
as well as commands that let you specify links to other documents. If you wanted to
create your own web page, you would need to know HTML or be able to use a tool that
can generate HTML such as Claris HomePage or Adobe PageMill.

URL (UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR) -

Links between documents are achieved by using an addressing scheme. That is, in
order to link to another document or item (sound, picture, movie), it must have an
address. That address is called its URL. The URL identifies the host computer name,
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directory path, and file name of the item. It also identifies the protocol used to locate
the item such as hypertext, gopher, ftp, telnet or news.

HTTP (HYPERTEXT TRANPORT PROTOCOL) -

HTTP is the protocol used to transfer hypertext

or hypermedia documents.

HOME PAGE -

A home page is usually the starting point for locating information at a WWW site.

CLIENTS AND SERVERS -

If a computer has a web browser installed, it is known as a client. A host computer that
is capable of providing information to others is called a server. A server requires special
software in order to provide web documents to others.

Types of Internet Service

• Dial-up: Dial-up Internet uses your phone line, so unless you have multiple phone
lines you will not be able to use your landline and the Internet at the same time.

• DSL: DSL service uses a broadband connection, which makes it much faster than
dial-up. DSL connects to the Internet via a phone line but does not require you to have a
landline at home. And unlike dial-up, you'll be able to use the Internet and your phone
line at the same time.

• Cable: Cable service connects to the Internet via cable TV, although you do not
necessarily need to have cable TV in order to get it. It uses a broadband connection and
can be faster than both dial-up and DSL service; however, it is only available where cable
TV is available.

• Satellite: A satellite connection uses broadband but does not require cable or
phone lines; it connects to the Internet through satellites orbiting the Earth. As a result,
it can be used almost anywhere in the world, but the connection may be affected by
weather patterns. Satellite connections are also usually slower than DSL or cable.

• 3G and 4G: 3G and 4G service is most commonly used with mobile phones, and it
connects wirelessly through your ISP's network. However, these types of connections
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aren't always as fast as DSL or cable. They will also limit the amount of data you can
use each month, which isn't the case with most broadband plans.

Modem

Hardware
Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to
connect to the Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem.

The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type of modem you need.
Dial-up access uses a telephone

modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem, cable access uses a cable modem, and
satellite service uses a satellite adapter. Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a
fee—when you sign a contract, which helps ensure that you have the right type of
modem.

However, if you would prefer to shop for a better or less expensive modem, you can
choose to buy one separately.

Router
A router is a hardware device that allows you to

connect several computers and other devices to a single Internet connection, which is
known as a home network. Many routers are wireless, which allows you to create a
home wireless network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.

You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's possible to
connect your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also, many
modems include a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a Wi-Fi network
without buying extra hardware.

Internet Protocol

TCP/IP protocols
In order for a computer to communicate on the Internet, a set of rules or protocols
computers must follow to exchange messages was developed. The two most important
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protocols allowing computers to transmit data on the Internet are Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). With these protocols, virtually all computers
can communicate with each other. For instance, if a user is running Windows on a PC,
he or she can communicate with iPhones.

Domain Name System (DNS)

The domain name system (DNS) is the way that internet domain names are located and
translated into internet protocol (IP) addresses. The domain name system maps the
name people use to locate a website to the IP address that a computer uses to locate a
website.

Top-level domain names include:

• .com Commercial

• .edu Educational

• .gov Government

• .int Organization

• .mil Military

• .net Networking Providers

• .org Non-profit Organization

Domain name country codes include, but are not limited to:

• .in India

• .au Australia

• .de Germany

• .fr France

• .nl Netherlands

• .uk United Kingdom

• .us United States

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An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. An intranet is a

private network accessible only to an organization's staff

It may consist of many interlinked local area networks and also use leased lines in the
wide area network.

Typically, an intranet includes connections through one or more gateway computers to

the outside Internet.

Uses
• Intranets are being used to deliver tools, or sophisticated corporate
directories, sales and customer relationship management tools, project management
etc., to advance productivity.

• Intranets are also being used as corporate culture- change platforms.

• To track overall activity and understood it by using web metrics.

• For implementing network firewalls and enhancing the security and safety of
overall user experience.

• For improving and facilitating communication among co-workers.

Benefits
• Workforce productivity

• Improves internal communication

• Connects your company across locations and time zones

• Helps employees find information

• Boosts recognition and reward

• Simplifies employee onboarding

• Provides organizational clarity

• Encourages knowledge sharing

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• Reinforces your brand and values

• Reduces emails and meetings

Difference between internet and intranet

• The Internet provides unlimited information which can be viewed by everyone
whereas, in Intranet, data circulates within the organization.

• The Internet provides access to everyone whereas, Intranet permits authenticate

users only.

• The Internet is not owned by any single or multiple organization, whereas,

Intranet is a private network that belongs to a firm or an institution.

• The Internet is available to all whereas, Intranet is restricted.

• An intranet is safer as compared to the Internet.

Extranet
• An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public
telecommunication system to securely share part of a business's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. An
extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users outside
the company.

• Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that
is exchanged between two users

over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may contain text, files,
images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group
of individuals.

• The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971.

Advantages of e-mail
• Free delivery - Sending an e-mail is virtually free, outside the cost of Internet
service. There is no need to buy a postage stamp to send a letter.
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• Global delivery - E-mail can be sent to nearly anywhere around the world, to any
country.

• Instant delivery - An e-mail can be instantly sent and received by the recipient
over the Internet.

• File attachment - An e-mail can include one or more file attachments, allowing a
person to send documents, pictures, or other files with an e- mail.

• Long-term storage - E-mails are stored electronically, which allows for storage
and archival over long periods of time.

• Environmentally friendly-Sending an e-mail does not require paper (paperless),

cardboard, or packing tape, conserving paper resources.

Important Terminology related to Email

• Cc: A Cc, short for "carbon copy", is a copy of an email message sent to a
recipient whose email address appears in the message's Cc header field.

• Email Address: An email address is a name for an electronic postbox that can
receive (and send) email messages on a network (such as the internet or a local
network not connected to the wider internet).

• Email Body: The email body is the main part of an email message that contains
the message’s text, images and other data (such as attached files).

• Email Client: An email client is a program (on a computer or mobile device, for
example) used to read and send electronic messages.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP, short for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol, is the protocol used for email on the Internet. It defines a message format and
a procedure to route messages through the Internet from source to destination via
email servers.

• IMAP (Internet Messaging Access Protocol): IMAP, short for Internet Messaging
Access Protocol, is an internet standard that describes a protocol for retrieving mail
from an email (IMAP) server. IMAP allows email programs to access not only new
messages but also folders on the server. Actions are synchronized between multiple
email programs connected through IMAP.
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• Mailto: Mailto is an HTML tag that allows visitors to a site to click on a link that
creates a new message in their default email program. It is possible to set not only a
default email recipient but also default Subject and message body content.

• Phishing: Phishing is a fraudulent practice in which private data is captured on

websites or through an email designed to look like a trusted third party. Typically,
phishing (from "password fishing") scams involve an email alerting the user to a
problem with their bank or another account.

• POP (Post Office Protocol): POP (Post Office Protocol) is an internet standard
that defines an email server and a way to retrieve mail from it. In contrast to IMAP, POP
only lets the email client download recent messages, to be managed in the program and
on the device.

• Spam: Spam is unsolicited email. Not all unsolicited email is spam, however.
Most spam is sent in bulk to a large number of email addresses and advertises some
product or—considerably less often—political viewpoint.

• Spammer: A spammer is a person or entity (such as a company) that sends

spam emails

• To: The To: line of an email contains its primary recipient or recipients. All
recipients in the To: line is visible to all other recipients, possibly by default.

• Unicode: Unicode is a way to represent characters and symbols on computers

and devices with support for most of the world's writing systems (including African,
Arabic, Asian and Western).

• Subject: The "Subject" of an email message should be a short summary of its

contents. Email programs usually display it in a mailbox display together with the
sender.

• Threadjacking: Threadjacking (also threadwhacking) is to steer off the original

topic in an email thread, especially on a mailing list. Threadjacking can also apply to
other conversations on the internet, of course, say on message boards, blogs or social
networking
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sites. Whether the threadjacker changes the subject line to reflect the change in subject
or retains the original email subject, to take over a thread can be regarded as
threadjacking in either case.

• Worm: A worm is a program or script that replicates itself and moves through a
network, typically traveling by sending new copies of itself via email. Many worms have
no negative effect except resource consumption, but some will perform malicious
actions.

Introduction

• Video conferencing (or video conference) means to conduct a conference

between two or more participants at different sites by

using computer networks to transmit audio and video data

• Multipoint video conferencing allows three or more participants to sit in a virtual

conference room and communicate as if they were sitting right next to each other.

Components of Video Conference

Videoconferencing has three essential components:

1. The Hardware.

2. The intervening network that carries the signals between sites.

3. The conference environment or room.

The Hardware

Basic equipment needed for a video conference session include a camera, microphone,
a video conferencing unit, display unit, and audio system

• Camera

• Microphone

• Video Conferencing Unit- The VC unit usually referred as the codec

(Coder/Decoder) accepts the vision and sound signals (video and audio) and processes
them into a suitable format for transmission through the network to the remote site.
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• Display Unit- A display unit can be either a TV unit or a projector projecting onto a
surface.

• Audio System – A good audio system is ideal for video conferencing. A good
audio system with mixer, amplifier and speakers might be required.

The Network

• Video conferencing technology works across internet protocol (IP) networks and
integrated system digital network (ISDN).

• Through these vast networks, videoconferencing has the capabilities for

connectivity to worldwide audiences.

The Conference Environment

• Lighting is an easy way to improve picture quality. If the room is not specially
built or equipped for video conferencing, it is probable that there are not enough lights
to provide the optimum quality for the video conference cameras.

Benefits of Video Conferencing

1. Sharing of presentations

2. It allows immediate, full two way communication of content; verbal, pictorial

objects etc.

3. Greater access to experts/specialists (nationally and internationally)

4. More productive use of time (eliminates wasted travel time) and significant travel
cost savings.

5. Reduced environmental impact through less travel and reduced pressure, stress
and fatigue from travel.

6. Facilitating short notice meetings between individuals in distant locations thus

decisions can be made more quickly.

7. Increased meeting attendance by participants who would otherwise be

unable to join in
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8. Greater accessibility and allows geographical reach even to rural or

remote locations.

9. A conference session can be saved for future reference e.g. class notes
can be saved and distributed via network for references by students

Disadvantages of Video Conferencing

1. It may lead to laziness with some students as they can have their classes while
at home thus lacking self discipline.

2. Lack of interpersonal relationship between students and teachers or between

students themselves.

3. The technology may degrade the received images and sound. Body language can
be lost if image movement is jerky. There can be a delay on the sound too.

1. The atmosphere of a face-to-face meeting is

lost.

2. For meetings, videoconferences are more effective if the participants already

know each other.

3. The security may be compromised as one can hack onto a private VC session

Application of Video Conferencing

• Teaching

• Meetings

•Data sharing

•Interviews

•Telemedicine

Legal work

Digital initiatives in higher education

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• GOI has taken various steps to increase the influence of digital resources in
higher education as well to capture the essence of digital India.

• There are several digital initiative that are taken place to improve the education
and enhansed the experience of learners in higher education

Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds

(SWAYAM)

SWAYAM is an indigenous (Made in India) IT Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

Platform for providing best quality education that can be accessed by anyone, anytime
and anywhere using the IT system.

The Concept of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) involves online delivery of
interactive learning content to large number of people simultaneously. It allows sharing
of best quality education with everyone, thereby bringing in equity as far as the quality
of education is concerned

There are 4 quadrants in the MOOC pedagogy:

A. Video tutorials covering a whole course – normally having about 20 hours of

instruction in series of lectures, each lecture not exceeding 30 minutes.

B. E-Content: reading material that could add to the learning imparted through the
video tutorials.

C. Self Assessment: Quizzes/assignments that intersperse the course

D. Discussion forum for posting queries

Features of SWAYAM

1. High quality learning experience using multimedia on anytime, anywhere

basis.

2. One-stop web location for interactive e-content for all courses from
School to University level.

3. State of the art system that allows easy access, monitoring and
certification.
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4. Peer group interaction and discussion forum to clarify doubts

5. Hybrid model that adds to the quality of class room teaching

• Creation of the IT Platform M/S Microsoft been entrusted with the responsibility
for creating the IT platform.

SWAYAM Prabha: the 32 Educational DTH Channels

• The SWAYAM PRABHA has been conceived as the project for telecasting high
quality educational programmes through 32 DTH channels on 24X7 basis. Every day,
there will be new content of at least (4) hours which would be repeated 6 times a day,
allowing the student to choose the time of his convenience.

The DTH Channels cover:

(a) Curriculum based course contents covering diverse disciplines such as arts,
science, commerce, performing arts, social sciences and humanities subjects,
engineering, technology, law, medicine, agriculture etc. in higher education domain (all
courses would be certification-ready in their detailed offering).

(b) School education (9-12 levels) modules; for teacher training as well as teaching
and learning aids to children of India to help them understand the subjects better and
also help them in better preparedness for competitive examinations for admissions to
professional degree programmes.

(c) Curricula and courses that can meet the needs of life-long learners or Indian
citizens in India and abroad.

(d) IIT-PAL - to assist the students in the Classes 11 and 12 aspiring to join IITs by
encouraging scientific thinking and conceptual understanding critical to answer the
'tough' questions of JEE Advanced, so that good quality students enter the portals of
IITs. The four channels under this would be on Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and
Biology.

National Digital Library (NDL)

A Project titled “Development of National Digital Library of India, Towards Building a
National Asset” has been sanctioned to IIT, Kharagpur under NMEICT by MHRD.
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National Digital Library in India aims to collect, preserve and disseminate entire
intellectual output of our country and provide online access from school level to post
graduate level, including technical education.

The project aims to develop

(i) overall framework to collate large number of e- contents for school, college and
higher education, e- content, virtual library, covering needs of learners with differing
abilities

(ii) Design & development of “OAI-PMH” Server for Metadata Harvesting, Indexed
etc.

(iii) serve as a pan-India virtual teaching-learning- evaluation-knowledge platform and

for key national asset and

(iv) collect resources from other Ministries such as Ministry of Culture, Health, Rural
Development & Department of Science & Technology on this portal.

There are more than 72 lakh digital books available through the NDL.

The contents cover almost all major domains of education and all major levels of
learners from school level to the highest level of education including life-long learners.

More than 15 lakh students have registered themselves in the NDL.

The NDL is available through a mobile app too.

e-Shodh Sindhu
Based on the recommendation of an Expert Committee, the MHRD has formed e-
ShodhSindhu merging three consortia initiatives, namely UGC-INFONET Digital Library
Consortium, NLIST and INDEST-AICTE Consortium.

More than 15,000 international electronic journals and e-books are made available to all
the higher educational institutions through the e shodh Sindhu initiative.

This allows access to be best education resources in the world using digital mode.

The INFLIBNET, Gandhinagar, Gujarat is implementing the Scheme.

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The e-ShodhSindhu will continue to provide current as well as archival access to more
than 15,000 core and peer-reviewed journals and a number of bibliographic, citation and
factual databases in different disciplines from a large number of publishers and
aggregators to its member institutions including centrally-funded technical institutions,
universities and colleges that are covered under 12(B) and 2(f) Sections of the UGC Act.

Virtual Labs
Physical distances and the lack of resources make us unable to perform experiments,
especially when they involve sophisticated instruments. Also, good teachers are always
a scarce resource. Web-based and video- based courses address the issue of teaching
to some extent. Conducting joint experiments by two participating institutions and also
sharing costly resources has always been a challenge. With the present day internet and
computer technologies the above limitations can no more hamper students and
researchers in enhancing their skills and knowledge.

Also, in a country such as ours, costly instruments and equipment need to be shared
with fellow researchers the extent possible. Web enabled experiments can be designed
for remote operation and viewing so as to enthuse the curiosity and innovation into
students. This would help in learning basic and advanced concepts through remote
experimentation. Today most equipment

have computer interface for control and data storage. It is possible to design good
experiments around some of these equipment, which would enhance the learning of a
student. Internet-based experimentation further permits use of resources – knowledge,
software, and data available on the web, apart from encouraging skillful experiments
being simultaneously performed at points separated in space (and possibly, time).

Virtual Lab does not require any additional

infrastructural setup for conducting experiments at user premises. One computer

terminal with broadband Internet connectivity is all that is needed to perform the
experiments remotely.

Over 205 virtual labs in 9 Engineering & Science disciplines, comprising about 1515
experiments are operational and currently being accessed by more than 6 lakh
students.
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e-Yantra
• An MHRD initiative under NMEICT Programme, named “e-Yantra” is implemented
to incorporate Robotics into engineering education with the objective of engaging
students through exciting hands-on application of mathematics, computer science, and
engineering principles. Creation of robotic platforms has been very successfully
demonstrated during phase-I of the project.

• Presently, e-Yantra has been implemented in 100 colleges. eYantra is creating

skills by setting up lab infrastructure for project based learning and training teachers in
these 100 engineering colleges. Going ahead, MHRD sees the core skills developed by
IITB as generating, distributing and analyzing content to further create manpower with
practical [Link] the projects and code are available on the e-Yantra web-site
[Link] as open source content.

Campus Connectivity
Establishment of 1 GBPS Connectivity to universities and 20 512 Kbps broadband
connectivity to colleges has been provisioned under NMEICT. A total of 600 Universities
have been connected through 1 Gbps Optical Fibre; 22026 Colleges have so far been
connected with 10 Mbps bandwidth

On the lines of ‘Digital India’ initiative of the PMO,

the MHRD has now decided that the campuses of Universities, (having 1 Gbps
bandwidth) shall be made WiFi enabled campus.

Already all the IITs, IIMs, and NITs have established WiFi campuses. The process of
laying the optical fibre and provision of the WiFi in Central Universities is currently
underway.

Talk to a Teacher
Talk to a Teacher developed by IIT Bombay, is an initiative of the National Mission on
Education through ICT, funded by MHRD to provide free access to a few selected
graduate and postgraduate courses, taught at IIT Bombay by distinguished faculty
members and scholars at large. It uses A-View collaboration tool developed by Amrita
University for providing virtual classrooms to the faculty across the country.
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These courses can be viewed absolutely free of charge at lower bandwidths on a

personal computer/laptop having a headphone and Internet connection.

Registration is not required as it does not have any evaluation/certification process. The
courses are recorded live in the classrooms of IIT Bombay and may not reflect entire
content of the course. Apart from the core courses in engineering and computer
science disciplines, the program also covers Humanities & Social Sciences discipline.

More than 80,000 teachers have been trained, so far, under this project, involving
synchronous delivery of courses from IIT Mumbai & IIT Kharagpur.

Ask A Question:
Ask A Question is a unique platform through which students from science and
engineering colleges all over India can ask questions and faculty from IIT Bombay
answers them. Students can ask questions either through an online forum or during an
interactive live session. Interactive live sessions are held on every Thursday from 4:00

P.M to 5:00 P.M in the field of Electrical Engineering and every Friday from 4:00 P.M to
5:00 P.M in the field of Physics.

e-Acharya
e-Acharya also called ‘Integrated e-Content Portal’ of NMEICT, is the official repository
of NMEICT e-content and all content produced under NMEICT is being put at this
Repository platform at INFILIBNET Centre Gandhinagar, so to apply basic tenets of
preservation for digital content, implement standard Metadata schema of different
types for the digital content and ensure their long-term availability.

All the Project Investigators awarded development of e-Content under NMEICT have
been requested to ensure the deliverables are placed, at the earliest, in the Integrated
Portal/e- Acharya of MHRD. Further the NCERT shall provide e-content Links to e-
Acharya and the NOIS shall providing the content on HDD to the e- Acharya repository
and both shall ensure that all the content including e-Books are made available on e-
Acharya.
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The eAcharya besides a repository of content shall also have the Metadata of all these
contents and it shall form a vertical of ‘National Digital Library’ (NDL), being
implemented by the IIT Kharagpur.

The e-Acharya shall be backed by a robust 24X7 Data Centre, which shall be integrated
with NMEICT, Cloud network, set up at NIC / NKN Data Centre by the lIT-Delhi and called
‘Baadal’. The MOOCs being produced under NMEICT shall also be uploaded on e-
Acharya.

E-Kalpa
Another MHRD/ NMEICT initiative named “e-Kalpa” creating Digital-Learning
Environment for Design in India has successfully demonstrated the achievement of the
following project objectives, on completion of its phase-I:

1. Digital online content for learning Design with e- Learning programs on Design

2. Digital Design Resource Database including the craft sector

3. Social networking for Higher Learning with collaborative Learning Space

for Design

4. Design inputs for products of National Mission in Education through ICT

As on December 2015, the content of e-Kalpa website named “D'source” includes 160
Courses on Design Learning in different domains, more than 400 Resources in the form
of fine examples of Design and crafts, 110 Case studies of Design Projects undertaken
by professionals and design students, 50 Video lectures and presentations by subjects
experts and 600 examples of a visual Gallery that has documented works of the rich
tradition of art and design seen across different regions of India.

The Free and Open Source Software for Education (FOSSEE)

FOSSEE project sanctioned to IIT Bombay has been promoting use of open source
software in educational institutions ([Link] It does through instructional
material, such as spoken tutorials, documentation, such as textbook companions,
awareness programmes, such as conferences, training workshops, and Internships.
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Textbook Companion (TBC) is a collection of code for solved examples of standard

textbooks. About 2,000 college students and teachers have participated in this activity &
close to 1,000 TBCs have been created in Scilab and Python alone.

FOSSEE has made all the TBCs open source and has made them available for free
download.

Scilab and Python TBCs are also on the cloud, so that one needs only a browser to
access/execute the codes of TBC.

FOSSEE is promoting the well established open source software: OpenFOAM, an

alternative to the proprietary software Fluent for computational fluid dynamics; DWSIM,
an alternative to the proprietary software Aspen Plus, for chemical process simulation.
FOSSEE has also undertaken several new open source software activities as well:
raising Scilab toolboxes to that of Matlab; development of eSim, an electronic design
automation software, an alternative to ORCAD; development of Sandhi, a software for
data acquisition and control, an alternative to LabVIEW. The FOSSEE team works on
open source hardware projects, such as Open PLC and Arduino as well. Through all of
these projects, a large number of students across the country have been trained.

e-Vidwan
The ‘Information and Library Network’ (INFLIBNET) Centre took the initiative called
“Vidwan: Expert Database and National Researcher’s Network” with the financial
support from NMEICT. The objectives of VIDWAN is to

i) collect academic and research profiles of scientists, faculty and research

scientists working in leading academic and R&D organizations in India and abroad;

ii) quickly and conveniently provide information about experts to peers, prospective
collaborators, funding agencies, policy makers and research scholars in the country;

• iii) establish communication directly with the experts who possess the expertise
needed by research scholars; iv) identify peer reviewers for review of articles and
research proposals; and v) create information exchanges and networking opportunities
among scientist. The database can be used for selection of panels of experts for
various committees and taskforces established by the Ministries / Govt. establishments
for monitoring and evaluation purposes. Further, the availability of single point expert
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database will help the policy makers and funding agencies in decision-making and
policy intervention. As on 31st December 2015, the database contains more than
17,500 profiles of experts from 2,000 leading academic institutions, universities, R&D
organizations including IITs, CSIR, DRDO, etc.

Central cloud Infrastructure

• The MHRD under NMEICT has awarded a project to IIT Delhi, to set up a robust
24X7 backed Data Centre and the activities have been put up at NIC / NKN Data Centre,
and the cloud is called ‘Baadal’. The IIT Delhi cloud is hosting e-content and video
content of e- Acharya

Other Digital Initiatives

1. Sakshat-
A One Stop Education Portal launched on October 30, 2006 to facilitate lifelong learning
for students, teachers and those in employment or in pursuit of knowledge free of cost
to them. The content development task for ‘SAKSHAT’ was looked after by the Content
Advisory Committee (CAC) for the respective subject

which consisted of representatives from educational institutions like IGNOU, Delhi

University, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangthan (KVS), Navodyaya Vidyalaya Sangthan (NVS),
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and National Council for Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) and prominent academicians in the field. The scheme
is to provide connectivity to all institutions of higher learning to world of knowledge in
the cyber space, to leverage the potential of ICT, in providing high quality knowledge
modules with right e- contents, to address to the personalized needs of learners, in
order to take care of their aspirations.

2. GyanDhara-
Gyan Dhara is an internet audio

counseling service offered by IGNOU. Students can listen to the live discussions by the
teachers and experts on the topic of the day and interact with them through telephone
and through chat mode.
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3. GIAN-
Govt. of India approved a new program titled Global Initiative of Academic Networks
(GIAN) in Higher Education aimed at tapping the talent pool of scientists and
entrepreneurs, internationally to encourage their engagement with the institutes of
Higher Education in India so as to augment the country's existing academic resources,
accelerate the pace of quality reform, and elevate India's scientific and technological
capacity to global excellence.

In order to garner the best international experience into our systems of education,
enable interaction of students and faculty with the best academic and industry experts
from all over the world and also share their experiences and expertise to motivate
people to work on Indian problems. A system of Guest Lectures by internationally and
nationally renowned experts would be evolved along with a comprehensive Faculty
Development Programme not only for new IITs, IIMs, IISERs but also other institutions in
the country.

4. NPTEL-
NPTEL is a joint initiative of IITs and IISc provides e-learning through online Web and
Video based courses in engineering, science and humanities streams and provides free
online courseware.

NPTEL have so far developed e-content in 23 Disciplines numbering 933 Courses.

The NPTEL is expected to complete more than 990 Courses by December 2016.

NPTEL takes the credit of world’s most accessed Educational Channel.

5. Spoken Tutorial-
The spoken tutorial project is the initiative of the ‘talk to a teacher’ activity of the
national mission on education through information and communication technology
(ICT), launched by the ministry of human resources and development, government of
india in association with IIT

Bombay. Spoken tutorial is a multi-award winning educational content portal. Here

one can learn various free and open source software all by oneself. This self- paced,
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multi-lingual courses ensure that anybody with a computer and a desire for learning, can
learn from any place, at any time and in a language of their choice.

6. Shodganga-
Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses is a digital repository of theses and
dissertations submitted to Indian universities. It is maintained

by INFLIBNET Centre which is an autonomous Inter- University Centre of the University

Grants Commission (UGC) of India, located in Gandhinagar,

Gujrat. The repository has a collection of 2,10,661 theses and 6123 synopses. The
Shodhganga repository was created consequent on the University Grants Commission
making it mandatory through regulations issued in June 2009 for all universities to
submit soft copies of PhD theses and MPhil dissertations to the UGC for hosting in the
INFLIBNET.

7. Shodhgangotri:
The INFLIBNET Centre is also

maintaining another repository known by the name Shodhgangotri which is a repository

of the synopses and research proposals of the PhD programmes in Indian universities.
It has been described as a repository of the details of Indian Research in Progresses.

8. NKN-
National Knowledge Network (NKN) is a multi-gigabit NREN, whose purpose is to
provide a unified high speed network backbone for educational institutions in [Link]
purpose of such a knowledge network goes to the very core of the country's quest to
build quality institutions with requisite research facilities and create a pool of highly
trained persons. The NKN while impacting the existing academic and student
community will also alter the R&D; landscape for future generations.

• Sakshat, [Link]

• GyanDhara, [Link]

• Swayamprabha, [Link]
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• GIAN, [Link]

• NPTEL, [Link]

• SWAYAM, [Link]

• Spoken Tutorial, [Link]

• Virtual Lab, [Link]

• Talk to a Teacher, [Link]

• NDL, [Link]

• Shodganga, [Link]

• NKN, [Link]

ICT (Information and Communication Technology)act as a tool in help implementing

good governance throughout the country. The combination of ICT in governance is also
known as e-government or e-governance.

The terms e-government and e-governance are closely inter-related both of the terms
are used to describe government’s utilization of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) to afford services to its citizens.

Good governance is fundamental and e-governance is instrumental. E Governance is a

tool. No e- Governance tool can be successful without focusing attention to process
reforms for good governance.

Good governance dictates the design and shape of s e-tools for improving governance
outcomes and processes. e-Governance can be an effective and efficient tool for good
governance if and only if the process reforms have been carried out.

With process re-engineeering, effective implementation of e-Governance can take IT to

the common man, helping the government to align services with the changing needs of
both citizens and other stakeholders.

• The emergence of the digital economy has affected both the role and functions
of public institutions. While undertaking traditional functions such as defence, law and
 171

order, justice, taxation, legislation, regulation, education, health care and social equity,
the governments are now required to take new roles of harnessing the power of
information technology and leading change. There has been a transformation of the role
of the government from a buyer or producer of ICT services to that of a facilitator and a
leader.

ICT has been instrumental in changing the way in which the government operates
through horizontal and vertical interactions and information flows. It has provided
unique opportunities to governments in terms of new ways of doing business through e-
Government and e-Governance applications. e-Government is about leading the
transformation of government to provide efficient, convenient and transparent services
to citizens and businesses through the use of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT).

The United Nations distinguishes between the following areas where governmental
operations can be improved by the application of ICT:

1. e-Government: This applies to inter-organizational relationships, and includes

policy coordination, policy implementation and public service delivery.

2. e-Administration: This applies to intra-organizational relationships, and includes

policy development, organizational activities and knowledge management.

3. e-Governance: This applies to interaction between citizens, government

organizations, public and elected officials, and includes democratic processes, open
government and transparent decision-making

ICT can act as a catalyst for organizational transformation and change in government
by influencing governance in several ways as follows:

1. Managing large volumes of data and work flow connectivity between government
operations, departments and agencies and significantly reducing errors.

2. Reaping scale economies and improving efficiency by automation of

complicated and repetitive governance tasks and developing standard applications.

3. Reducing personal interface of citizens and business with public service

providers, cutting delay, bureaucratic red tape, corruption and harassment and
increasing speed of response.
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4. Enhancing transparency and accountability by making information available to

citizens through websites, information portal.

• The government uses ICT to make public administrations more efficient and
effective by cutting red tape. ICTs can remove unnecessary human involvement during
the public service delivery processes from the government.

• E-Governance is the solution to the “Good Governance” for the developing

countries like India to minimize corruption, provides efficient and effective quality
services to their citizens.

Benefits of ICT in Governance

1. Increases accountability

2. Increases transparency

3. Higher availability of public domain information

4. Reduces corruption

5. Higher penetration due to automation

6. Increases efficiency due to connectivity

Facts and Figures Related to ICT in Governance in India

• 1970 : Department of Electronics

• 1977 : National Informatics Centre(NIC)

• 1980 : Use of computers began

• 1987 : Launch of NICENET & DISNIC

• 1998 : National Task Force on Information Technology and Software

Development

• 1999 : Union Ministry of Information Technology

• 2000 -05: 12 point e-Governance launched by central & state Govt with focus on
G2C,G2B, G2G initiatives
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• 2006 -11: National e-Government Plan(NeGP)

• 2012 -19: Digital India

Digital India
Digital India is a program to transform India into a digitally empowered society and
prepare India for a knowledge future.

The focus is on being transformative – to realize IT + IT = IT The focus is on making

technology central to enable change. It is an Umbrella Programme – covering many
departments.

• It weaves together a large number of ideas and thoughts into a single,

comprehensive vision so that each of them is seen as part of a larger goal.

• Each individual element stands on its own. But is also part of the larger picture.

• It is coordinated by DeitY, implemented by the entire government.

• The weaving together makes the Mission transformative in totality

The Programme:

1. Pulls together many existing schemes.

2. These schemes will be restructured and re- focused.

3. They will be implemented in a synchronized manner.

4. Many elements are only process improvements with minimal cost.

5. The common branding of programs as Digital India highlights their

transformative impact.

Vision of Digital India

Centered on 3 Key Areas

1. Digital Infrastructure as a Utility to Every Citizen

2. Governance & Services on Demand

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3. Digital Empowerment of Citizens

Vision Area 1

Infrastructure as a Utility to Every Citizen

1. High speed internet as a core utility

2. Cradle to grave digital identity -unique, lifelong, online, authenticable

3. Mobile phone & Bank account enabling participation in digital & financial space

4. Easy access to a Common Service Centre

5. Shareable private space on a public cloud

6. Safe and secure Cyber-space

Vision Area 2

Governance & Services On Demand

1. Seamlessly integrated across departments or jurisdictions

2. Services available in real time from online &mobile platform

3. All citizen entitlements to be available on the cloud

4. Services digitally transformed for improving Ease of Doing Business

5. Making financial transactions electronic & cashless

6. Leveraging GIS for decision support systems & development

Vision Area 3

Digital Empowerment of Citizens

1. Universal Digital Literacy

2. Universally accessible digital resources

3. All documents/ certificates to be available on cloud

4. Availability of digital resources / services in Indian languages

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5. Collaborative digital platforms for participative governance

6. Portability of all entitlements through cloud

Nine Pillars of Digital India

1. Broadband Highways

2. Universal Access to Phones

3. Public Internet Access Programme

4. E-Governance – Reforming government through Technology

5. eKranti –Electronic delivery of services

6. Information for All

7. Electronics Manufacturing – Target NET ZERO Imports

8. IT for Jobs

9. Early Harvest Programmes

Various ICT based services under Digital India

• The National Optical Fibre Network (NOFN) project

• National Information Infrastructure

• National Rural Internet Mission

• Aadhaar

• Mobile Seva

• PayGov

• Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana

• Digital lockers

• Government services for businesses- The e-Biz project, The MCA21, The e-Trade.
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• Digital Financial Transactions - PayGov India, Mobile Services Delivery Gateway

(MSDG)

• Digitize India Platform (DIP)

• India Development Gateway (InDG)

• Localization Projects Management Framework (LPMF)

Use of Social Media by Government

Government organisations are exploring the use of social media for public
engagements. They can be effectively used for

• Seeking feedback from citizens

• Re-pronouncement of Public Policy

• Issue based as well as Generic interaction

• Brand Building or Public Relations

• Generating Awareness and education on National Action Plans and

implementation strategies

E Governance Models

The four basic models are available –

1. Government-to-citizen (customer) G2C

2. Government-to-employees G2E

3. Government-to-government G2G

4. Government-to-business G2B

Bits and Bytes

1 bit = a 1 or 0 (b)
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4 bits = 1 nybble (?)

8 bits = 1 byte (B)

1024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB)

1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte (MB)

1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte (GB)

1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte (TB) 1024 Terabyte – 1 Peta Byte ( PB ) 1024 Peta Byte –
1 Exa Byte ( EB ) 1024 Exa Byte – 1 Zetta Byte ( ZB ) 1024 Zetta Byte – 1 Yotta Byte ( YB
) 1024 Yotta Byte – 1 Bronto Byte (BB)

ICT: General Abbreviations and Terminology

A

• Al – Artificial intelligence

• ALGOL – Algorithmic Language

• ARP – Address resolution Protocol

• ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange

• AMD – Advance Micro Device

• ASP – Active Server Pages

• ASPI – Advance Scsi Programming Interface

• ASIC – Application Specific Integrated Circuit

• AAC – Advanced Audio Codec

• AC3 – Dolby Digital Sound File

• AIFF – Audio Interchange File Format

• AMR – Adoptive Multi Rate

• ALU-Arithmetic Logic Unit

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• AWB – Adoptive Multi Rate Wideband

• AVI – Audio Video Interleaved

• ARPANET – Advanced Research Project Agency Network.

• AM/FM – Amplitude/ Frequency Modulation.

• ASP–Active Server Pages

• API–Application Programming Interfaces

• ASCII–American Standard Code For Information Interchange

• AJAX–Asynchronous Javascript And Xml

• AP – Access Point

• A/D - Analog To Digital

• ASR- Automatic Send And Receive/ Automated speech recognition/ Automated

system recovery

• ATM - Automated Teller Machine

• BINAC - Binary Automatic Computer

• BCC – Blind Carbon Copy

• BCD - Binary Coded Decimal

• Bin – Binary

• BASIC - Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

• BIOS – Basic Input Output System

• Bit – Binary Digit

• BT- Binary Tree

• BMP – BITMAP
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• BPS- Bits Per Second

• BIS - Business Information System

• COMPUTER – Commonly Operating Machine Particularly Used For Technology

Entertainment And Research

• CC – Carbon Copy

• CAD – Computer Aided Design

• COBOL – Common Business Oriented Language

• CD – Compact Disc

• CRT – Cathode Ray Tube

• CDR – Compact Disc Recordable

• CDROM – Compact Disc Read Only Memory

• CDRW – Compact Disc Rewritable

• CDR/W – Compact Disk Read/Write

• CSS– Cascading Style Sheets

• CPU – Central Processing Unit

• CPS - Characters Per Second

• CAM - Computer-Aided Manufacturing

• CASE- Computer-Aided Software Engineering

• CAD- Computer-Aided Designing

• COM- Computer Output Microfilms/ Common Operating Machine

• CMD – Command

• CU- Control Unit

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• CDA – Compact Disk Audio

• DBA – Data Base Administrator

• DBMS – Data Base Management System

• DNS – Domain Name System

• DPI – Dots Per Inch

• DTP - Desktop Publishing

• DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory

• DLL – Dynamik Link Library

• DVD – Digital Video Disc/Digital Versatile Disc

• DVDR – DVD Recordable

• DVDROM – DVD Read Only Memory

• DVDRW – DVD Rewritable

• DVR – Digital Video Recorder

• DOS – Disk Operating System

• DNS - Domain Name System

• DMCA – Digital Millennium Copyright Act

• DOC – Document

• EBCDIC – Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

• e-Commerce – Electronic Commerce

• EDP – Electronic Data Processing

• EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

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• ELM/e-Mail – Electronic Mail

• ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

• EOF - End Of File

• EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

• EXE - Executable

• FAX - Far Away Xerox/ facsimile

• FDC - Floppy Disk Controller

• FDD - Floppy Disk Drive

• FORTRAN - Formula Translation

• FS - File System

• FM - Frequency Modulation

• FTP - File Transfer Protocol

• FPS – Frame Per Second

• FLAC – Free Lossless Audio Codec

• FLV – Flash Live Video

• FAT – File Allocation Table

• Gb - Gigabit

• GB - Gigabyte

• GIGO - Garbage In, Garbage Out

• GIF - Graphics Interchange Format

• GSM - Global System for Mobile Communication

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• GPRS - General Packet Radio Service

• 3G - 3rd Generation

• GSM - Global System For Mobile Communication

• 3GP – 3rd Generation Protocol

• 3GPP – 3rd Generation Partnership Project

• HDD - Hard Disk Drive

• HP - Hewlett Packard

• HTML - Hyper Text Markup Language

• HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

• HTTPS – Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

• HSDPA – High Speed Downlink Packet Access

• HLL – High Level Language

• IBM - International Business Machine

• I/O – Input & Output

• IM - Instant Message

• IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol

• IPV4 – Internet Protocol Version 4

• IP – Internet Protocol.

• ISP – Internet Service Provider

• IT – Information Technology

J
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• ISP - Internet Service Provider

• JPEG - Joint Photographic Experts Group

• J2EE- Java 2 Platform Enterprise Edition

• JSP- Java Server Page

• JS – Java Script

• JAD – Java Application Development

• JAR – Java Archive

• Kb - Kilobit

• KB - Kilobyte

• KHz - Kilohertz

• Kbps - Kilobit Per Second

• KBD – KeyBoard

• LCD – Liquid Crystal Display

• LAN - Local Area Network

• LED – Light Emitting Diode

• LPI – Lines Per Inch

• LIS – Large Scale Integration

• LLL – Low Level Language

• Mb – Megabit

• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

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• MB – Megabyte

• MPEG – Moving Picture Experts Group

• MMS – Multimedia Message Service

• MICR – Magnetic Ink Character reader/ Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

• MIPS – Million Instructions Per Second

• MIME- Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions

• MIDI - Musical Instrument Digital Interface

• MMF - Music Mobile Format

• MP2 - Mpeg Audio Layer 2

• NIC – Network Interface Card

• NOS – Network Operating System

• NTFS – New Technology File System

• OMR – Optical Mark Reader

• OCR - Optical Character Recognition

• OOP – Object Oriented Programming

• OSS – Open Source Software

• OCR - Optical Character Readers

• ODBC - Open Data Base Connectivity

• OLE - Object Linking And Embedding

• OMR - Optical Mark Reader

• ONE - Open Network Architecture

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• OOA - Object Orient Analysis

• OOAD - Object Oriented Analysis And Design

• OOP - Object Oriented Programming

• OOPS - Object Oriented Programming System

• OPEN GL - Open Graphics Library

• OS - Operating System

• OSI - Open System Interconnection

• ORACLE - Oak Ridge Automatic Computer And Logical Engine

• PAN – Personal Area Network

• PC – Personal Computer PC - Personal Computer

• PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect

• PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

• PDA - Personal Digital Assistant

• PDF - Portable Document Format

• PDL - Page Description Language

• PERL- Practical Extraction And Report Language

• PHP- Hypertext Preprocessor

• PDU - Protocol Data Unit

• PIC - Programming Interrupt Control

• PIN - Personal Identification Number

• PILOT - Programmed Inquiry Learning Or Teaching

• PLA - Programmable Logic Array

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• PLC - Programmable Logic Controller

• PNG - Portable Network Graphics

• PNP - Plug And Play

• PPP - Peer To Peer Protocol / Point to Point Protocol

• PPTP - Point To Point Tunneling Protocol

• PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory

• PS - Post Script

• PDA - Personal Digital Assistant

• PDF – Portable Document Format

• POS – Point Of Sale

• PNG - Portable Network Graphics

• PPM – Pages Per Minute

• PPP – Point-to-Point Protocol

• PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory

• PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network

• POST – Power On Self Test

• PING – Packet Internet Gopher

• PCB - Printed Circuit Board

• PAN - Personal Area Network

• RADSL - Rate Adaptive Digital Subscribes Line

• RAID - Redundant Array Of Independent Disks

• RAM - Random Access Memory

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• RAMDAC - Random Access Memory Digital To Analog Converter

• RAS - Remote Access Network

• RD RAM - Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory

• RDBMS - Relational Data Base Management System

• RDO - Remote Data Objects

• RDP - Remote Desktop Protocol

• RFC - Request For Comments

• RGB - Red Green Blue

• RICS - Reduced Instruction Set Computer

• RIP - Raster Image Processor

• RISC - Reduced Instruction Set Computer

• RM - Real Media

• ROM - Read Only Memory

• RPC - Remote Procedure Call

• RTC - Real Time Clock

• RTF - Rich Text Format

• RAM – Random Access Memory

• RDBMS – Relational Data Base Management System

• RIP – Routing Information Protocol

• RTF – Rich Text Format

• RTOS - Real Time Operating System

• RSS – Really Simple Syndication

S
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• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• SQL – Structured Query Language

• SRAM – Static Random Access Memory

• SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol

• SIM – Subscriber Identification Module

• SACK - Selective Acknowledgements

• SAM - Security Access Manager

• SAP - Service Access Point, Systems Applications Products

• SCMP - Software Configuration Management Plan

• SD RAM - Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory

• SDD - Software Design Description

• SDK - Software Development Kit

• SDL - Storage Definition Language

• SDN - Integrated Service Digital Network

• SDSL - Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line

• SG RAM - Synchronous Graphics Random Access Memory

• SGML - Standard Generalized Markup Language

• SIM - Subscriber Identification Module

• SIMD - Single Instruction Multiple Data

• SIS - Symbian Installation Source

• SISD - Single Instruction Single Data

• SIU - Serial Interface Unit

• SMP - Symmetric Multi Process

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• SMS - Short Message Service

• SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• SNA - System Network Architecture

• SNAP - Sub Network Access Protocol

• lSNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol

• SNOBOL - String Oriented Symbolic Language

• SOAP - Simple Object Access Protocol

• SPX - Sequenced Packet Exchange

• SEO – Search Engine Optimization

• SQA - Statistical Quality Assurance

• SQL - Structured Query Language

• SRAM - Static Random Access Memory

• SRS - Software Requirements Specification

• STP - Shielded Twisted Pair

• SVVP - Software Verification And Validation Plan

• SW – Software

• SWF - Shock Wave Flash

• SMPS – Switch Mode Power Supply

• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

• TB – Tera Bytes

• TAPI - Telephony Application Program Interface

• TB - Tera Bytes
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• TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

• TCPIP - Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol

• TDI - Transport Data Interface

• TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

• TPM - Transactions Processing Monitor

• TSR - Terminate And Stay Residents

• UPS – Uninterrupted Power Supply

• URI – Uniform Resource Identifier

• URL – Uniform Resource Locator

• USB - Universal Serial Bus

• ULSI - Ultra Large Scale Integration

• UNIVAC - Universal Automatic Computer

• UDD - User Datagram Protocol

• UDP - User Datagram Protocol

• UI - User Interface

• UML - Unified Modeling Language

• UNC - Universal Naming Convention

• UNIX - Uniplexed Information And Computer Systems

• URL - Universal Resource Locator

• USB - Universal Serial Bus

• USRT - Universal Synchronous Receiver Transmitted

• UTP -Unshielded Twisted Pair

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• UHF – Ultra High Frequency

• VAR – Variable

• VOB - Video Object

• VOIP – Voice Over Internet Protocol

• VGA – Video Graphics Array

• VGA – Video/Visual Graphic Adapter

• VDU – Visual Display Unit/ Visible Display Unit

• VAN - Virtual Area Network

• VAST - Very Small Aperture Terminal

• VB - Visual Basic

• VC++ - Visual C++

• VCD - Video Compact Disc

• VDL - View Definition Language

• VGA - Video Graphics Array

• VHS - Video Home System

• VLIW - Very Long Instruction Words

• VLSI - Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits

• VPN - Virtual Private Network

• VRAM - Video Random Access Memory

• VRML - Virtual Reality Modelling Language

• VS - Visual Studio

• VVR - Software Validation And Validation Report

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• VXD - Virtual Device Driver

• VBS – Visual Basic Scripting Language

• VIRUS – Vital Information Resource Under Seized

• VHF – Very High Frequency

• Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity

• WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

• WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access

• WWW – World Wide Web

• WORM – Write Once Read Many

• W3C - World Wide Web Consortium

• WAIS - Wide Area Information Servers

• WAN - Wide Area Network

• WAP - Wireless Application Protocol

• WAV - Waveform Pcm Audio

• WMA - Windows Media Audio

• WBEM - WebBase Enterprise Management

• WDM - Wave Division Multiplexing

• XHTML – eXtensible Hyper text Markup Language

• XML - eXtensible Markup language

• XSL- eXtensible Style Sheet Language

Z
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• ZB – Zeta Byte

Important file extension for all Competitive Exams

Audio file formats by file extensions

.aif - AIF audio file

.cda - CD audio track file

.mid or .midi - MIDI audio file.

.mp3 - MP3 audio file

.mpa - MPEG-2 audio file

.ogg - Ogg Vorbis audio file

.wav - WAV file

.wma - WMA audio file

.wpl - Windows Media Player playlist

Image file formats by file extension

.ai - Adobe Illustrator file

.bmp - Bitmap image

.gif - GIF image

.ico - Icon file

.jpeg or .jpg - JPEG image

.png - PNG image

.ps - PostScript file

.psd - PSD image

.svg - Scalable Vector Graphics file

.tif or .tiff - TIFF image

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Video file formats by file extension

.3gp - 3GPP multimedia file

.avi - AVI file

.flv - Adobe Flash file

.m4v - Apple MP4 video file

.mkv - Matroska Multimedia Container

.mov - Apple QuickTime movie file

.mp4 - MPEG4 video file

.mpg or .mpeg - MPEG video file

.rm - RealMedia file

.swf - Shockwave flash file

.vob - DVD Video Object

.wmv - Windows Media Video file

Word processor and text file formats by file extension

.doc and .docx - Microsoft Word file

.odt - OpenOffice Writer document file

.pdf - PDF file

.rtf - Rich Text Format

.tex - A LaTeX document file

.txt - Plain text file

.wks and .wps- Microsoft Works file

.wpd - WordPerfect document

Compressed file extensions

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.7z - 7-Zip compressed file

.arj - ARJ compressed file

.deb - Debian software package file

.pkg - Package file

.rar - RAR file

.rpm - Red Hat Package Manager

.[Link] - Tarball compressed file

.z - Z compressed file

.zip - Zip compressed file

Disc and media file extensions

.bin - Binary disc image

.dmg - macOS X disk image

.iso - ISO disc image

.toast - Toast disc image

.vcd - Virtual CD

Presentation file formats by file extension

.key - Keynote presentation

.odp - OpenOffice Impress presentation file

.pps - PowerPoint slide show

.ppt - PowerPoint presentation

.pptx - PowerPoint Open XML presentation

Programming files by file extensions

.c - C and C++ source code file

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.class - Java class file

.cpp - C++ source code file

.cs - Visual C# source code file

.h - C, C++, and Objective-C header file

.java - Java Source code file

.sh - Bash shell script

.swift - Swift source code file

.vb - Visual Basic file

Spreadsheet file formats by file extension

.ods - OpenOffice Calc spreadsheet file

.xlr - Microsoft Works spreadsheet file

.xls - Microsoft Excel file

.xlsx - Microsoft Excel Open XML spreadsheet file

System related file formats and file extensions

.bak - Backup file

.cfg - Configuration file

.cpl - Windows Control panel file

.dll - DLL file

.dmp - Dump file

.drv - Device driver file

.ini - Initialization file

.msi - Windows installer package

.sys - Windows system file

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.tmp - Temporary file

Internet related file extensions

.asp and .aspx - Active Server Page file

.cer - Internet security certificate

.cgi or .pl - Perl script file

.css - Cascading Style Sheet file

.htm and .html - HTML file

.js - JavaScript file

.jsp - Java Server Page file

.part - Partially downloaded file

.rss - RSS file

.xhtml - XHTML file

Unit -9 People, Development and Environment

Millennium Development Goals
• The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were the eight international
development goals for the year 2015 that had been established following

the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, following the adoption of the
United Nation Millennium Declaration. All 191 United Nations member states at that
time, and at least

22 international organizations, committed to help achieve the following Millennium

Development Goals by 2015:

• To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

• To achieve universal primary education

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• To promote gender equality and empower women

• To reduce child mortality

• To improve maternal health

• To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

• To ensure environmental sustainability

• To develop a global partnership for development

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) replaced the MDGs in 2016.

• Unlike the newly developed Sustainable Development Goals in recent 2015, there
not only were fewer goals, but targets set for

these goals applied primarily to least developed/poor countries.

• The new SDG goals set targets that call all countries to action, no matter how
developed and they “challenge the west lectures rest dynamic”

Sustainable Development Goals

• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (or the Global Goals for Sustainable
Development, the 17 Global Goals, the Global Goals or simply the Goals) are a collection
of 17 global goals set by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 for the year
2030.

The SDGs are part of Resolution 70/1 of the United Nations General Assembly:
"Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development". That has
been shortened to "2030 Agenda".

• 1. No poverty- End poverty in all its forms everywhere

• 2. Zero hunger- End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and
promote sustainable agriculture

• 3. Good health and well-being for people- Ensure healthy lives and promote
wellbeing for all at all ages
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• 4. Quality education- Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and

promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

• 5. Gender equality- Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

• 6. Clean water and sanitation- Ensure availability and sustainable management

of water and sanitation for all

• 7. Affordable and clean energy- Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable

and modern energy for all

• 8. Decent work and economic growth- Promote sustained, inclusive and

sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all

• 9. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure- Build resilient infrastructure, promote

inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster innovation

• 10. Reducing inequalities- Reduce inequality within and among countries.

• 11. Sustainable cities and communities- Make cities and human settlements
inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

• 12. Responsible consumption and production- Ensure sustainable consumption

and production patterns

• 13. Climate action- Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
(noting agreements made by the UNFCCC forum)

• 14. Life below water- Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine
resources for sustainable development

• 15. Life on land- Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse
land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss

• 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions- Promote peaceful and inclusive
societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build
effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

• 17. Partnerships for the goals- Strengthen the means of implementation and
revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.
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• The Government of India established the NITI Aayog to attain the sustainable
development goals. In March 2018 Haryana became the first state in India to have its
annual budget focused on the attainment of SDG with a 3-year action plan and a 7-year
strategy plan to implement sustainable development goals when Captain Abhimanyu,
Finance Minister of Government of Haryana, unveiled a ₹1,151,980 lakh (US$1.6 billion
or €1.4 billion) annual 2018-19 budget. Also, NITI Aayog starts the exercise of
measuring India and its States’ progress towards the SDGs for 2030, culminating in the
development of the first SDG India Index - Baseline Report 2018

Anthropogenic Activities
• The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human
activity. The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey
Pavlov, and it was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to
human influences on climax plant communities

• The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are
produced from human activity but also applies broadly to all major human

Causes of Anthropogenic Activities

• Human overpopulation

• Overconsumption

• Technology

• Agriculture

• Light pollution

• Manufactured products

• Introductions of species

• Energy

harvesting and consumption

• Manufactured products
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• Mining

• Transport

• Environmental degradation

• Human impact on the nitrogen cycle

• Ozone depletion

• Global warming

• Mass extinction, defaunation and decline in biodiversity

• Habitat destruction

• Land degradation

• Ocean acidification

Human overpopulation (or population overshoot) occurs when the ecological footprint
of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity
of the place occupied by that group. Overpopulation can further be viewed, in a long
term perspective, as existing if a population cannot be maintained given the rapid
depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the
environment to give support to the population.

The term human overpopulation refers to the relationship between the entire human
population and its environment

• Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the

sustainable capacity of the ecosystem. It can be measured by the ecological footprint, a
resource accounting approach which compares human demand on ecosystems with
the amount of planet matter ecosystems can renew.

• The applications of technology often result in unavoidable and unexpected

environmental impacts, which according to the I = PAT equation is measured as
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resource use or pollution generated per unit GDP. Environmental impacts caused by the
application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for several reasons.

• The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on the wide variety of

agricultural practices employed around the world. Ultimately, the environmental impact
depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection
between emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect.

• There are two types of indicators of environmental impact: "means-based", which

is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is the impact
that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment.

• Introductions of species, particularly plants into new areas, by whatever means

and for whatever reasons have brought about major and permanent changes to the
environment over large areas. Examples include the introduction of Caulerpa taxifolia
into the Mediterranean, the introduction of oat species into the California grasslands,
and the introduction of privet, kudzu, and purple loosestrife to North America.

• The environmental impact of energy harvesting and consumption is diverse. In

recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various
renewable energy sources.

• In the real world, consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming
and climate change. However, little change is being made in many parts of the world. If
the peak oil theory proves true, more explorations of viable alternative energy sources,
could be more friendly to the environment.

• Light pollution- Artificial light at night is one of the most obvious physical
changes that humans have made to the biosphere, and is the easiest form of pollution
to observe from space. The main environmental impacts of artificial light are due to
light's use as an information source (rather than an energy source).

• Manufactured products such as Cleaning agents, Leather, paper, paint, plastics,

pesticides, Pharmaceuticals and personal care products etc contribute to the
environment pollution.

• The environmental impact of mining includes erosion, formation of sinkholes,

loss of biodiversity, and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by
chemicals from mining processes. In some cases, additional forest logging is done in
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the vicinity of mines to increase the available room for the storage of the created debris
and soil. Besides creating environmental damage, the contamination resulting from
leakage of chemicals also affect the health of the local population.

• The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of

energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum. This creates air pollution, including
nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming
through emission of carbon dioxide, for which transport is the fastest-growing emission
sector. By subsector, road transport is the largest contributor to global warming.

Environmental degradation effects

• Mass extinction, defaunation and decline in biodiversity

• Biodiversity generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, and is
represented by the number of different species there are on the planet. Since its
introduction, Homo sapiens (the human species) has been killing off entire species
either directly (such as through hunting) or indirectly (such as by destroying habitats),
causing the extinction of species at an alarming rate.

• Defaunation is the loss of animals from ecological communities

• Global warming is the result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide

concentrations which is caused primarily by the combustion of fossil energy sources
such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, and to an unknown extent by destruction of
forests, increased methane, volcanic activity and cement production. Such massive
alteration of the global carbon cycle has only been possible because of the availability
and deployment of advanced technologies, ranging in application from fossil fuel
exploration, extraction, distribution, refining, and combustion in power plants and
automobile engines and advanced farming practices

• Habitat destruction

• According to a 2018 study in Nature, 87% of the oceans and 77% of land
(excluding Antarctica) have been altered by anthropogenic activity, and 23% of the
planet's landmass remains as wilderness

• Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment

is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is
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viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or

[Link] hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can
indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.

• Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans,

caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Seawater is slightly
basic (meaning pH > 7), and ocean acidification involves a shift towards pH-neutral
conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions (pH < 7). An estimated 30–40%
of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into
oceans, rivers and lakes. To achieve chemical equilibrium, some of it reacts with the
water to form carbonic acid.

• Ozone depletion describes two related events observed since the late 1970s: a
steady lowering of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's
atmosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric
ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone
hole. There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to
these stratospheric events.

• Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through

depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems;
habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change
or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. As
indicated by the I=PAT equation, environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by
the combination of an already very large and increasing human population (P),
continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence (A), and the application
of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T)

• Human impact on the nitrogen cycle is diverse. Agricultural and industrial

nitrogen (N) inputs to the environment currently exceed inputs from natural N fixation.
As a consequence of anthropogenic inputs, the global nitrogen cycle has been
significantly altered over the past century. Global atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) mole
fractions have increased from a pre- industrial value of ~270 nmol/mol to ~319
nmol/mol in 2005. Human activities account for over one-third of N2O emissions, most
of which are due to the agricultural sector. This article is intended to give a brief review
of the history of anthropogenic N inputs, and reported impacts of nitrogen inputs on
selected terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
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• An environmental problem occurs when there comes a change in quality or the

quantity of the environmental factor that directly or indirectly affects everything on
earth. There are two ways of studying environmental problems

• Firstly, to look for adverse effects by not looking at the origin of is occurrence.

• Secondly to understand cause and effect relationship in order to predict better

and make possible efforts to reduce or vanish its adverse effects.

Local environmental issues

• Fresh water Scarcity

• Desertification

• Increase in Population

• Carbon Cycle

• Pollution-Soil Pollution, Air Pollution, Noise Pollution, Water pollution

• Endangered Species

Regional and Global environmental issues

• Fresh water scarcity

• Global Warming

• Air Pollution

• The WHO said about 3.3 million people had died as a result of indoor air pollution
and 2.6 million deaths were related to outdoor air pollution.

• Around 30bn cubic meters of gas is burned by the GCC countries per year, the
equivalent of 900,000 barrels of oil per day.

• The region’s construction industry is considered to be a major cause of air

pollution due to the dust and particle emissions from factories catering to the sector.

• Soil Pollution

• -Hazardous waste and sewage spills

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• -Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use

• of inorganic pesticides.

• -Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices

• -Household dumping and littering.

• -Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced

• crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual

• pollution, soil erosion, and desertification.

• Acid rain

• Ozone depletion

• Water-borne diseases

• -According to WHO more than 3.4 million individuals die every year of death and
disease throughout the world.

• Water pollution

is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities. Water

bodies include for example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groun dwater, Water
pollution results when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment.

• Noise pollution

• also known as environmental noise or sound pollution, is the propagation

of noise with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal life. The source of
outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and propagation
systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, side-by-side industrial
and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of
the main sources of noise in residential areas include loud music, transportation noise,
lawn care maintenance, nearby construction, or young people yelling (sports games).

Solid Waste

• Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste water treatment
plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded
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materials including solid, liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material, resulting

from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural operations, and from community
activities, but does not include solid or dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid
or dissolved materials in irrigation return flows or industrial discharges that are point
sources

• Solid wastes are any discarded or abandoned materials. Solid wastes can be
solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous material.

• Examples of solid wastes include the following materials when discarded:

• waste tires

• septage

• scrap metal

• latex paints

• furniture and toys, garbage

• appliances and vehicles

• oil and anti-freeze

• empty aerosol cans, paint cans and compressed gas cylinders

• construction and demolition debris, asbestos

• A material is discarded if it is abandoned by being:

• disposed of;

• burned or incinerated, including being burned as a fuel for the purpose of

recovering usable energy; or

• accumulated, stored or physically, chemically or biologically treated (other than

burned or incinerated) instead of or before being disposed of.

Liquid waste

• Liquid waste can be defined as such Liquids as wastewater, fats, oils or grease
(FOG), used oil, liquids, solids, gases, or sludges and hazardous household liquids.
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These liquids that are hazardous or potentially harmful to human health or the
environment. They can also be discarded commercial products classified as “Liquid
Industrial Waste” such as cleaning fluids or pesticides, or the by-products of
manufacturing processes. There are general regulatory requirements relating to waste,
additional regulations apply to generating, storing, transporting, treating and disposing
of hazardous and liquid wastes.

Biomedical waste

• Biomedical waste is any kind

of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious) materials. It may also include
waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of
medical or laboratory origin (e.g., packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as
well research laboratory waste containing biomolecules or organisms that are mainly
restricted from environmental release.

Hazardous waste

• Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public

health or the environment.

• Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit
one or more of the following hazardous traits:

– Ignitability

– Reactivity

– Corrosivity

– Toxicity

• Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous,

liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of

waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of

our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and
solidification processes might be required.

Electronic waste
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• Electronic waste, or e-waste, is a term for electronic products that have become
unwanted, non-working or obsolete, and have essentially reached the end of their useful
life. Used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal
are also considered e-waste.

• Because technology advances at such a high rate, many electronic devices

become “trash” after a few short years of use.

• In fact, whole categories of old electronic items contribute to e-waste such as

VCRs being replaced by DVD players, and DVD players being replaced by blu-ray players.
E-waste is created from anything electronic: computers, TVs, monitors, cell phones,
PDAs, VCRs, CD players, fax machines, printers, etc.

• Climate change occurs when changes in Earth's climate system result in new
weather patterns that last for at least a few decades, and maybe for millions of years.
The climate system is comprised of five interacting parts, the atmosphere (air),
hydrosphere (water), cryos phere (ice and permafrost), biosphere (living things), and
lithosphere (earth's crust and upper mantle).

The political dimension of climate change

• Climate change creates injustices in who caused the problem, who is suffering
worst and first, and who is taking action. Power between nations and social groups
drives unequal disaster risks and the “compounded vulnerabilities” of poor peoples and

nations, and has led to gridlock in United Nations negotiations. The course reviews
social and political dimensions of local and national adaptation efforts, media
dynamics, collective and individual denial, and the rise of climate social movements.

• The human emissions of billions of tons of gases known to trap heat in the
atmosphere is a massive experiment on the systems that

support our species. Human civilization has developed in a remarkably stable

period of global temperature and precipitation, but the climate impacts are rising and
projected to get much worse in the decades ahead.

• To see vulnerable riverine and coastal areas and human habitation and
infrastructure, and consider other types of climate change- related risks such as
drought and heat waves,
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• To observe strategies for adaptation to rising sea levels and coastal defense
being adopted, as well as upland efforts,

• To hear from local and national government officials, NGOs, and community
members about climate change and solutions being considered and adopted.

The Social Dimensions of Climate Change

• Climate change is a long-term perspective. You know, we have tremendous

urgency. We live in this tremendous shower of sad, bad news. It’s a tidal wave. And
where do we get the long-term sensibility of sustaining ourselves, sustaining our vision
and our hope? This is long-term sustained change. It’s civilizational change. It’s cultural
change. And that is very different from political change or economic change, social
change.

• That is revolutionary. Some people have called it—it’s a new reformation even,
you see. But ecological conversion is mind and heart. It’s consciousness and
conscience. And that changes everything.

• So as we pick this up, no matter what our discipline is, what our work is—law,
government, academia, economics—we can all work towards a common goal of
ecological conversion. This is an intergenerational effort.

• In the midst of massive, relentless materialism that’s shared by Asia and the
West, people are looking for alternative ethical-spiritual visions, especially for the
healing of our planet

• While the effects of climate change—floods, drought, heat stress, species loss,
and ecological change—can be experienced very directly, their conceptualization as
connected phenomena with common causes is due to climate science, which therefore
plays a very basic part when it comes to climate change and society.

• But that consensus does not of course mean the science is then accepted as the
basis for policy. Climate science does not provide certain future projections of risks and
damages. The projections are entangled in assumptions about how human systems
respond over time—as well as natural ones.

Climate is an outcome of a complex geo-atmospheric-ecological system, and complex

systems always have a capacity to surprise by behaving in unanticipated ways. Climate
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change, furthermore, is only one of a range of interacting phenomena of global

environmental change caused or affected by human activity. We may indeed be entering
the unknown territory of an ‘anthropocene’ era where people drive truly major changes
in global systems.

• Thus scientific findings and their action implications must seek validation not
just within the scientific community itself, but also within the larger society, and
different political systems have different means for validation

The economic dimension of climate change

• What do scientific findings mean in human terms? An answer is given by
economics, which can attach cost estimates to the current

• A lot turns on seemingly technical factors such as the rate of discount

used to calculate a present value for future costs. Depending on the discount rate
chosen, we can end up with massive differences in the size of the present value of
future costs, and so radically different implications for climate policy. The choice of
discount rate turns out to be a major ethical issue, not just a technical economic matter
Further contestation arises once we move beyond the confines of standard economic
analysis to contemplate other ethical issues

• pertaining (for example) to basic human needs, and the distribution of burdens
and benefits of action and inaction across rich and poor, within and across national
boundaries, as well as between generations. Sagoff argues in his chapter that the
asymmetry of burdens and benefits across generations means that economic thinking
should not be at the core of climate policy analysis. At any rate, changing consumer
habits are no substitute for coordinated collective action.

Impacts of pollutant on human health

• Air Pollution Effects

• Breathing polluted air puts us at a higher risk asthma and other respiratory
diseases.
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• When exposed to ground ozone for 6 to 7 hours, scientific evidence show that
healthy people’s lung function decreased and they suffered from respiratory
inflammation.

• Air pollutants are mostly carcinogens and living in a polluted area can put people
at risk of Cancer.

• Coughing and wheezing are common symptoms observed on city folks.

• Damages the immune system, endocrine and reproductive systems.

• High levels of particle pollution have been associated with higher incidents of
heart problems.

• The burning of fossil fuels and the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
are causing the Earth to become warmer.

• The toxic chemicals released into the air settle into plants and water sources.
Animals eat the contaminated plants and drink the water. The poison then travels up the
food chain – to us.

• Water Pollution Effects

• Diseases such as amoebiasis, typhoid and hookworm are caused by polluted
drinking water.

• Water polluted by chemicals such as heavy metals, lead, pesticides and

hydrocarbon can cause hormonal and reproductive problems, damage to the nervous
system, liver and kidney damage and cancer – to name a few. Being exposed to
mercury causes Parkinson’s disease,

Alzheimer’s, heart disease and death.

• A polluted beach causes rashes, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, encephalitis,

stomach aches and vomiting.

• Water pollution affects marine life which is one of our food sources.

• Land Pollution Effects

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• Land pollution effects are particularly hazardous and can lead to the loss of
ecosystems. Directly or indirectly, land pollution affects climate patterns.

• Toxic chemicals and pesticides lead to potentially fatal illnesses like skin
cancer and human respiratory system. These chemicals reach us through foods and
vegetables grown in polluted soil.

• With the loss of habitat and natural environments, the animal kingdom face a
serious threat.

• Deforestation is compromising tree cover, leading to a highly imbalanced rain

cycle. A disturbed rain cycle affects a lot of factors such as our green cover; trees and
plants help balance the atmosphere, without them we are subjected to various concerns
like global warming, the greenhouse effect, irregular rainfall and flash floods, among
other imbalances.

• Noise pollution effects

• Noise leads to emotional and behavioral stress. A person may feel disturbed in
the presence of loud noise

• Noise may permanently damage hearing. A sudden loud noise can cause severe
damage to the eardrum.

• Noise increases the chances of occurrence of diseases such as headache, blood

pressure, heart failure, etc

• Noise leads to increased heart beat, constriction of blood vessels and dilation of
pupil.

• Noise is a problem especially for patients who need rest.

• Noise may cause damage to liver, brain and heart.

• Radio active pollution effects

• The impact of radioactive pollution on human beings can vary from mild to fatal;
the magnitude of the adverse effects largely depends on the level and duration of
exposure to radioactivity. Low levels of localized exposure may only have a superficial
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effect and cause mild skin irritation. Effects of long, but low-intensity exposures include
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of hair, bruises due to subcutaneous bleeding etc

• Long-term exposure or exposure to high amounts of radiation can have far more
serious health effects. Radioactive rays can cause irreparable damage to DNA
molecules and can lead to a life-threatening condition. Prolonged exposure leads to a
large number of molecules in the body being ionized into free radicals. Free radicals
promote the growth of cancerous cells, i.e. tumors, in the body. People with heavy
radiation exposure are at a very high risk for cancers.

• The rapidly growing/dividing cells, like those of the skin, bone marrow,
intestines, and gonads are more sensitive towards radioactive emissions. On the other
hand, cells that do not undergo rapid cell division, such as bone cells and nervous cells,
aren't damaged so easily.

• Skin cancer, lung cancer and thyroid cancer are some of the common types of
cancers caused by radiation.

The effects of genetic mutation are passed on to the future generations as well. In other
words, if the parents are exposed to nuclear radiation, their child could have severe
congenital birth defects, both physical and mental. This is tragically illustrated in the
case of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, where the aftereffects of nuclear radiation were
carried on for generations, and thousands of children were born with physical
abnormalities and mental retardation.

The radiation also brought about a spike in cancer; the region still (after more than 65
years) has a much higher rate of cancer and congenital abnormalities than the rest of
Japan.

Natural and energy resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, Hydro,

Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear and Forest

• Renewable Energy
is a natural energy which does not have a limited supply. Renewable Energy can be
used again and again, and will never run out.

• OR
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• Renewable energy is used to describe energy sources that are replenished by

natural processes on a sufficiently rapid time-scale so that they can be used by humans
more or less indefinitely, provided the quantity taken per unit of time is not too

great. Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished
constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated
deep within the earth.

• Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from:

• solar,

• wind,

• ocean,

• hydropower,

• biomass,

• geothermal resources, and

• biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.

• Although biomass is a renewable energy, this should not be mistaken for a clean
energy source. Although biomass is significantly cleaner than most fossil fuels such as
coal and oil, it still produces sulphur dioxide during electricity production.

• Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

• Power Generation,

• Hot Water/ Space Heating,

• Transport Fuels, and

• Rural (off-grid) Energy Services

Solar Energy
• Solar power is attractive because it is abundant and offers a solution to fossil
fuel emissions and global climate change. Earth receives solar energy at the rate of
approximately 1,73,000 TW. This enormously exceeds both the current annual global
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energy consumption rate of about 15 TW, and any conceivable requirement in the
future. India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal
combination for solar power in India. India is already a leader in wind

power generation.
• The Indian growth story no longer needs to be validated and verified as India is
set to become one of the largest solar Hub globally in the coming years. Driving on the
surge is the growing renewable energy industry with vision on the future and systematic
year on year growth.

Renewable Energy India expo celebrated 12 glorious years of Global entrepreneurship

and unparalleled industry collaborations during September 2018

• Congregation of International stakeholders with cutting edge technology and

products the expo boasts of unparallel collaborations from across the globe.

India is on the ambitious path to implement the world’s largest Renewable Energy
expansion program. It’s growing stature and successful leadership position at
International Solar Alliance (ISA) has prompted even the countries outside of the tropics
in entering the alliance. The international Solar Alliance (ISA) is conceived as a coalition
of solar resource rich countries to address their special energy needs and provide a
platform to collaborate on addressing the identified gaps through a common, agreed
approach.

• INDIA’S KEY ACHIVEMENTS INCLUDE

• Phenomenal dip in solar tariffs to a record low of USD 0.0334 per unit because of
the increasing viability of Solar energy products. 10% provision of roof top solar and
Renewable Energy as mandatory under mission statement and Guidelines for all the 100
Smart Cities

• Successfully leading the climate change deal amongst 195 countries at COP 21
in Paris, with 40% commitment for non-fossil fuel based energy by 2030. 72 GW
installed capacity, the total share of Renewable Energy has now increased to 20% of the
total installed capacity
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• Construction of world’s largest solar park, (2 GW when fully complete) in full

swing at Pavagada Taluk, Tumakuru District of Karnataka which is set to become the
largest solar park in a single location.

• Most comprehensive power sector reform ever, UDAY (Ujwal DISCOM Assurance
Yojana) for financial turnaround of Power Distribution Companies

• Construction of Green Energy Corridor to strengthen the transmission of

renewable Energy 35 solar parks with overall capacity of 20,514 MW in 21 States has
been approved

Wind Power
• Wind power generation capacity in India has significantly increased in recent
years. As of 31 December 2018 the total installed wind power capacity was 35.288 GW,
the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the

world. Wind power capacity is mainly spread across the South, West and North regions.

• Wind power costs in India are decreasing rapidly. The levelised tariff of wind
power reached a record low of ₹2.43 (3.4¢ US) per kWh (without any direct or indirect
subsidies) during auctions for wind projects in December 2017.

• In December 2017, union government announced the applicable

guidelines for tariff-based wind power auctions to bring more clarity and minimise the
risk to the developers.

• Tamil Nadu's wind power capacity is around 29% of India's total. The
Government of Tamil Nadu realized the importance and need for renewable energy, and
set up a separate Agency, as registered society, called the Tamil Nadu Energy
Development Agency (TEDA) as early as 1985. Now, Tamil Nadu has become a leader in
Wind Power in India.

• Installed wind capacity by state as of 31 March 2018

• State Total Capacity (MW)

• Tamil Nadu 8,197

• Gujarat 5,613
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• Maharashtra 4,784

• Karnataka 4,509

• Rajasthan 4,298

• Andhra Pradesh 3,963

• Madhya Pradesh 2,520

• Telangana 101

• Kerala 53

• Others 4

• Total 34,043

Hydroelectric Power
• India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30
April 2017, India's installed utility-scale hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5%
of its total utility power generation capacity.

• Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380

MW (1.3% of its total utility power generation capacity) have been installed.

• India's hydroelectric power potential is estimated at 148,700 MWat 60%

load factor.

• In the fiscal year 2016-17, the total hydroelectric power generated in India was
122.31 TWh (excluding small hydro) with an

average capacity factor of 33%.

• The hydro-electric power plants

at Darjeeling and Shivanasamudram were established in 1898 and 1902, respectively.

They were among the first in Asia and India has been a dominant player in global
hydroelectric power development. India also imports surplus hydroelectric power from
Bhutan.
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• Small hydropower, defined to be generated at facilities with nameplate capacities

up to 25 MW, comes under the ambit of the Ministry of New and Renewable energy
(MNRE); whilst large hydro, defined as above 25 MW, comes under the ambit of Ministry
of Power.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the natural heat of the earth. Earth's interior heat originated from
its fiery consolidation of dust and gas over 4 billion years ago. It is continually
regenerated by the decay of radioactive elements, that occur in all rocks.

From the surface down through the crust, the normal temperature gradient - the
increase of temperature with the increase of depth - in the Earth's crust is 17 °C -- 30 °C
per kilometer of depth (50 °F -- 87 °F per mile).

Below the crust is the mantle, made of highly viscous, partially molten rocks with
temperatures between 650 °C -- 1250 °C (1200 °F -- 2280 °F). At the Earth's core, which
consists of a liquid outer core and a solid inner core, temperatures vary from 4000 °C --
7000 °C (7200 °F-- 12600 °F).

• There are four major types of Geothermal energy resources.

Hydrothermal Geopressurised brines Hot dry rocks

Magma

• There are seven geothermal provinces in India : the Himalayas, Sohana, West
coast, Cambay, Son- Narmada-Tapi (SONATA), Godavari, and Mahanadi.

• In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI
(Geological Survey of India) has identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the
country. The most promising of these is in Puga valley of Ladakh. The estimated
potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.

• Technology for electricity generation There are two types of the plants.

1. Flash steam plants

When the geothermal energy is available at 150 °C and above temperature, the fluids
can be used directly to generate electricity. In some cases, direct steam is available
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from the geothermal reservoir; otherwise the steam is separated and turbines are used
for power generation.

2. Binary plant

These plants are used when geothermal temperature is between 100

°C and 150 °C. The fluid is extracted and circulated through a heat exchanger where the
heat is transferred to the low boiling point organic liquid. This gets converted into high
pressure vapour, which drives organic fluid turbines

• Indian organisations working in geothermal energy:

Central Electricity Authority Geological Survey of India

Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu

National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad Oil and Natural Gas Corporation,
Dehradun

Ongoing Projects in India:

Magneto-telluric investigations in Tattapani geothermal area in Madhya Pradesh

Magneto-telluric investigations in Puga geothermal area in Ladakh region, Jammu &

Kashmir

• Achievements:

Geothermal Atlas of India, prepared by the Geological Survey of India(GSI) gives

information/data for more than 300 geothermal potential sites. This Atlas is being
updated by GSI with the support from MNES.

Applications of geothermal energy for small-scale power generation and thermal

applications are being explored.

Potential Applications:

Power generation

Cooking

Space heating
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Use in greenhouse cultivation

Crop drying

Biomass
• India is an ideal environment for Biomass production given its tropical location
and abundant sunshine and rains. The countries vast agricultural potential provides
huge agro-residues which can be used to meet energy needs, both in heat and power
applications..According to IREDA "Biomass is capable of supplementing the coal to the
tune of about 260 million tonnes", "saving of about Rs. 250 billion, every year.“

• It is estimated that the potential for biomass energy in India includes 16,000 MW
from biomass energy and a further 3,500 MW from bagasse

cogeneration. Biomass materials that can be used for power generation include
bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee
waste, jute wastes, and groundnut shells and saw dust.

• Biogas
• In 2018, India has set target to produce 15 million tons (62 mmcmd) of
biogas/bio-CNG by installing 5,000 large scale commercial type biogas plants which
can produce daily 12.5 tons of bio-CNG by each plant. The rejected organic solids from
biogas plants can be used after Torrefaction in the existing coal fired plants to reduce
coal consumption.

• Bio protein

• Main article: Power-to-gas

• Synthetic methane (SNG) generated using electricity from carbon neutral

renewable power or Bio CNG can be used to produce protein rich feed for cattle, poultry
and fish economically by

cultivating Methylococcus capsulatus bacteria culture with tiny land and water foot
print. The carbon dioxide gas produced as by product from these bio protein plants can
be recycled in the generation of SNG.

• Similarly, oxygen gas produced as by product from the electrolysis of water and
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the methanation process can be consumed in the cultivation of bacteria culture. With
these integrated plants, the abundant renewable power potential in India can be
converted in to high value food products with out any water pollution or green house
gas (GHG) emissions for achieving food security at a faster pace with lesser people
deployment in agriculture / animal husbandry sector.

• Biofuel

• Ethanol
• Ethanol market penetration reached its highest figure of a 3.3% blend rate in
India in 2016. It is produced from sugarcane molasses and partly from grains and can
be blended with gasoline. Sugarcane or sugarcane juice may not be used for the
production of ethanol in India.

• Biodiesel
• The market for biodiesel remains at an early stage in India with the country
achieving a minimal blend rate with diesel of 0.001% in 2016. Initially development was
focussed on the jatropha (jatropha curcas) plant as the most suitable inedible oilseed
for biodiesel production. Development

of biodiesel from jatropha has met a number of agronomic and economic restraints and
attention is now moving towards other feedstock technologies which utilize used
cooking oils, other unusable oil fractions, animal fat and inedible oils.

Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal,

gas, hydroelectricity and wind power. As of

March 2018, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power plants, having
a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW. Nuclear power produced a total of 35 TWh and
supplied 3.22% of Indian electricity in 2017. 7 more reactors are under construction with
a combined generation capacity of 4,300 MW.

• India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme.

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• The Indian government is committed to growing its nuclear power capacity as

part of its massive infrastructure development programme.

• The government has set ambitious targets to grow nuclear capacity. At the start
of 2018 six reactors were under construction in India, with a combined capacity of 4.4
GWe.

• Because India is outside the Nuclear Non- Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons
programme, it was for 34 years largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant and
materials, which hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.

• Due to earlier trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been
developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium.

• Since 2010, a fundamental incompatibility between India’s civil liability law and
international conventions limits foreign technology provision.

Soil As Natural Resource

• Soil is one of the world's most important natural resources. Together with air and
water it is the basis for life on planet earth. It has many important functions which are
essential for life. Not only does it play the major part in allowing us to feed the world's
population, but it also plays a major role in the recycling of air, water, nutrients, and
maintaining a number of natural cycles, thereby ensuring that there will be a basis for
life in generations to come. Without soil, the world's population neither would nor could
survive.

• Soil forms the surface skin over the landscape of the earth at the junction
between the atmosphere and the lithosphere. Think of soil as a thin carpet covering the
land portions of the earth. The distance from the surface of the earth, at which the soil
is situated, to the very centre of the earth deep below, is over 6,000 kilometres. Of this,
the soil layer is a mere one to two metres thickness of this 6,000 kilometres. It is thus a
very, very thin skin indeed - both fragile and extremely precious.

• Soil consists of a mixture of mineral

grains that come from the rock deposits and sediments beneath them. This mixture
gives the overall textureof the soil, namely whether the soil is mainly sandy, loamy or
clayey. Importantly, soil also
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contains organic matter, mainly in the top 20 cm. Organic matter comes from rotted and
decomposed vegetation, broken down by soil organisms.

• Soil also contains varying amounts

of water depending on the climate and the water holding capacity of the soil. The
remaining important ingredient is air. The amounts of each of these components

varies in time and across the landscape. This is a magical mixture of ingredients that
allows the soil to perform many vital needs of living beings.

Forest as natural resource

• A forest is a complex ecosystem which is predominantly composed of trees,
shrubs and is usually a closed canopy. Forests are storehouses of a large variety of life
forms such as plants, mammals, birds, insects and reptiles etc. Also the forests have
abundant microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work of decomposing
dead organic matter thereby enriching the soil. Nearly 4 billion hectares of forest cover
the earth’s surface, roughly 30 percent of its total land area

• The forest ecosystem has two components- the non- living (abiotic) and the
living (biotic) component. Climate, soil type are part of the non-living component and
the living component includes plants, animals and other life forms. Plants include the
trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs in the forest. Depending on the physical,
geographical, climatic and ecological factors, there are different types of forest like
evergreen forest (mainly composed of evergreen tree species i.e. species having leaves
all throughout the year) and deciduous forest (mainly composed of deciduous tree
species i.e. species having leaf-fall during particular months of the year). Each forest
type forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.

• The term forest implies ‘natural vegetation’ of the area, existing from
thousands of years and

supporting a variety of biodiversity, forming a complex ecosystem. Plantation is

different from natural forest as these planted species are often of same type and
doesn’t support a variety of natural biodiversity. Forests provide various natural services
and products. Many forest products are used in day-today life. Besides these, forests
play important role in maintaining ecological balance & contributes to economy also.
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• Ecological Role of Forest:

• Forests provide an environment for many species of plants and animals thus
protects and sustains the diversity of nature.

• Plants provide habitat to different types of organisms. Birds build their nests on
the branches of trees, animals and birds live in the hollows, insects and other organisms
live in various parts of the plant.

• Forests act as hydrologic flow modulators

• Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of raindrops on the
soil, thereby reducing soil erosion. Roots help to hold the soil in place. They provide
shade which prevents the soil to become too dry. Thus increases the soil moisture
holding capacity.

• Forests help in maintaining microclimate of the area.

• Plants clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve heat at night, and act as
excellent sound absorbers. Transpiration from the forests affects the relative humidity
and precipitation in a place. Forests clean the environment by muffling noises, buffering
strong winds and stopping dust and gases.

• The layer of leaves that fall around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water
to percolate into the soil. Thus helping in ground water recharge.

• Dead plants decompose to form humus, organic matter that holds the water and
provides nutrients to the soil.

• Through the process of photosynthesis, forests renew the oxygen supply in the
atmosphere by absorbing atmospheric CO2 and moderating the greenhouse effect.

• Forest cover of an area plays an important role in amount of precipitation

received by the area. Thus play an important role in maintaining water cycle of the area.

• Some species of trees have the ability to return nitrogen to the soil through root
decomposition or fallen leaves. Such trees are planted to increase the nitrogen content
of the soil.

• Forests absorb suspended particles in air thereby reducing pollution.

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• Forests also helps in the process of soil formation by causing weathering of rock

• They play vital role in maintaining healthy watershed. Rivers originate in a forest
area and carry the organic matter from forest to the downstream thus supporting a
variety of fishes and aquatic animals. The richness of forest in upstream decides the
biological value of the river ecosystem supported by it.

• It provides forest food which has great medicinal value and used by local people
in respective season.

• Contribution to economy:

• It provides valuable items like timber, paper, fuel wood, bamboo, cane, food,
fibers, essential oils.

• Forest plants provide hundreds of medicinal plants, spices, poisons, insecticides,

soap substitutes like ritha and shikakai, tendu leaves used in bidi wrapping.

• Forests also provide fodder for cattle and other grazing animals. Leaves and
twigs of some plants have high fodder value. It is useful fodder source during drought.

• Classification of Forests:

• Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the

temperatures are low. These forests have tall stately trees with needle-like leaves and
downward –sloping branches, so that the snow can slip off the branches.

• Broad-leaved forests are of several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous

forests, thorn forests, and mangrove forests. Broad-leaved trees usually have large
leaves of various shapes and are found in middle to lower latitude.

• Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North –
eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where
the monsoon period lasts for several months.

• Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal

rainfall that lasts for only a few months. Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow
are of this type. The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot
summer months.
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• Thorn forests are found in the semi-arid regions of India. The trees, which are
sparsely distributed, are surrounded by open grassy areas.

• Mangroves forests grow along the coast especially in the river deltas. These
plants are uniquely adapted to be able to grow in a mix of saline and freshwater. They
grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the rivers have brought down. The
mangrove trees have breathing roots that emerge from the mud banks.

• Forest Types in India:

• Champion & Seth system of classification (1968) provides an elaborate

description of forest types of India in six major groups which are further divided into 16
type groups and finally into 200 types including subtypes and variations of forests. The
‘forest type’ may be defined as a unit of vegetation with distinctive physiognomy and
structure. As per Champion & Seth, the determining factors of the forest types are
climate, soil, vegetation and the past treatment (including biotic interference). The
major six groups of Indian Forests subdivided in to 16 type groups are given below:

Types of forest

• Moist tropical Forests

• Group 1- Wet evergreen

• Group 2 - Semi-evergreen

• Group 3 - Moist deciduous

• Group 4 - Littoral and swamp Dry tropical Forests

• Group 5 - Dry deciduous

• Group 6 - Thorn

• Group 7 - Dry evergreen

Montane sub tropical Forests

• Group 8 - Broad leaved

• Group 9 - Pine

• Group 10 - Dry evergreen Montane temperate Forests

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• Group 11 - Wet

• Group 12 – Moist

• Group 13 - Dry

• Group 14 - Sub alpine forests Alpine Forests

• Group 15- Moist

• Group 16- Dry

• Threats to Forests:

As the rate of development is increasing, it is putting pressure on all the natural

resources around us.

Forests are also getting depleted at a fast rate all over the world

• Over use and irrational use, technological and industrial growth, population
growth and increasing consumption levels

• Increasing tourism activities are also causing destruction to forest

ecosystem. when the frequency of visitors and tourists becomes excessive, problems
of soil erosion occur along and adjacent to footpaths.

• Forest fire is also an important threat to forests, which destroy large areas of
forest every year all over the world.

• Natural disasters like Tsunami, earthquake destroys large forests areas in a short
span of time. All these natural as well as man- made factors cause destruction of
forests at a large scale.

• Managing forests Conservation, protection & overall management of forests is

important. Entities involved in it & their role can be summarized as:

• A. Government

• B. Community and community organizations

• C. Individuals and Private Bodies

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Mitigation — actions taken to prevent or reduce the risk to life, property, social and
economic activities, and natural resources from natural hazards — is central to the
Decade initiative. Awareness, education, preparedness, and prediction and warning
systems can reduce the disruptive impacts of a natural disaster on communities.
Mitigation measures such as adoption of zoning, land-use practices, and building codes
are needed, however, to prevent or reduce actual damage from hazards.

• Avoiding development in landslide- and flood-prone areas through planning and

zoning ordinances, for example, may save money in construction and reduce the loss of
life and damage to property and natural resources. Post disaster studies continue to
confirm the fundamental fact that community investment in mitigation pays direct
dividends when a disaster occurs.

• The development of mitigation strategies should flow from the risk management
process with clear links to functional lead agencies, as identified in the SDMP, to ensure
each risk and strategy is coordinated and managed by the responsible agency.

• Prevention and mitigation strategies should be based on the risk assessment

and can be considered in relation to:

• land use planning and building codes

• essential infrastructure

• structural works

• landscape and environment.

• Examples of mitigation strategies include:

• hazard specific control activities such as flood levees or bushfire mitigation

strategies

• design improvements to infrastructure or services

• land use planning and design decisions that avoid developments and community
infrastructure in areas prone to hazards

• community awareness campaigns to increase knowledge of how to prepare for

disaster events
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• capital works such as levee bank construction to reduce the impacts of flooding

• resilience activities including partnership building and engagement between

sectors

• annual programs (e.g. vegetation management around essential services and

essential infrastructure such as power lines).

• The concept of betterment, often considered predominantly within post-disaster

recovery and reconstruction, should also form a key consideration pre-disaster through
proactive mitigation strategies which aim to enhance and harden infrastructure to a
more disaster resilient standard.

• Mitigation Measures for Natural Hazards

Mitigation measures are actions that eliminate or reduce risks from future disaster
events, including:

• • Physical construction projects such as replacing a highly vulnerable facility with

a new facility or retrofitting an existing facility, and

• • Evacuation planning to minimize casualties in future disaster events. Mitigation

planning is complementary to emergency planning. Emergency planning includes
measures to respond more effectively to future disasters. The mitigation measures
listed below do not include emergency planning measures, but rather focus specifically
on measures that eliminate or reduce damages and/or casualties in future disaster
events

• 1.0 Earthquake Mitigation

Measures Earthquake mitigation measures are typically intended to reduce both
casualties and damage in future earthquakes. Common earthquake mitigation
measures include:

• Structural mitigation measures to improve the capacity of a building to

resist seismic forces.

• Nonstructural mitigation measures to restrain, brace, anchor or otherwise

improve the seismic resistance of nonstructural building components.
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• Nonstructural mitigation measures to restrain, brace or anchor building

contents, especially tall and/or heavy items that pose life safety risks if they fall.

• Replacement of an existing building with substantial seismic deficiencies with a

new current code building.

• Replacement with a new building on a different site may be appropriate if an

existing site is also subject to other natural hazards, such as tsunamis or floods, or to
significant anthropogenic hazards such as being near a major hazmat site.

• Design and construction of a new facility to higher than the minimum seismic
standards required by building codes,

especially for facilities that may serve as emergency shelters.

• Practicing drop, hold and cover drills, which may reduce injuries from falling
objects.

• 2.0 Tsunami Mitigation

• Measures Tsunami mitigation measures are focused predominantly on life
safety, with reducing damage being as secondary priority, if considered at all. The
primary tsunami mitigation measures are:

• Developing and practicing evacuation plans. This is an essential, urgent priority

for facilities within mapped tsunami inundation zones and strongly recommended for
facilities near mapped tsunami inundation zones or simply near the coast at low
elevations.

• However, unless there is a high confidence that a safe haven location can be
reached in the available time period, then an evacuation plan provides a minimal, if any,
increase in life safety.

• Constructing new facilities well outside of tsunami hazard zones. For existing
facilities, where reaching a safe haven location takes longer than the available time
period, implementing one of the following mitigation measures is strongly
recommended:
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• Replacement of an existing facility with a new facility located well outside the
tsunami inundation zone, at an elevation of at least 50 feet and an elevation of 100 feet
or more, if possible.

• Construction of vertical evacuation structures such as platforms or engineered

berms in close proximity to an at-risk facility.

• Designation of existing multi-story buildings as vertical evacuation sites. Existing

multistory buildings are suitable for tsunami evacuation if and only if they have been
rigorously evaluated by qualified, experienced engineers and found to have all of the
following characteristics with a high confidence level:

• Have accessible floors or roofs at an elevation well above the anticipated

tsunami inundation level. Ideally, at least 50 feet above sea level. o Have immediate
access for the public on a 24/7/365 basis. o Have adequate structural capacity to
withstand the very strong earthquake ground shaking expected from nearby tsunami-
generating earthquakes such as large or very large magnitude earthquakes on the
Cascadia Subduction Zone or large magnitude earthquakes on the Seattle Fault Zone or
Tacoma Fault Zone. Buildings suitable for vertical evacuation must withstand the
earthquake ground shaking without major structural damage

• Have adequate structural capacity to withstand the tsunami forces without

significant structural damage.

• If an existing building doesn’t meet all of the above criteria, one alternative is to
retrofit the building to meet these criteria. It is also possible to construct new multistory
facilities suitable for vertical evacuation. In this case, the same selection criteria apply
as those listed above for existing buildings.

• 3.0 Volcanic Hazards

• Mitigation Measures, the principal volcanic hazard is lahars (volcanic debris
flows), although some campuses are within possible lateral blast zones. Volcanic
hazards mitigation measures are focused predominantly on life safety, with reducing
damage being rarely, if ever, considered. However, dealing with volcanic ash falls is
more in the domain of emergency planning.

• The primary volcanic hazards mitigation measures are:

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• Developing and practicing evacuation plans. This is an essential, high priority for
facilities within mapped lahar zones and other volcanic hazard zones and strongly
recommended for facilities near mapped hazard zones.

• For facilities with lateral blast zones, evacuation is impossible once a blast
occurs. Therefore, evacuations must be pro-active, when USGS volcanic event warnings
reach a pre-determined level.

• Constructing new facilities well outside of lahar hazard zones.

• Replacement of an existing facility with a new facility located well outside the
lahar inundation zone.

• Construction of a pedestrian bridge to expedite evacuation in locations where

access to the nearest suitable evacuation location is precluded by a river without a
bridge.

• 4.0 Flood Mitigation Measures

• In most situations, the primary objective of flood mitigation measures is to
reduce the potential for future damages and other economic losses. Life safety risk is
minimal for most flood situations, because there is typically more than adequate time to
evacuate a campus before flooding occurs.

• However, for locations subject to flash flooding, evacuation planning is a high

priority.

• Most of the mitigation measures outlined below apply to individual buildings,

although flood barriers may also apply to an entire campus.

• Common flood mitigation measures include:

• Replacement of an existing building with a new building well outside of the flood
hazard area.

• Elevation of an existing building is a very common mitigation measure for

residential buildings and for small commercial buildings.

• Relocation of an existing building to a new site is a much less common

mitigation measure than elevation.
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• Flood barriers such as flood walls or berms may be constructed to protect an

entire campus or single buildings.

• Floodproofing of an existing building by waterproofing existing exterior walls and

adding removable flood gates for door openings is possible for buildings where the
walls have adequate strength to resist hydrostatic forces from floods and anticipated
flood depths are not more than several feet.

• Elevating at-grade outside utility infrastructure or key in-building

infrastructure such as furnaces and electrical panels.

• Moving expensive equipment or other expensive contents to an upper story.

• For campuses subject to flash flooding, developing and practicing an evacuation

plan is a high priority mitigation measure.

• Constructing new facilities well outside of flood hazard areas.

• 5.0 Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Mitigation Measures

• Mitigation measures for wildland/urban fires typically focus primarily on
evacuations for life safety. However, there are also physical mitigation measures to
reduce the risk of damage to buildings. Common mitigation measures for
wildland/urban interface fires include:

• Developing and practicing evacuation plans.

• Vegetation management and fuel reduction measures for high vegetative fuel
load areas near developed areas.

• Maintaining defensible space around buildings to minimize the potential of a

vegetation fire spreading to structures.

• Implementing fire-resistant construction details for buildings, such as

nonflammable roof coverings, nonflammable exterior walls, screening ventilation
openings to prevent embers from entering and many others.

• Siting new facilities in locations with lower risk of wildland/urban interface fires.

• 6.0 Landslide Mitigation Measures

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• Possible mitigation measures for landslides include:

• Slope stabilization by dewatering and other methods,

• Protecting at-risk buildings by building berms or other structures to stop or

deflect shallow landslides such as debris flows.

• Constructing new facilities outside of landslide hazard areas.

• For very high risk locations, where a building is located very close to a deeply
incised stream with eroding banks or is located at the base of a very steep, very
unstable slope, the only viable mitigation measure may be to abandon the existing
building and locate a replacement outside of landslide hazard areas.

• Evacuation when landslide risk appears imminent such as evidence of

downslope movements above a building or a rapidly eroding steep slope is approaching
a building.

Environment Protection Act 1986

• An Act to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and for
matters connected there with:

• WHEREAS the decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to
take appropriate steps for the protection and improvement of human environment;

• AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary further to implement the decisions

aforesaid in so far as they relate to the protection and improvement of environment and
the prevention of hazards to human beings, other living creatures, plants and property;

• BE it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-seventh Year of the Republic of India as

follows:-

• CHAPTER I

• PRELIMINARY

• [Link] TITLE, EXTEND AND COMMENCEMENT

• (1) This Act may be called the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
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• (2) It extends to the whole of India.

• (3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint and different dates may be appointed for
different provisions of this Act and for different areas.

• [Link]

• In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,--

• (a) "environment" includes water, air and land and the inter- relationship which
exists among and between water, air and land, and human beings, other living creatures,
plants, micro- organism and property;

• (b) "environmental pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance

present in such concentration as may be, or tend to be, injurious to environment;

• (c) "environmental pollution" means the presence in the environment of any

environmental pollutant;

• (d) "handling", in relation to any substance, means the manufacture, processing,

treatment, package, storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion,
offering for sale, transfer or the like of such substance;

• (e) "hazardous substance" means any substance or preparation which, by reason

of its chemical or physico-chemical properties or handling, is liable to cause harm to
human beings, other living creatures, plant, micro-organism, property or the
environment;

• (f) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means a person who has,
control over the affairs of the factory or the premises and includes in relation to any
substance, the person in possession of the substance;

• (g) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act.

• CHAPTER II

• GENERAL POWERS OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

• 3. POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO TAKE MEASURES TO PROTECT AND

IMPROVE ENVIRONMENT
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• (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, shall have the
power to take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of
protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing controlling and
abating environmental pollution.

• (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of sub-
section (1), such measures may include measures with respect to all or any of the
following matters, namely:--

• (i) co-ordination of actions by the State Governments, officers and other

authorities--

• (a) under this Act, or the rules made thereunder, or

• (b) under any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the
objects of this Act;

• (ii) planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention,

control and abatement of environmental pollution;

• (iii) laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;

• (iv) laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants

from various sources whatsoever:

• Provided that different standards for emission or discharge may be laid down
under this clause from different sources having regard to the quality or composition of
the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from such sources;

• (v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class

of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out
subject to certain safeguards;

• (vi) laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents
which may cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such accidents;

• (vii) laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous
substances;

• (viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as

are likely to cause environmental pollution;
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• (ix) carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems
of environmental pollution;

• (x) inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or

other processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such directions to
such authorities, officers or persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the
prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;

• (xi) establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to

carry out the functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes
under this Act;

• (xii) collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to

environmental pollution;

• (xiii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control

and abatement of environmental pollution;

• (xiv) such other matters as the Central Government deems necessary or

expedient for the purpose of securing the effective implementation of the provisions of
this Act.

• (3) The Central Government may, if it considers it necessary or expedient so to

do for the purpose of this Act, by order, published in the Official Gazette, constitute an
authority or authorities by such name or names as may be specified in the order for the
purpose of exercising and performing such of the powers and functions (including the
power to issue directions under section 5) of the Central Government under this Act and
for taking measures with respect to such of the matters referred to in sub-section (2) as
may be mentioned in the order and subject to the supervision and control of the Central
Government and the provisions of such order, such authority or authorities may exercise
and powers or perform the functions or take the measures so mentioned in the order as
if such authority or authorities had been empowered by this Act to exercise those
powers or perform those functions or take such measures.

• 4. APPOINTMENT OF OFFICERS AND THEIR POWERS AND FUNCTIONS

• (1) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub- section (3) of section 3, the
Central Government may appoint officers with such designation as it thinks fit for the
 239

purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers and functions under
this Act as it may deem fit.

• (2) The officers appointed under sub-section (1) shall be subject to the general
control and direction of the Central Government or, if so directed by that Government,
also of the authority or authorities, if any, constituted under sub- section (3) of section 3
or of any other authority or officer.

• 5. POWER TO GIVE DIRECTIONS

• Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law but subject to the

provisions of this Act, the Central Government may, in the exercise of its powers and
performance of its functions under this Act, issue directions in writing to any person,
officer or any authority and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply
with such directions.3

• Explanation--For the avoidance of doubt, it is hereby declared that the power to

issue directions under this section includes the power to direct--

• (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process; or

• (b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other

service.

• 6. RULES TO REGULATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

• (1) The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make
rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred to in section 3.

• (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power,
such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:--

• (a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes;

• (b) the maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental

pollutants (including noise) for different areas;

• (c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;

• (d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in

different areas;
 240

• (e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on
process and operations in different areas;

• (f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may
cause environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures for such
accidents.

• CHAPTER III

• PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

• 7. PERSONS CARRYING ON INDUSTRY OPERATION, ETC., NOT TO ALLOW

EMISSION OR DISCHARGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS IN EXCESS OF THE
STANDARDS

• 8. PERSONS HANDLING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES TO COMPLY WITH

PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS

• 9. FURNISHING OF INFORMATION TO AUTHORITIES AND AGENCIES IN CERTAIN

CASES

• 10. POWERS OF ENTRY AND INSPECTION

• 11. POWER TO TAKE SAMPLE AND PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED IN

CONNECTION THEREWITH

• [Link] LABORATORIES

• 13. GOVERNMENT ANALYSTS

• 14. REPORTS OF GOVERNMENT ANALYSTS

• 15. PENALTY FOR CONTRAVENTION OF THE PROVISIONS OF THE ACT AND

THE RULES, ORDERS AND DIRECTIONS

• 16. OFFENCES BY COMPANIES

• 17. OFFENCES BY GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

• 18. PROTECTION OF ACTION TAKEN IN GOOD FAITH

• 19. COGNIZANCE OF OFFENCES

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• No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a
complaint made by--

• (a) the Central Government or any authority or officer authorised in this behalf by
that Government,20 or

• (b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner
prescribed, of the alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint, to the
Central Government or the authority or officer authorised as aforesaid.

• 20. INFORMATION, REPORTS OR RETURNS

• 21. MEMBERS, OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES OF THE AUTHORITY CONSTITUTED

UNDER SECTION 3 TO BE PUBLIC SERVANTS

• 22. BAR OF JURISDICTION

• 24. EFFECT OF OTHER LAWS

• 25. POWER TO MAKE RULES

• The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules
for carrying out the purposes of this Act.

• 26. RULES MADE UNDER THIS ACT TO BE LAID BEFORE PARLIAMENT

• Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if,
before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive
sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both
Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only
in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that any such
modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything
previously done under that rule.

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

• Climate change is one of the most critical global challenges of our times. Recent
events have emphatically demonstrated our growing vulnerability to climate change.
Climate change impacts will range from affecting agriculture – further endangering
 242

food security – to sea-level rise and the accelerated erosion of coastal zones,
increasing intensity of natural disasters, species extinction, and the spread of vector-
borne diseases. India released its much-awaited National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC) to mitigate and adapt to climate change on June 30, 2008, almost a
year after it was announced. The NAPCC runs through 2017 and directs ministries to
submit detailed implementation plans to the Prime Minister's Council on Climate
Change by December 2008.

• The action plan outlines a number of steps to simultaneously advance India's

development and climate change-related

objectives. The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) encompasses a range
of measures. It focuses on eight missions, which are as follows

1. National Solar Mission: The NAPCC aims to promote the development and
use of solar energy for power generation and other uses, with the ultimate objective of
making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options. It also includes the
establishment of a solar research center, increased international collaboration on
technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and
increased government funding and international support.

2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: The NAPCC

recommends mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-
consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-saving certificates,
financing for public–private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through
demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings, and agricultural
sectors, and energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy- efficient appliances.

3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: The NAPCC also aims at

promoting energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning by extending the
existing Energy Conservation Building Code, strengthening the enforcement of
automotive fuel economy standards, and using pricing measures to encourage the
purchase of efficient vehicles and incentives for the use of public transportation. The
NAPCC also emphasizes on waste management and recycling.

4. National Water Mission: The NAPCC sets a

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goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures
to deal with water scarcity as a result of climate change.

5. National Mission for Sustaining the

Himalayan Ecosystem: This particular mission sets the goal to prevent melting of the
Himalayan glaciers and to protect biodiversity in the Himalayan region.

6. Green India Mission: The NAPCC also aims

at afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest

cover from 23 to 33% of India's territory.

7. National Mission for Sustainable

Agriculture: The NAPCC aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the
development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms,
and agricultural practices.

8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge

for Climate Change: To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and
challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate
modeling, and increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector
initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through venture capital
funds.

The NAPCC also describes other ongoing

initiatives that are as follows:

1. Power generation: The government is mandating the retirement of

inefficient coal-fired power plants and supporting the research and development of
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle IGCC and supercritical technologies.

2. Renewable energy: Under the Electricity Act 2003 and the National Tariff
Policy 2006, the central and the state electricity regulatory commissions must purchase
a certain percentage of grid-based power from renewable sources.
 244

3. Energy efficiency: Under the Energy Conservation Act 2001, large energy-
consuming industries are required to undertake energy audits and an energy- labeling
program for appliances has been introduced.

4. Proposals for health sector: The proposed program comprises two main
components, namely provision of enhanced public health care services and assessment
of increased burden of diseases due to climate change.

5. Implementation: Ministries with lead responsibility for each of the missions are
directed to develop objectives, implementation strategies, timelines, and monitoring and
evaluation criteria to be submitted to the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change.
The Council will also be responsible for periodically reviewing and reporting on each
mission's progress. To be able to quantify progress, appropriate indicators and
methodologies will be developed to assess both avoided emissions and adaptation
benefits.

International Agreement/efforts- Montreal Protocol

• The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement with
universal ratification to protect the earth’s ozone layer by eliminating use of ozone
depleting substances (ODS), which would otherwise allow increased UV radiation to
reach the earth, resulting in higher incidence of skin cancers and eye cataracts, more-
compromised immune systems, and negative effects on watersheds, agricultural lands
and forests.

• Since its adoption in 1987 and as of end- 2014, it has successfully eliminated
over 98 percent of controlled ODS, helping reverse

the damage to the ozone layer. A very significant co-benefit is that it has - during period
1989-2013 - reduced cumulative CO2-eq. emissions by 135 billion tonnes .

• Important challenges remain. The transition from CFCs (high ozone depleting
potential or ODP) to intermediate HCFCs

(with lower ODP) has been completed, and the final transition is to alternatives that
have zero ODP. The challenge is to develop/select alternatives (mainly in refrigeration,
air-conditioning, and foam products) that are also climate-friendly.

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a

protocol
 245

to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international
treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous
substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.

• It was agreed on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 16 September

1989,

following a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight
revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi),

1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995

(Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998

(Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali)

• As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly

recovering.

• Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels
between 2050 and 2070. Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has
been hailed as an example of exceptional international co- operation, with Kofi Annan
quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to
date has been the Montreal Protocol".

• Key points of Montreal Protocol

• The Montreal Protocol is signed by 197 countries – the first treaty in the history
of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification – and is considered by many the
most successful environmental global action.

• The treaty was originally signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and
1992.

• The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer aimed to ban
the global production and use of ozone- damaging chemicals including CFCs, HCFCs
and halon.
 246

• It was designed to stop the production and import of ozone depleting substances
and reduce their concentration in the atmosphere to help protect the earth's ozone
layer.

• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances

(ODS) are mainly responsible for man- made chemical ozone depletion. The total
amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be
calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).

Rio Summit
• From 3-14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro hosted the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED). The focus of this conference was the state of
the global environment and the relationship between economics, science and the
environment in a political context. The conference concluded with the Earth Summit, at
which leaders of 105 nations gathered to demonstrate their commitment to sustainable
development.

• The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also

known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, the Rio Summit, the Rio Conference, and the
Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio
de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.

• Earth Summit was created as a response for Member States to cooperate

together internationally on development issues after the Cold War.

• Due to conflict relating to sustainability being too big for individual member
states to handle, Earth Summit was held as a platform for other Member States to
collaborate. Since the creation, many others in the field of sustainability show a similar
development to the issues discussed in these conferences, including non-governmental
organizations (NGOs).

• In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was also

held in Rio, and is also commonly called Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012. It was held
from 13 to 22 June.

• The issues addressed included:

 247

• systematic scrutiny of patterns of production — particularly the production of

toxic components, such as lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioactive
chemicals

• alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil fuels which delegates
linked to global climate change

• new reliance on public transportation systems in order to reduce vehicle

emissions, congestion in cities and the health problems caused by polluted air and
smoke

• the growing usage and limited supply of water

• An important achievement of the summit was an agreement on the Climate

Change Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
Another agreement was to "not to carry out any activities on the lands of indigenous
peoples that would cause environmental degradation or that would be culturally
inappropriate".

• The Convention on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Earth
Summit, and made a start towards redefinition of measures that did not inherently
encourage destruction of natural ecoregions and so-called uneconomic growth.
Although President George H.W.

Bush signed the Earth Summit’s Convention on Climate, his EPA Administrator William
K. Reilly acknowledges that U.S. goals at the conference were difficult to negotiate and
the agency’s international results were mixed, including the U.S. failure to sign the
proposed Convention on Biological Diversity.

Twelve cities were also honoured by the Local Government Honours Award for
innovative local environmental programs. These included Sudbury in Canada for its
ambitious program to rehabilitate environmental damage from the

local mining industry, Austin in the United States for its green building strategy,

and Kitakyūshū in Japan for incorporating an international education and training

component into its municipal pollution control program.

• Five separate agreements were made at the Rio Earth Summit. These included:
 248

• The Convention on Biological Diversity;

• The Framework Convention on Climate change;

• Principles of Forest Management;

• The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; and

• Agenda 21 (a "blueprint" for sustainable development).

Convention on Biodiversity
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as

the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main
goals including: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable
use of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from
genetic resources.

• In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation
and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document
regarding sustainable development. The Convention was opened for signature at the
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December
1993. CBD has two supplementary agreements - Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya
Protocol.

• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological

Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified
organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. It
was adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the Convention on
Biological Diversity and entered into force on 11 September 2003. The Nagoya Protocol
on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising
from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity is a supplementary
agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity.

• It provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one

of the three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out
of the utilization of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol on ABS was adopted on 29
October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan and entered into force on 12 October 2014, 90 days
 249

after the deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification. Its objective is the fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, thereby
contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity

• Some of the many issues dealt with under the convention include:

• Measures the incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity.

• Regulated access to genetic resources and traditional knowledge, including Prior

Informed Consent of the party providing resources.

• Technical and scientific cooperation.

• Access to and transfer of technology, including biotechnology, to the

governments and/or local communities that provided traditional knowledge and/or

biodiversity resources. Impact assessment.

• Education and public awareness.

• Provision of financial resources.

• National reporting on efforts to implement treaty commitments.

• Sharing, in a fair and equitable way, the results of research and development and
the benefits arising from the commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with
the Contracting Party providing such resources (governments and/or local communities
that provided the traditional knowledge or biodiversity resources utilized).

• Coordination of a global directory of taxonomic expertise (Global Taxonomy

Initiative).

• Cartagena Protocol
• The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety of the Convention, also known as the
Biosafety Protocol, was adopted in January 2000. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to
protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms
resulting from modern biotechnology.
 250

• The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must
be based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public
health against economic benefits. It will for example let countries ban imports of a
genetically modified organism if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence the
product is safe and requires exporters to label shipments containing genetically
modified commodities such as corn or cotton.

• Nagoya Protocol
• The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological
Diversity is a supplementary agreement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. It
provides a transparent legal framework for the effective implementation of one of the
three objectives of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in
Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, and entered into force on 12 October 2014. Its objective
is the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic
resources, thereby contributing to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

• Meetings of the parties

• 1994 COP 1

• The first ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in
November and December 1994, in Nassau, Bahamas.

• 1995 COP 2

• The second ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in
November 1995, in Jakarta, Indonesia.

• 1996 COP 3

• The third ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in
November 1996, in Buenos Aires, Argentina.

• 1998 COP 4

• The fourth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in May
1998, in Bratislava, Slovakia.
 251

• 1999 EXCOP 1

• The First Extraordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties took place in
February 1999, in Cartagena, Colombia.

• 2000 COP 5

• The fifth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in May
2000, in Nairobi, Kenya.

• 2002 COP 6

• The sixth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in April
2002, in The Hague, Netherlands.

• 2004 COP 7

• The seventh ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in
February 2004, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

• 2006 COP 8

• The eighth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in March
2006, in Curitiba, Brazil.

• 2008 COP 9

• The ninth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in
May 2008, in Bonn, Germany.

• 2010 COP 10

• The tenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place in October
2010, in Nagoya, Japan.

• 2012 COP 11

• Leading up to the Conference of the Parties (COP 11) meeting on biodiversity in

Hyderabad, India 2012, preparations for a World Wide Views on Biodiversity has begun,
involving old and new partners and building on the experiences from the World Wide
Views on Global Warming.

• 2014 COP 12
 252

• Under the theme, "Biodiversity for Sustainable Development," thousands of

representatives of governments, NGOs, indigenous peoples, scientists and the private
sector gathered in Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea in October 2014 for the 12th
meeting.

• 2016 COP 13

• COP13 Mexico meeting

• The thirteenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place
between 2 and 17 December 2016 in Cancun, Mexico

• 2018 COP 14

• The tenth ordinary meeting of the parties to the convention took place on 17 - 29
November 2018, in Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt.

Kyoto Protocol

• The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting
internationally binding emission reduction targets.

• Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current
high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of
industrial activity, the Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities."

• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and
entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the
Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as
the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in
2012.

• The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the
onset of global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
to "a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system" (Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in
 253

Annex A: Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O),

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

• The Kyoto mechanisms- Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets
primarily through national measures. However, the Protocol also offers them an
additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-based mechanisms.

• The Kyoto mechanisms are:

• International Emissions Trading

• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

• Joint implementation (JI)

•The mechanisms help to stimulate green investment and help Parties meet their
emission targets in a cost-effective way.

Monitoring emission targets

• Under the Protocol, countries' actual emissions have to be monitored and precise
records have to be kept of the trades carried out.

• Registry systems track and record transactions by Parties under the

mechanisms. The UN Climate Change Secretariat, based in Bonn, Germany, keeps an
international transaction log to verify that transactions are consistent with the rules of
the Protocol.

• Reporting is done by Parties by submitting annual emission inventories and

national reports under the Protocol at regular intervals.

• A compliance system ensures that Parties are meeting their commitments and
helps them to meet their commitments if they have problems doing so.

• Adaptation The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, is also designed to assist
countries in adapting to the adverse effects of climate change. It facilitates the
development and deployment of technologies that can help increase resilience to the
impacts of climate change.

• The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and

programmes in developing countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first
 254

commitment period, the Fund was financed mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM
project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for the second commitment
period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also provide the
Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.

• The Kyoto Protocol is seen as an important first step towards a truly global
emission reduction regime that will stabilize GHG emissions, and can provide the
architecture for the future international agreement on climate change.

• In Durban, the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced
Action (ADP) was established to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an
agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention, applicable to all Parties. The
ADP is to complete its work as early as possible, but no later than 2015, in order to
adopt this protocol, legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal force at the twenty-
first session of the Conference of the Parties and for it to come into effect and be
implemented from 2020.

Paris Agreement
• The Paris Agreement (Accord de Paris) is an agreement within the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC), dealing with greenhouse- gas-emissions mitigation, adaptation,

and finance, ratified in the year 2016. The agreement's language was negotiated by
representatives of 196 state parties at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the

UNFCCC in Le Bourget, near Paris, France, and adopted by consensus on 12 December

2015.

• As of March 2019, 195 UNFCCC members have signed the agreement, and 185
have become party to it.

• The Paris Agreement's long-term goal is to keep the increase in global average
temperature to well below 2 °C above pre- industrial levels; and to limit the increase to
1.5 °C, since this would substantially reduce the risks and effects of climate change.

• Under the Paris Agreement, each country must determine, plan, and regularly
report on the contribution that it undertakes to
 255

mitigate global warming. No mechanism forces a country to set a specific target by a

specific date, but each target should go beyond previously set targets.

• The aim of the agreement is to decrease global warming described in its Article
2, "enhancing the implementation" of the UNFCCC through:

• (a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C
above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to
1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the
risks and impacts of climate change;

• (b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and
foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner
that does not threaten food production;

• (c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas

emissions and climate-resilient development.

• (d) This strategy involved energy and climate policy including the so called
20/20/20 targets, namely reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (by 20%), the increase
of RES share (to 20%) and the increase of energy efficiency, thus, saving up to 20% in
the energy consumption

• Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions

as soon as possible". The agreement has been

described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.

• The Paris deal is the world's first comprehensive climate agreement.

• Some of the key aspects of the Agreement are-

• Long-term temperature goal(Article 2)

• Global peaking and 'climate neutrality' (Article 4)

• Mitigation (Article 4)

• Sinks and reservoirs (Article5)

• Voluntary cooperation/Market- and non- market-based approaches (Article 6)

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• Adaptation (Article 7)

• Loss and damage (Article 8)

• Finance, technology and capacity-building support (Article 9, 10 and 11)

• Climate change education, training, public awareness, public participation and

public access to information (Article 12)

• Transparency (Article 13), implementation and compliance (Article 15)

• Global Stocktake (Article 14)

International Solar Alliance

• The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of more than 122 countries

initiated by India, most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or
partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. now extended to all
members of UN. The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation
of solar energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

• This initiative was first proposed by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in a
speech in November 2015 at Wembley Stadium, in which he referred to sunshine
countries

as Suryaputra ("Sons of the Sun"). The alliance is a treaty-based inter- governmental

organization. Countries that do not fall within the Tropics can join the alliance and enjoy
all benefits as other members, with the exception of voting rights

• The initiative was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the India Africa
Summit, and a meeting of member

countries ahead of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris in
November 2015. The framework agreement of the International Solar Alliance opened
for signatures in Marrakech, Morocco in November 2016, and 122 countries have
joined.

• It is headquartered in India. In January 2016, Narendra Modi, and the then French
President François Hollande jointly laid the
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foundation stone of the ISA Headquarters and inaugurated the interim Secretariat at the
National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE) in Gwal Pahari, Gurugram, India.

• The Indian government has dedicated five acres of land on the NISE campus for
its future headquarters; it also has contributed ₹1.75 billion (US$24 million) to the fund
to build a campus and for meeting expenditures for the first five years.

• The alliance is also called International Agency for Solar Policy and Application
(IASPA).

• The focus is on solar power utilization. The launching of such an alliance in Paris
also sends a strong signal to the global communities about the sincerity of the
developing nations towards their concern about climate change and to switch to a low-
carbon growth path. India has pledged a target of installing 100GW by 2022 and
reduction in emission intensity by 33–35% by 2030 to let solar energy reach to the most
unconnected villages and communities and also towards creating a clean planet.

•India's pledge to the Paris summit offered to bring 40% of its electricity generation
capacity (not actual production) from non-fossil sources (renewable, large hydro, and
nuclear) by 2030.

• it is based on world co operation.

• At the World Future Energy Summit (WFES) held in Abu Dhabi in January

2018, the government of India announced the establishment of a $350 million solar
development fund to enable financing of solar projects.

Unit-10

Institutions of higher learning and education in

ancient India
Vedic Age
Introduction
 258

• Molded and shaped by religion

• Based on dharma (religion, virtue or duty)

• Two medium of teaching oral/written

• Wide approach, multi dimensional progress of all mankind

• Based on principles of love, honorable conduct and good behavior.

• Self realization and mukti

• Two aspects of life and death.

• Provide a vision for perspective and proportion, material and the moral, the
physical and spiritual, the perishable and permanent, interests and values of life are
clearly defined and strictly differentiated.

• Education must aid in self-fulfillment, and not in the acquisition of mere objective
knowledge

Philosophy of Life in Ancient India

• The doctrine of action (Karma) occupies a very significant place in the Indian
system of life and of education

• The ancient Aryan culture of India lays the greatest emphasis on plain living and
high thinking as the moral basis of education for self development.

• the individual has been bidden necessarily to gain both kinds of knowledge,
materialistic and spiritual.

• All fields of vidya or knowledge were thus divided into two broad streams-the
paravidya (the higher knowledge, the spiritual wisdom) and the aparavidya (the lower
knowledge, the secular sciences.)

• The latter is needed to live a comfortable life here. The former helps one
to be fully prepared for the hereafter.

• The Indian system of education caters to both physical and spiritual solitariness.

Fundamentals of Ancient Indian Education

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• Knowledge related to life

• Close association between teacher and student resulted in all round

development

• Development in social work

• Vocational training

The Four Vedas

• the Vedas regarded as the oldest among the literatures of the world, are the
original sources of the philosophy of life in ancient India.

• The Upanishads, the Smritis and the Puranas, all acknowledge the superiority of
Vedas.

• The basis of Indian culture lies in the Vedas, which are four in number Rigveda,
Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

• The Rig Veda is established as the earliest work not merely of the Hindus, but of
all Indo- European languages and humanity.

• Following Rigveda, came into existence the three Samhitas of Sama, Yajuh and
Atharva in close succession

Evolution of Education in the Rigveda

• The Rig-Veda, in the form in which we have it now, is a compilation out of old
material, a collection and selection of 1,017 hymns out of the vast literature of hymns.

• The system of education, which evolved in the Rigveda concerns itself with the
acquisition of the Supreme knowledge, religion and Brahma. The aim of the Veda was
the knowledge of the Ultimate Truth and the realization of the Supreme.

The Curriculum of Vedic Education

• The students started the recitation of the Vedic hymns in early hours of morning.

• The chanting of Mantras had been evolved into the form of a fine art.
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• Special attention was paid to the correct pronunciation of words, Pada or even
letters.

• Only that knowledge, which was received from the lips of the teacher, was
regarded as purely Vedic. Thus, the teaching was oral.

• Various subjects were incorporated in the curriculum of Vedic education.

Grammar, rhetoric, astrology, logic, Nirukti (etymological interpretation of words) was
the main subjects. Vedang was the synonym of all these subjects taken together- the
performance of sacrifice, correct pronunciation, knowledge of prosody, etymology,
grammar, and jyotishi or the science of calendar.

• The study of logic occupied a special place, because knowledge of any other
subject was tested on its basis. Debates and discussions were organized for training in
logic.

• Though the Rigvedic education, being essentially religious and philosophical in

character, was imparted only to those who were fit to make quest of Eternal Truth and
acquire Supreme knowledge, yet there was arrangement for secular education and
vocational training for the masses.

• the people would receive training in diverse arts and crafts for material gain.
Agriculture, horticulture and animal husbandry attained to a high norm of progress.
Thus, we can safely conclude that secular, social and practical form of education was in
existence during the Rigvedic era.

Method of Teaching
• Two methods of teaching were being practiced during the Vedic period.

• The first method was Oral and the second was based on Chintan i.e. thinking.

• Education was reduced to the three simple processes of Sravana, Manana and
Niddhyaasana

• Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of the teacher.
Knowledge was technically called Sruti or what the ear heard and not what was seen in
writing. The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to
think out for himself the meaning of the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so
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that they may assimilate fully. The third step known as Niddhyasana means complete
comprehension by the pupil of the truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and
not merely explain it by word. Knowledge must result in realization. Just as in modern
days teachers encourage intelligent students by guiding them to make research,
similarly in ancient days Manan (reflection) was a method especially for highly
intelligent students.

Main Characteristics of Vedic Education

• The admission was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana or [Link] this
new home he had a second birth and was called Dvijya or twice born.

• The pupil was eligible to admission to the preceptor’s house only on the basis of
his moral fitness and unimpeachable conduct.

• The discipline of brahmacharya or celibacy was compulsory. Though a married

youth was entitled to get education, yet he was denied the right of being the residential
pupil.

• It was one of the sacred duties of the pupil to serve his preceptor. He pledged
devotion to him in thought, speech and deed and worshipped him as his own father or
God.

• Brahman-Sangh was an organization where meritorious students were given

chances to fulfill their quest of higher knowledge. These Sanghs may be compared to
the seminars of the modern times.

• here was equality between the gender in the filed of knowledge. The Rig Veda
mentions women Rais called Brahmanavadinis.

• Princes and other leading Kshatriyas were trained in all the manifold sciences to
make them fit for government. Most boys of the lower orders learnt their trades from
their fathers.

• Some cities became renowned because of their teachers. Chief among them
were - Varanasi, Taxila from the day of Buddha and Kanchi in the beginning of the
Christian era.

• Varanasi was famous for its religious teachers.

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• Taxila was known for its secular studies. Among the famous men connected
with Taxila was Panini, the grammarian of the fifth or fourth century B.C.: Kautilya, the
Brahmin minister of Chandragupta Maurya and Charaka one of the two leading
authorities of Indian medical sciences.

• There were also universities like Taxila and Ujjain for medicine and learning
including mathematics and astronomy respectively. In the south Kanchi became an
important center of learning.

• In the Rigvedic period occupations were not dependent on Varna system.

• This age is exemplary for its economic, political and religious progress and
famous for various arts and crafts, agriculture, commerce and trade. It thus, leads to the
inevitable inference that the period must have evolved an elaborate system of
vocational, scientific and commercial education

Conclusion

• Thus, the ideal of the Vedic education was lofty. Ample opportunities were
provided to the pupil for the development of his personality. The preceptors took
personal care of the pupils, which resulted inevitably in a multi-dimensional
development. The educational system of Vedic period achieved a pronounced success
in connection with character formation, development of personality, and contribution to
knowledge in all branches of learning as well as social well being and material
prosperity.

• The Vedic education was essentially spiritual and religious in character, yet it did
not ignore the material aspect, the evidence whereof is available in the Yajurveda and
the Atharvaveda. Thus it points unmistakably to the future evolution of Aryan culture.

Education during the Later Vedic Age

• The philosophers now meditated upon selfrealization. Their mystical experiences
manifested themselves through the scriptures known as Brahmanas and Aranyakas.

• The Upanishads were next to emerge into being. The Upanishads aver that
whatever good is done with full knowledge and awareness becomes forceful and fruitful
in life.
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• The Vedanta, an important trend in philosophical thought.

• The spread and propagation of the post-Vedic education was influenced through
diverse institutions known as Sakhas, Charanas, Parishads, Kulas and Gotras- an
improvement on the oral tradition of the Vedic literature.

Aim of Education

• The basic aim of education during the Later-Vedic period has been the same as
during the Vedic Age- the salvation of the soul, but the method of attaining this goal has
been different between the two periods. During the Vedic period the student used to
attain the objective of education through penance while living with Acharya as member
of his family. During the post- Vedic period, Yajna replaced the penance and a number
of procedures were prescribed for the same. Only that education was regarded true,
which helped one to realize this supreme truth.

Curriculum

• During the post- Vedic period various types of literatures were produced
pertaining to different Vedas.

• In addition to religious subject, many worldly subjects were also included in the
curriculum. The curriculum consisted of Vedas, History, Puranas, Grammar,
mathematics, Brahma Vidya, Nirukti, astronomy, dance, music etc.

• Education was not regarded as an end in itself; it was fundamentally related to

life.

• Its aim was the attainment of Brahmavarchasai.e. knowledge of the Absolute.

the performance of sacrifice and other ritualistic operations were directed to the same
end, but special emphasis was laid on the study of the Scriptures, technically known as
Svadhyaya or Self- study.

Method of Instruction
• Hearing, thinking and meditation were the three principal psychological methods
of instruction during the post- Vedic period. Also question-answer system was followed
in the Upanishad literature, through this difficult and abstract ideas were made simple.
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Important place of Teacher

• Teacher (Guru) enjoyed a predominant place not only in his

• Gurukul but also in the entire society. He was regarded as a great guide for all.

• The teacher was expected to be in possession of the essential qualities viz.

profundity of education, clairvoyant vision and intellectual regeneration.

• The duration of education was twelve years.

Duties of Students and Teachers

• Students had to beg alms for the support of the Guru and himself.

• This tradition was carried out by all, be he poor or rich.

• Along with the external duties study was the main duty of the pupil. The study of
Vedas would initiate their education.

• At the completion of their educational period, the teachers would deliver

convocational address to the students, which sought to remind them of the duties in
practical life they stood at the threshold of. This was the Samavartana ceremony.

• It was traditional knowledge to pupils through a succession of teachers, which

came to be known as Guru Parampara. The life of the teacher served as a model for the
pupils to follow and imitate.

Forms of Educational Institutions

• Broadly there existed three types of institutions namely Gurukulas,

• Parishads(Academies) and Sammelans (Conferences) in that age.

• According to sacred texts, the training of the Brahmin pupil took place at the
home of a Brahmin teacher.

• The first lesson that was taught to the student was the performance of sandhya
and also reciting of gayatri.
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• The family functioned as a domestic school, an ashram or a hermitage where the

mental faculties of the pupils were developed by the teacher's constant attention and
personal instruction.

• Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions for
the promotion of advance study and research.

• These are called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana- Sangha.

• These Academics were called Parisads; there is a reference to the Panchala

Parisad in the Upanishads, in whose proceedings even kings participated.

• These Academies were the main forums where students belonging to

higher order of learning gathered and quenched their insatiable thirst for knowledge
through discussions and discourses.

• During the Vedic period one could choose a particular profession as he liked and
accordingly his Varna was determined. But during the later Vedic period Varna came to
be determined by birth. Consequently the whole society was divided into four Varna-
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra.

• the Kshatriyas was limited only to defense, protection of people and

administration. Military training was thus important for the princes.

• Vaishyas, agriculture and animal husbandry and trade was their chief occupation,
and as such they were given technical education of agriculture, animal husbandry and
trade. Knowledge of various languages, rates of wages, rules applicable to purchase
and sale of commodities, the study of arithmetic, general geography as well as
economic and commercial geography, science of agriculture and business method was
extremely essential.

• There was no provision of higher education for the Shudras. To serve was their
occupation. Nonetheless their education resembled more or less that of Vaishyas. They
learnt devajana Vidya, which according to Shamkara, included dancing, vocal music,
orchestral music and dyeing of clothes. No established technical institutions were in
existence for the sake of imparting technical education, but their knowledge was
transferred from generation to generation as heritage.

Conclusion
 266

• Thus, the Aryans had established and recognized the superiority of Varna
system. In addition to these, there were prevalent certain arts and sciences which could
be regarded as non-parallel in the history of that period

Education in the Sutras and Epics

• The period of the Vedic literature was followed by that of Sutra literature. It falls
between 600 B.C and 200 B.C.

• The need was strongly felt to evolve some practicable method as may epitomize
conveniently the huge mass of Vedic literature. This need brought a new type of
literature, the Sutras into being.

• These Sutras revealed great principles and truths in a very compressed and
succinct form.

• In this age, the rules and regulations of education were manifested mainly in the
form of Dharma-Sutras. These Dharma- Sutras embodied the principles of social
conduct and a code of duties for the teachers and students.

• The entire Sutra literature consists of mainly six divisions known as Vedangas.

• A pre-knowledge of various subjects such as Siksha, Chhadas, Vyakaran, Kalpa

and Jyotisha was indispensable for the sake of comprehending the Vedas.

• One special feature of education of this period is specialization of

students in different branches of learning.

• Constructive and creative aspect in ancient Indian education in as much as such

important branches of learning as Geometry, Algebra, Astronomy, Astrology, Physiology
and Grammar reached highest point of development in this period.

• The commentary of Patanjali is an immortal creation of ancient India.

• The Nyaya and Mimamsa Shastras too were the production of this age.

• Besides these works the Smritis were written for the proper guidance of life.

• The grammatical literature as represented in the works of Panini and his two
famous commentators, Katyayana and Patanjali.
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• The educational system during the Sutra period was identical with that of
Upanishad period.

• All the current unwritten regulations, social and religious traditions and
long standing conventions, had been compiled in the sutras in a well-arranged and
systematic order.

• This newly created literature became the proper course of study for the students.
The necessity of regular institutions was felt for higher education.

• Various sciences and arts such as handicrafts, medicine, sculpture and

architecture had attained the peak of development.

• Thus, the sole objective of the entire system of education during this period was
character formation, development of personality and protection of ancient culture.

• One special feature of the literature of the Sutra period is the unprecedented
progress of philosophy.

• In this period, the current of philosophical thought flowed out chiefly in six
different channels.

• In this way developed six systems of philosophy, viz, The Samkha of Kapila, The
Yoga of Patanjali, The Nyaya of Gautama, The Vaisheshika of Kanada, Karma or Purva-
mimansa of Jaimini and Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta of Badarayana.

Education in the Epics

The Mahabharata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts
gathered for instruction round some far-famed teachers. A full-fledged Ashram is
described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as following:

• 1. Agnisthana, the place for fire-worship and prayers

• 2. Brahma-sthana, the Department of Veda

• 3. Vishnusthana, the Department for teaching Raja- Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta

• 4. Mahendrasthana, Military Section

• 5. Vivasvata-sthana, Department of Astronomy

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• 6. Somasthana, Department of Botany

• 7. Garuda-sthana, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances

• 8. Kartikeya-sthana, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols,

battalions, and army.

• The most important of such hermitage was that of the Naimisha, a forest, which
was like a university. The presiding personality of the place was Saunaka, to whom was
applied the designation of Kulapati, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000
disciples.

• The hermitage of Kanva was another famous center of learning, of which a full
description is given. It is situated on the banks of the Malini, a tributary of the Sarayu
River.

• It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous hermitages

round the central hermitage of Rishi Kanva, the presiding spirit of the settlement. There
were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of
the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art, Kalpa-Sutras in the Chhanda (Metrics),
Sabda (Vyakarana), and Nirukta.

• There were also Logicians, knowing the principles of Nyaya, and of Dialectics
(the art of establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions).

• There were also specialists in the physical sciences and art.

• It was thus a forest University where the study of every available branch of
learning was cultivated.

• The hermitage of Vyasa was another seat of learning. There Vyasa taught the
Vedas to his disciples. Among the other hermitages noticed by the Mahabharata may
be mentioned those of Vasishtha and Visvamitra and that in the forest of Kamyaka on
the banks of the Saraswati.

• But a hermitage near Kurkshetra deserves special notice for the interesting fact
recorded that it produced two noted women hermits.

• Military science was generally called Dhanurveda.

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• In every village, there were military training camps where villagers were given
military education for self-defense.

• Mainly speaking, dancing, music, painting, sculpture, architecture, carpentry and

smithery were some such arts and crafts, which helped a major portion of the
population of the country to earn their livelihood.

• In this way many institutions were formed of which Taxila, Ujjain, Nalanda,
Benares, Ballavi, Ajanta, Madura and Vikramsila were very famous. Taxila was famous
for medicine and Ujjain for Astronomy. Both were pre-Buddhist. Jibaka the well-known
medical expert and the state physician of the King of Magadha of the 6th century B.C.
and Panini the famous grammarian of the 7th century B.C. and Kautilya, the authority on
Arthasastra, of the 4th century B.C. were students of Taxila.

• The academic year has several terms. Each term is inaugurated by a ceremony
called Upakarnmana and ends by the Utsarga ceremony. Holidays (Anadhyayas) are
regularly observed on two Astamis (eight day of the moon) two Chaturdasis (fourteenth
day of the moon), Amavasya, Purnima and on the last day of each of the four seasons,
called Chaturmasi. Besides these Nitya (regular) holidays there are Naimittika
(occasional) holidays due to accidental circumstances, eg. storms, thunder, rain, fog,
fire, eclipses etc.

• Education in Buddhist Era

Buddhism, itself, especially in its original and ancient form, is, as has been admitted on
all hands, rooted deeply in the pre-existing Hindu systems of thought and life.

•The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period.

• Besides monasteries, there were no other organizations for imparting education.

• Only the Bhikshus could receive religious and other types of education. Other
persons were deprived of this facility. There was no place for Yajna in the Buddhist
system.

For admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him
for giving education. The teacher was fully responsible for education of his pupil. In turn,
the pupil had also to be responsive to the instructions received from the teacher. Thus,
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a relationship was established between the teacher and the taught as during the Vedic
period.

• Pabbajja (First ordination)

• It means ‘going out’. According to this ceremony, the student after

• being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all his worldly and family
relationship. After admission into ‘Sangh’, they could remain as a monk. The age limit
fixed for Pabbajja was 8 years. At the time of entering into the Sangh, the disciple must
have attained the age of 8 years. There they had to receive education for 12 years and
during this period the new monk made his preparation for the Sangh life. After that he
had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony, which entitled a student for a full- fledged
membership of the monastery.

• Upasampada (Final Ordination)

• After completing the education of 12 years, the monk at the age of 20 years had
to undergo the Upasampada ritual and then he becomes the permanent member of the
Sangh. This ceremony was democratic in nature. The Shraman had to present himself
before all other monks (Bhikshus) of the monastery. One could be admitted for the
Upasampada ceremony only when the majority of the monks voted in favour of the
same.

• In the Buddhist system after having received education the student never came
back to his parents place for leading the life of a householder. He remained a monk for
good and cut off his worldly relationships forever.

Curriculum

• It was chiefly spiritual in nature. It was so because the chief aim of education
was to attain salvation. Study of religious books was most important. Suttanta, Vinaya
and Dhamma were the main subjects prescribed for the study. Besides these, spinning,
weaving, printing of the cloth, sketching, medicine, surgery and coinage were the other
subjects of Buddhist education.

• Education during this period may be classified into two partsprimary and higher.
In the primary education the emphasis was given on the teaching of reading, writing and
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arithmetic. Knowledge of grammar was essential. The child was primarily educated in
the knowledge of the alphabet, vowels, Sandhis or rules of combination.

• In the higher education, religion, philosophy, military science, medicine and other
difficult subjects were taught.

Method of Teaching

• The main aim of education in Buddhist period was the purity of character.
Therefore, like Vedic educational system, they also emphasized much on the practice
and training for pure character instead of psychological development of the students.

• Later on to attain the stage of Bodhisattva personal development was

considered essential and mental and moral development began to be emphasized.
Originally there was predominance of religions.

• The method of teaching was mostly oral. The importance of discussion

encouraged the logic in the Buddhist period.

Commercial and Occupational Education

• Indeed Buddhist education was basically religious. Yet,occupational education

was not neglected altogether and Mahabagga mentions about spinning and weaving,
tailoring etc. Among the other useful

arts- Architecture, Arithmetic, Painting, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry etc were also
taught. In Buddhist period emphasis was laid on the development of the medical
science. There were many medical experts during that period.

Conclusion

• Centers of Education- In Buddhist period, there were many such centers where
foreign students used to come for higher education. Among such centers, Takshila was
notable. It might be called the spiritual capital of India of the time.

• Minimum age of education- The minimum age for admission in Takshila

University was 16 years because here the students were taken only for higher studies.

• Education fee- It was about 1000 coins at that time, which was probably charged
in the beginning. Those who were unable to pay the fees in any form either cash or
manual labour, were educated as a charity.
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• Scholarships- The meritorious students who did not have means to support
themselves were given scholarship by the government of the time.

• Residence of Students- Generally the students lived in the centers with their
teacher but some married people and students residing in private lodges, were also not
prohibited from gaining education.

• Teaching arrangements- One head teacher, with the help of his assistants
arranged for the education of about 500 students. Efficient and experienced students
were appointed as assistant teachers.

• Higher Education- In higher education, students were taught Literary, scientific

and Vocational education.

• Search of truth and nirvana- Some students who could not get mentally satisfied
even through higher studies used to go to the isolated place of some monk and spent
their lives in search of truth and Nirvana.

Institutions of higher learning and education in

ancient India
Taxila University
• From times immemorial Taxila has been an important center of Brahmanical
education. During the Buddhist period, its fame continued in Northern India. It attracted
hundreds of students from various countries of the world. They came their to quench
the thirst of their knowledge. Being situated at the distance of 20 miles in the West of
Rawalpindi, Taxila was the capital of Gandhar Kingdom. According to Valmiki
Ramayana, Prince Bharat founded this city and appointed his son Taksha as the ruler of
the territory.

• There was no organized institution or university, but education was imparted on

family system. Takshshila was also not an organized university. It may be called an
educational center of different subjects, where special and higher studies were carried
on. Students were admitted according to the decision of the teacher. The students were
taught the subjects of their own choice. There was no examination system prevalent.
No degree or diploma was awarded to the students who completed their education.
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• Only higher studies were conducted in Takshshila and so the students of more
that sixteen years of age were admitted in the University. Perhaps the fees were also
realized in the beginning. Here the chief branches and subjects of study were Vedatrayi
(Three Vedas), Vedanta, Vyakaran, Ayurveda, eighteen Sippas (crafts), Military
education, Astronomy, Agriculture, Commerce, Snake Bite cure etc. Panini, the father of
Vyakaran and Jivaka, an expert in Surgery and Medicine were the product of Taxila.
Kautilya, the famous author of Arthashastra had received his higher education here.

• No caste distinction was observed as regards training in these sciences. Taxila

had been influenced by Greek culture also. Some preceptors taught Greek there. Taxila
was very famous as a centre of training in Indian Military science.

• Thus, for several centuries, Taxila served as the beacon light to the country in
educational sphere. This light of earning continued to burn inspite of vicissitudes of
fortune and stormy changes. At length, it was overwhelmed by the barbaric Huns who
extinguished this flame forever never to shine anew.

Important Points

• First university of world

• Established in 600 -700 BC

• Flourished from 700 BC to 500 AD in Kingdom of Gandhar

• 68 subjects were taught and 18 different arts also taught.

• Minimum age of admission is 16

• 10,500 total students including from Babylon, Greece, Syria and China

• Chanakya had written Arthashastra here

• Arch geologist Sir Alexander Cunningham rediscovered ruins of taxila in the mid
19th century

• UNESCO declared it as World Heritage Site in 1980

• 3.510 Million stupas were build in Taxila

• Destroyed by Huns in 5th century.

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Nalanda University
• In the province of Bihar, situated at a distance of 40 miles southwest of modern
Patna and seven miles north of Rajgriha, Nalanda was a famous cultural and
educational center of Northern India. In the beginning it was a small village but by and
by its importance grew in magnitude. It enjoyed a considerable degree of fame and
importance for Buddhist monks owing to its being the birth place of Sariputta, a
favourite disciple of Lord Buddha.

• This place began to grow in importance since the rise of Mahayana branch of
Buddhism in the first century

A.D. By the beginning of fourth century A.D. it became educationally important and
famous.

• Upto 5th century, Nalanda had not achieved paramount educational importance
in India. Its real importance begins with the year 450 A.D. For the next three centuries, it
remained at the zenith of its fame and importance, which is evident by the writings of
Hiuen-Tsang who came here in 7th century

A.D. and gave a vivid description of the glory and magnitude of this ancient seat of
culture and learning.

• Nalanda reached its zenith of progress at the hands of the kings of Gupta
dynasty. Kumaragupta I (414-445 A.D.) built a monastery there. A big and strong
enclosing wall having only one gateway marked off the entire university area.

• At this gate, there lived a teacher designated as Dwar Pandit who was incharge
of the test for admission to the university. The gate opened into eight big halls, where
students were delivered addresses en masse. These halls stood in the middle of
Samgharama that comprised the main building of the Vihara. Besides, these, there were
three hundred study chambers where students were taught by the preceptors.

• In Nalanda higher studies were carried on. Meritorious students from far and
wide came to this university to quench their thirst of knowledge.

• It was considered to be a great center of learning throughout the whole of

Asia. The admittance examination in Nalanada was not easy and according to Hieun-
Tsang only about 20 percent of the students succeeded in this examination. The
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minimum age limit was twenty years for admission into the university. Education, board
and lodging were provided to the students free of cost by the university.

• The Kulpati or Chancellor of the University was Shilbadra. He had studied all
Sutras and Shastras books and may explain them fully well. The scope of study in
Nalanda was very vast. Besides the study of Buddhism and Buddhist literature all other
subjects of the time were also included in the course of study. Though the Vihar
belonged to the Mahayana school of Buddhism, yet Hinyanana scriptures were also
taught there. Vedas, Vedant, Sankhya, Philosophy, Dharamshastra, Puran, Jyotish,
Ayurveda etc. were the subject of study along with physical education. Students were
also given practical training in many subjects. Students of this university were held in
high esteem everywhere in the country.

• There methods of teaching, namely verbal and explanatory, lectures and debates
and discussions. here was the arrangement for one hundred lectures daily and it was
obligatory on the part of the students to attend these talks. The university had a very big
library corresponding to its reputation. It had nine storeys. The library had three
departments known as ‘Ratna Sagar’. It had a collection of rare works about all
religions, subjects arts, sciences and crafts.

• There was the arrangement for one hundred lectures daily and it was obligatory
on the part of the students to attend these talks. The university had a very big library
corresponding to its reputation. It had nine storeys. The library had three departments
known as ‘Ratna Sagar’. It had a collection of rare works about all religions, subjects
arts, sciences and crafts.

• Nalanda, the unique symbol of Indian philosophy, arts and civilization after a
glorious career of 800 years, fell a prey to barbarism of the Mohammedan conqueror
named Bakhtiar Khilzi towards the end of the 12th century A.D. He destroyed the
University and put the library on fire and the innocent monks and students were
ruthlessly massacred. Thus, the light of learning which had been kept aglow through
ages with the fuel of all that is spiritual, pious and noble in human life was extinguished
never to shine again.

Other Ancient Universities

Valabhi
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• Another important education center of Buddhist period was Valabhi, capital seat
of the Maitraka Kings between 475 and 775 A.D.

• It can aptly be regarded as the rival of Nalanda in fame and educational

importance.

• There were several Vihars and monasteries at Valabhi. Like Hiuen-Tsang, I-Tsing
too had found Valabhi in the western side of India as glorious as Nalanda and students
from every part of India would flock there for education.

• These students after completing their higher education was appointed in the
courts on high and responsible posts. This clearly indicates that Valabhi was the center
not much of religious education as of other secular subjects such as Arthashastra
(Economics), Law, Politics and Medical Science.

• Whereas Nalanda was center for Mahayana branch of Buddhist religion, Valabhi
was the center for Hinayana.

• The center was famous not only as a center of Buddhist culture and learning but
also for the religious tolerance and mental freedom.

• Education was imparted in book-keeping, literature and vyakaran etc. and also in
many other practical subjects of worldly importance. The graduates of Valabhi were
appointed in high Government services of that time. This University had also very big
library.

• The city of Valabhi was very prosperous and there were many millionaires who
gave financial help to Valabhi. It was running in good financial position till 755 A.D. Due
to the invasion of the Arabs some portions of Valabhi was destroyed but even then the
university was running as an important educational and cultural center of western India
till 12th century.

Vikramshila
• The Vihara of Vikramshila was established by the famous Emperor

• Dharampala of Pal dynasty in the 8th century in Northern Magadh at a beautiful

hill on the bank of the river Ganges. In Vikramshila 108 scholars were appointed as the
incharge and Acharyas of the various temples.
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• Six additional Pandits were also appointed for general management. In all there
were 144 permanent scholars in the University.

• As there were many learned personalities in the University so its fame

spread out in various countries. It attracted a large number of scholars from Tibet, who
came there for higher studies.

• The university was later organized into six colleges. In the center there was the
central big building having six gates connected with each other. The college was
situated in front of it. This central building was called the Vigyan Bhawan. A Dwar pandit
was appointed at the main gate. He used to examine the candidates, who came to seek
admission in the University.

• Mahasthavir was the highest authority of the University and the general
management was carried on under his guidance. He was called the Kulpati of the
Gurukula and was elected with great care. The main subjects of study were vyakaran,
Logic, Philosophy, Tantra Shastra and Karamkanda. Later on Tantra Shastra gained
prominence. This influenced the education system of the university. Degrees were
conferred on the graduates and post-graduates at the time of Samavartana
(Convocation) by the rulers of Bengal.

• Vikramshila University was destroyed by Bhaktiyar Khilji in 1203 A.D. It is said

that the Muslims took the Vihar as a fort and they killed most of the monks. Thus fell a
mighty

Odantapuri
• This University had been established long before the Kings of Pala dynasty came
into power in Magadha.

• Odantpuri could not attain that level of fame and repute which either
Nalanda or Vikramshila had accomplished.

• Still nearly 1000 monks and students resided and received education
there. Odantapuri contributed its share in spreading the tenets of Buddhism. It attracted
students from Tibet too

Jagaddala
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• Pal King, Raja Ram Pal of Bengal had set a city on the banks of Ganga. It was the
beginning of the 11th century and it was named as Ranavati.

• He also constructed a monastery and named it as Jagaddala. Soon after this

University became the center of learning it remained the center of Buddhist culture for
about 100 years.

• It was destroyed by Muslims in 1203 A.D. In Jagaddala there were many scholars
notable for their knowledge. Their reputation reached Tibet and their books were
translated in Tibetan language.

Mithila
• In the Upanishadic age Mithila became a prominent seat of Brahmanical system
of education.

• It was named as Videha. Raja Janak used to hold religious conferences, wherein
learned Rishis and pandits took part in religious discussions.

• Even in the Buddhist period, it continued its glorious task and remained an
important center of learning and culture. Later on this pace produced devotees of Lord
Krishna.

• Famous poet Vidyapati, who had written in Hindi and Jaideo who was a
prominent poet of Sanskrit literature were born here.

• From 12th century to 15th century, Mithila had been an important center of
learning and culture; and besides literature and fine arts, scientific subjects were also
taught there. There was a Nyaya Shastra too.

• Gangesha Upadhyaya founded a school of New Logic (Navya-Nyaya).

• It was here that his epoch- making work named Tattva Chintamani had been
written.

• Mithila produced a number of other scholars and literary celebrities.

• Even upto the period of Mughal Emperor Akbar, it continued to flourish as an

important center of education and culture credited with country-wide repute.

• It was famous especially for its Nyaya (jurisprudence) and TarkaShastra (Logic).
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• Mithila had instituted a peculiar examination known as Salaka-pariksha,

which the students would take at the completion of their education.

• Success in this examination alone could entitle the students to the Degree of
Graduation of the University.

Nadia
• Nadia was formerly called Navadweep. It is situated at the confluence of Ganga
and Jalangi rivers in Bengal. It was the center of trade and commerce as well as
learning and culture. It had produced innumerable scholars from time to time.

• The lyrics of Gita Govind by Jaideva still reverberate in the ears of the people.

• Even during the Mohammedan rules, Nadia enjoyed popularity and fame as an
important center of education, especially for such branches of learning as Logic,
Vyakaran, Politics and Law.

• The importance of Nadia grew still more as a result of the downfall of Nalanda
and Vikramshila and it began to be regarded as an eminent center of Hindu culture and
education.

• A school of Logic owed its existence to Raghunatha Shiromani. Not only

learning but also the efficiency in discussions was considered to be the essential
qualification of a teacher of this university.

• Those qualities were considered at the time of appointment. Discussion

method was employed in teaching also.

• The students attentively heard the discussions of the pandits and they
themselves took interest in discussions.

• Education in Nadia University was imparted at three centers namely- Navadweep,

Shantipur and Gopaalpura.

• Sometimes students studied here for 20 years.

• Nadia in short had played an important role in the development of

Education and its prominence remained unquestioned even in the middle ages.
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Important Ancient Indian Contributors

1. Sushruta- “The Father of Surgery and Ophthalmology”, Performed first
cataract surgery in world. wrote a complete volume of ophthalmologic diseases which
included signs, symptoms, prognosis, and

2. Aryabhatta-invented number zero, also created a decimal system,

discovered the earth moves around the sun and the moon orbits the earth; and more
accurately estimated the Earth’s circumference, known as Father of Astronomy

3. Madhav- in the 8th century, a well-known scholar Madhav mentioned

about the symptoms and ways of immunization against small pox.

4. Brahmagupta- gave the solution of the general linear equation in chapter

eighteen of Brahmasphutasiddhanta.

5. Baudhayan- given Baudhayana theorem, Square root of 2, Baudhāyana

sūtras, The value of pi was first calculated by him.

6. Katyayana - Sanskrit grammarian, mathematician and Vedic priest who in

ancient India. He is known for two works

The Vārttikakāra He also composed one of the later Śulbasūtras

7. Pingala - was an ancient Indian mathematician who authored the

Chandaḥśāstra (also called Pingala- sutras) it consist binary numeral system

8. Panini - was an ancient Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and a revered scholar in

ancient India. is known for his text Ashtadhyayi, a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit
grammar Considered the father

of linguistics

9. Yativṛṣabha – 6th-century mathematician

writer of the book Tiloyapannatti which gives various units for measuring distances and
time and postulated different concepts about infinity.

10. Brahma gupta – Helped bring the concept of zero into arithmetic, Inventor of
Algebra
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11. Shridhara – Gave a rule for finding the volume of a sphere

12. Bhrigu - wrote the first textbook on Jyotis

13. Manu- given great law of ancient time

14. Patanjali -promoter of yoga philosophy

15. Vishnu Sharma- Panchtantra

16. Dhanvantari- famous Physician

17. Kalidas- Famous poet of Indian literature

18. Kanada- founded the Vaisheshika school of Indian philosophy and atomic theory

19. Mahaviracharya- Mahaviracharya was 8th century Indian mathematician (Jain)

from Gulbarga who asserted that the square root of a negative number did not exist.
He had also described the method of

solving Least Common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers.

20. Varahamihira- He had made great contributions in the fields of hydrology,

geology, maths and ecology. In the history of science he was the first to claim gravity
and Pascal’s triangle. He also had predicted the discovery of water in Mars around 1500
years ago.

21. Jivaka- physician during Buddhist era.

22. Chandragomin- renowned grammarian during Buddhist era

23. Nagarjuna- founder of the Madhyamaka school, widely considered the most
important Mahayana philosopher (with Asanga). In his treatise, Rasaratnakara, he has
discussed methods for the extraction of metals like gold, silver, tin and copper.

24. Asanga- founder of the Yogacara school, widely considered the most important
Mahayana philosopher along with Nagarjuna

25. Adi Shankara- was an early 8th

century Indian philosopher and theologian who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita
Vedanta.
 282

26. Dharmakīrti- was an influential

Indian Buddhist philosopher who worked at Nālandā. He was one of the key scholars of
epistemology (pramana) in Buddhist philosophy He was also one of the primary
theorists of Buddhist atomism.

27. Maharishi Bharadwaj- Maharshi Bhardwaj through Vimanshastra discovered and

wrote about how aiplanes vanished and traveled from one planet to another. According
to the Indians scriptures, Maharshi Bhardwaj is considered the inventor of the airplane.

28. Garga Muni- His work Garga Samhita is based on the six fractions of the
astrological science. His work Garga Purana lays down the rules of astrology in detail.
Garga Muni’s major contribution is in the field of Vaastushastra and Ayurveda.

29. Vishwamitra- he was recognized as one of the most venerated sages of ancient
times in India. He is the rishi of the third book of

Rigveda. Thousands of years ago, he discovered missiles or missile systems.

30. Kapila- He gifted the world with the Sankhya School of Thought. His pioneering
work threw light on the nature and principles of the ultimate Soul (Purusha), primal
matter (Prakruti), creation, transformation of energy and profound commentaries on
atma, non-atma and the subtle elements of the cosmos.

Evolution of higher learning and research in Post

Independence India

Introduction

The Indian higher education system is one of the largest such systems in the World.
India attain independence in 1947, after which there was remarkable improvement in
scientific and technological education and research; illiteracy, however, remained high.
The constitution adopted by India did not change the overall administrative policy of the
country. Education continued to be the prime responsibility of the state governments,
and the union (central) government continued to assume responsibility for the
coordination of educational facilities and the maintenance of appropriate standards in
higher education and research and in scientific and technical education
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In 1950 the government of India appointed the Planning Commission to prepare a

blueprint for the development of different aspects of life, including education.
Thereafter, successive plans (usually on a five-year basis) were drawn and
implemented. The main goals of these plans were

(1) to achieve universal elementary education,

(2) to eradicate illiteracy,

(3) to establish vocational and skill training programs,

(4) to upgrade standards and modernize all stages of education, with special
emphasis on technical education, science, and environmental education, on morality,
and on the relationship between school and work, and

(5) to provide facilities for high-quality education in every district of the

country.

From 1947 the government of India also appointed three important commissions for
suggesting educational reforms. The University Education Commission of 1949 made
valuable recommendations regarding the reorganization of courses, techniques of
evaluation, media of instruction, student services, and the recruitment of teachers. The
Secondary Education Commission of 1952–53 focused mainly on secondary and
teacher education. The Education Commission of 1964–66 made

a comprehensive review of the entire field of education. It developed a national pattern

for all stages of education.

The commission’s report led to a resolution on a national policy for education, formally
issued by the government of India in July 1968. This policy was revised in 1986. The
new policy emphasized educational technology, ethics, and

national integration. A core curriculum was introduced to provide a common scheme of

studies throughout the country.

The national department of education was a part of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, headed by a cabinet minister. A Central Advisory Board of Education
counseled the national and state governments. There were
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several autonomous organizations attached to the Department of Education. The most

important bodies were the All-India Council of Technical Education (1945), the
University Grants Commission (1953), and the National Council of Educational Research
and Training (1961).

The first body advised the government on technical education and maintained
standards for the development of technical education. The second body promoted and
coordinated university education and determined and maintained standards of teaching,
examination, and research in the universities. It had the authority to enquire into the
financial methods of the universities and to allocate grants. The third body worked to
upgrade the quality of school education and assisted and advised the Ministry of
Human Resource Development in the implementation of its policies and major
programs in the field of education.

The central government ran and maintained about 1,000 central schools for children of
central government employees. It also developed schools offering quality education to
qualified high achievers, irrespective of ability to pay or socioeconomic background.
The seventh five-year plan (1985–90) specified that one such vidyalaya would be set up
in each district. The state governments were responsible for all other elementary and
secondary education. Conditions, in general, were not satisfactory, although they varied
from state to state. Higher education was provided in universities and colleges.

From the 1950s to the ’80s, the number of educational institutions in India tripled. The
primary schools, especially, experienced rapid growth because the states gave highest
priority to the universalization of elementary education in order to fulfill

the constitutional directive of providing universal, free, and compulsory education for all
children up to the age of 14. Most, but not all, children had a primary

school within 1 km (0.6 mile) of their homes. A large percentage of these schools,
however, were understaffed and did not have adequate facilities.

The government, when it revised the national policy for education in 1986, resolved that
all children who attained the age of 19 years by 1990 would have five years of formal
schooling or its equivalent. Plans were also made to improve or expand adult and non
formal systems of education. Dissension among political parties, industrialists,
businessmen, teacher politicians, student politicians, and other groups and the
consequent politicization of education hampered progress at every stage, however.
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Growth of Higher Education

In its size and diversity, India has the third largest higher education system in the world,
next only to China and the United States. Before Independence, access to higher
education was very limited and elitist, with enrolment of less than a million students in
500 colleges and 20 universities. Since independence, the growth has been very
impressive;

the number of universities (as on31st March 2006) has increased by 18-times, the
number of colleges by 35 times and enrolment more than 10 times (Annual Report,
MHRD 2006-07). The system is now more mass based and democratized with one third
to 40% of enrolments coming from lower socio-economic strata, and women
comprising of some 35%of the total enrolments (Tilak 2004). It is little more than half a
century ever since the government initiated a planned development of higher education
in the country particularly with the establishment of University Grants Commission in
1953. Thus early 1950’s is an important reference points from which we could look back
at our progress of higher education.

Apart from majority institutes being in technological discipline, there are universities in
specific research areas such as English and foreign language, yoga, brain research,
dairy research, mines, basic science, neuro science, physical education, fisheries,
economics and politics, development research, armament technology, population
science, social science, IT, management, education, home sciences, rural studies,
music, veterinary research, forest research, drama, planning and architecture, foreign
trade, educational planning and administration.

Development of Education in India after Independence

After the implementation of plans, efforts were made to spread education.

Government decided to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the
age of 14. But this aim could not be achieved yet.

In First Five Year Plan 7.9% of total plan outlay was allocated for education. In Second
and Third Plan, the allocations were 5.8% and 6.9% of the total plan outlay. In Ninth Plan
only 3.5% of the total outlay was allocated for education.
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To streamline the education, the Govt. implemented the recommendations of Kothari

Commission under ‘National Policy on Education’ in 1968. The main recommendations
were universal primary education. Introduction of new pattern of education, three
language formula, introduction of regional language in higher education, development
of agricultural and industrial education and adult education.

To combat the changing socio-economic needs of the country, Govt. of India

announced a new National Policy on Education in 1986. Universalisation of primary
education, vocationalisation of secondary education and specialisation of higher
education were the main features of this policy.

National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) at National level and
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) at State level were
established to maintain the standard of education. University Grants Commission (UGC)
was instituted to determine the standard of higher education.

The following points explain the development of education in India after independence:

1. Expansion of General Education:

During the period of planning there has been expansion of general education. In 1951,
the percentage of literacy was 19.3. In 2001 the literacy percentage increased to 65.4%.
The enrolment ratio of children in the age group of 6-11 was 43% in 1951 and in it
became 100% in 2001.

Primary education – been free and compulsory. Midday meal has been started in
schools since 1995 to check drop-out rate. The number of primary schools has risen by
three times from 2.10 lakh (1950-51) to 6.40 lakhs (2001-02). There were only 27
universities in 1950-51 which increased to 254 in 2000-01.

2. Development of Technical Education:

Besides general education, technical education plays important role in human capital
formation. The Govt. has established several Industrial Training Institutes, Polytechnics,
Engineering colleges and Medical and Dental colleges, Management institutes etc.
Indian Institute of Technology, National Institute of Technology (NIT), Indian Institute of
Management, Medical education institutes, Agricultural education institutes.

3. Women education:
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In India, literary among women was quite low. It was 52% according to 2001 census.
While the literacy among men was 75.8%. Women education was given top priority in
National Policy on Education. Many State Governments have exempted the tuition fee
of girl’s up to university level. Separate schools and colleges have been established to
raise level of literacy among women.

4. Vocational education:

National Policy of Education, 1986, aims at vocationalisation of secondary education.

Central Govt. has been giving grants to State Governments to implement the
programme since 1988. Agriculture, Pisciculture, diary, poultry, typing, electronics,
mechanical and carpentry etc. had been included in higher secondary curriculum.

5. Growth of higher education:

In 1951, there were 27 universities. Their number increased to 254 in 2001. In Orissa
state, there was only one university in 1951. Now there are 9 universities.

6. Non-formal education:

This scheme was launched on an experimental basis from the Sixth plan and on regular
basis from Seventh plan.

The aim was to achieve universal elementary education to all children in the age group
of 6-14 years. The scheme was meant for those children who cannot attend schools
regularly and for full time due to poverty and pre-occupation with other works.

The Central Govt. is providing assistance to State Govt. and voluntary organisation to
implement the scheme. Non-formal education centres have been set up in remote rural
areas, hilly and tribal areas and in slums. These impart education to children of 6-14 age
group.

7. Encouragement to Indian Language and Culture:

After the adoption of National Policy of Education 1968, regional language became the
medium of instruction in higher education. Syllabus on science and technology,
dictionaries, books, and Question Papers are translated into regional languages. Indian
history and culture have been included in school and college curriculum.

8. Adult education
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adult education refers to the education for the illiterate people belonging to the age
group of 15-35 years. The National Board of Adult Education was established in the
First Five Year Plan. The village level workers were assigned the job of providing adult
education. The progress remained not too good.

The National Adult Education Programme was started in 1978. The programme is
considered as a part of primary education. National Literary Mission was also started in
1988 to eradicate adult illiteracy particularly in rural areas.

The Centre gives assistance to states, voluntary organisations and some selected
universities to implement this programme. There were 2.7 lakh adult education centres
working in the country in 1990-91. This programme helped to raise the literacy rate to
65.38% in 2001.

9. Improvement of Science education:

Central Govt. started a scheme for the improvement of science education in schools in
1988. Financial assistance is given to provide science kits, up gradation of science
laboratories, development of teaching material, and training of science and
mathematics teachers. A Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) was set up
in NCERT to purchase equipment for State Institutes of Educational Technology.

10. Education for all:

According to 93rd Amendment, education for all has been made compulsory. The
elementary education is a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14
years. It is also free.

To fulfill this obligation Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been launched.

Government Initiatives to tackle the Issues

Access and Equity: The Central Government is conscious of the need to raise both the
enrolment rate and access to higher education to all who deserve irrespective of class,
caste, religion, gender or economic status

Innovative Schemes: A number of innovative schemes have also been in operation in

the Higher Education sector, some promoted by the University Grants Commission,
others by the Technical education division of the Ministry of Human Resource
development and All India Council Of Technical Education, and yet others by Indian
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Council of Agricultural research and several other Departments of the Central

Government dealing with Science and Technology and their applications.

Faculty Improvement: The 11th Plan recognized

that the availability of adequate and qualified faculty is a pre-requisite for quality
education. It also recognized that due to restrictions on the recruitment of the faculty in
the state universities and colleges in 1980’s and 1990’s by various states, we face a
serious problems related to the availability of the faculty.

Current Status

India possesses a highly developed higher education system which offers facility of
education and training in almost all aspects of human creative and intellectual
endeavors: arts and humanities; natural, mathematical and social sciences, engineering;
medicine; dentistry; agriculture; education; law; commerce and management; music and
performing arts; national and foreign languages; culture; communications etc.

The institutional framework consists of Universities established by an Act of Parliament

(Central Universities) or of a State Legislature (State Universities), Deemed Universities
(institutions which have been accorded the status of a university with authority to award
their own degrees through central government notification), Institutes of National
Importance (prestigious institutions awarded the said status by Parliament), Institutions
established State Legislative Act and colleges affiliated to the University (both
government-aided and –unaided).

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION

Total No. of Universities in the Country as on 18.02.2019

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Recent Initiative taken by GOI

NTA replaces CBSE

From now onwards, the newly formed National Testing Agency (NTA) would conduct
the national-level examinations - NET, NEET, JEE (Mains) - that were organised by the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).

The establishment of NTA will benefit about four million students appearing in various
entrance examinations. It will, over time, relieve the CBSE, AICTE, IITs, IIMs and other
agencies from the responsibility of conducting these entrance tests, thus enabling them
to focus more on their core mandate.

The University Grants Commission (UGC)'s National Eligibility Test (NET) was the first
exam conducted by NTA on December 18.

Institutes of Eminence

In July 2018, the HRD ministry granted the 'Institution of Eminence' status to three
public and three private institutes in the country.

The government granted the institution of eminence status to IIT Delhi, IIT Bombay and
IISc Bangalore in the public sector, and Manipal Academy of Higher Education, BITS
Pillani and Jio Institute by Reliance Foundation from the private sector.

Aim of granting IoE tags

The government hopes that all the institutions with this tag will be able to make it into
the top 500 of any international university ranking systems in the next 10 years.

PhD must for university teachers from 2021

From 2021, a PhD degree will be a must for teaching at university level for the entry-
level designation of Assistant Professor.

PM's Research Fellowship

In February 2018, the cabinet approved implementation of the Prime Minister's

Research Fellowship (PMRF).
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The scheme is aimed at attracting the talent pool of the country to doctoral (PhD)
programmes of Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institute of Science
(IISc) for carrying out research in cutting- edge science and technology domains, with a
focus on national priorities.

This year, the online registration for PMRF began from February 24 and continued till
March 31.

Further, a research grant of Rs 2 lakh each will also be provided to the fellows for a
period of five years to cover their foreign travel expenses for presenting research
papers at international conferences and seminars.

Original certificates not required for college admission

The University Grants Commission (UGC) in October has issued a warning to

universities and colleges against the retention of original documents of admitted
students and non-refund of fees in case an admission is withdrawn within one month.

As per reports, the higher educational institutions will be penalized with a withdrawal of
affiliation and deemed status, and barred from receiving any assistance from the UGC if
they fail to follow the directive.

Important data from UGC report on Higher Education 2017-

2018 (latest data )
Literacy rate (2011 Census) Male 80.90 Female

64.60 Total 73.00

Students Enrolment (2017-18) Male 19204675

52.41% Female 17437703 47.59% Total

36642378

Gross Enrolment Ratio (2017-18) Male 26.3

Female 25.4 Total 25.8

Gender Parity Index (2017-18) 0.97

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Foreign Students Enrolment (2017-18) Male 31394

Female 14750 Total 46144

Number of Degree awarding Universities/Institutions (2017-18) 903

Number of Colleges (Affiliated/ Constituent/off campus/PG Centres/ Recognised

Centres) (2017-

18) Affiliated 37977 Constituent 1550 PG/Off Campus Centre 187 Recognised Centers
1298

Stand Alone Institutions 10011

Average Enrolment Per College

(Affiliated/Constituent) 2017-18 698

Colleges Per lakh Population (2017-18) 28

Number of Teachers (2017-18) Male 745047

57.99% Female 539708 42.01% Total 1284755

Teacher Pupil Ratio (Regular Mode) 25

Conclusion

The above discussion makes it clear that a lot of development in education has been
made in India after Independence. There is wide growth in general education and higher
education. Efforts have been made to spread education among all sections and all
regions of the country. Still our education system is ridden with problems.

Oriental, Conventional and Non-conventional learning

programmes in India
Oriental Learning

Oriental studies is the academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far
Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology.
 293

The study of subjects reated to indology is oriental learning , these subjects are based
on history and culture of India.

Oriental Learning in India

Oriental Research Institutes are institutions specially devoted to Indological studies.

Indology is the science of study of culture in all its aspects. With the disappearance of
the Gurukula system and the ancient universities like those at Nālandā and Takṣaśilā[1]
and also the gradual dissolution of the

powerful kingdoms by conquests from outside, it became necessary to evolve a method

by which the ancient knowledge and wisdom of the country could be revived and
preserved.

It is the Western scholars of the 19th and the 20th centuries who were mainly
responsible for this revival, though many scholars also has contributed considerably to
it. The work of these institutes consisted chiefly in collecting and collating rare
manuscripts in the oriental languages like Prākṛt and Sanskrit dealing with religion,
philosophy, literature, grammar, arts and sciences, editing them and publishing them
with or without translations and explanatory notes. Where and when such publications
are not possible, the manuscripts and other connected materials are preserved by using
various modern and scientific devices.

Institute of Oriental Learning in India

1 Adyar Library and Research Center

2 Asiatic Society

3 Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

4 Ganganath Jha Kendriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth 5 Kuppuswami Sastri Research

Institute

6 Madras Sanskrit College

7 Mythic Society

8 Oriental Institute
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9 Oriental Manuscripts Library 10 Oriental Research Institute 11 Oriental Research

Institute 12 Sanskrita Academy

13 Sanskrita Sahitya Parishat

14 The Government Sanskrit College 15 Sarasvati Mahal Library

16 Vishveshvaranand Vishvabandhu Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies

Conventional Learning
Traditional education, also known as back-to- basics, conventional education or

customary education, refers to long-established customs that society traditionally used

in schools.

c-learning is Short for conventional learning, it refers to conventional teaching and

learning within a brick-and- mortar classroom facility. Contrast with e-learning.

Conventional teaching or traditional teaching refers to teaching method involving

instructors and the students.

Conventional Learning in India

In most parts of our country traditional teaching methods are used in the educational
institutions. In the traditional teaching method, teachers illustrate the concept to the
students with the help of chalks and blackboard. Every important thing regarding the
topic is written on the blackboard and students make important notes from the
blackboard. After the lecture is over students revise their notes and try to memorise the
notes. The main objective of traditional teaching is to pass the examination. Traditional
teaching system has its own merits and demerits.

Merits of Conventional teaching methods-

Traditional teaching method is cheaper than the modern teaching methods which make
it more suitable in the schools of rural areas. Some subjects like mathematics or
chemistry are best taught on a blackboard as there is a need of explaining the concept
at each every step.
 295

There is more interaction between the teacher and student in traditional teaching
methods as compared to the modern teaching methods. We can also say that in
traditional teaching there is more discipline in the class.

In traditional teaching methods teacher does not require any special technical
knowledge and can focus more on his subject for imparting the best knowledge to the
students.

traditional teaching methods don't put any strain on the eyes of students whereas
modern teaching methods can adversely affect the eyes of the students.

Non-conventional learning
Non-traditional education is education that is offered in ways other than common
daytime college classrooms. There are many versions of non-traditional education, such
as college- prep education, evening courses, independent learning, online learning,
residencies, cross- registration and one-on-one learning. The

creative way of transfereing knowledge is termed as non conventional learning it is

contrast with conventional learning.

Non-conventional learning in India

As India rolled into the 21st century, this generation has broken the chains of
conventional doctor-engineer- MBA paths drawn out by a more rigid society of the past,
and replaced the cookie-cutter thought process with a slightly more inspired one.
Creative courses are now abundant, widening the scope of career choices in India and
making alternate journeys in a life a possibility. With new avenues and opportunities on
the horizon, India’s youth is expanding the definition of learning.

Institute of Non-conventional Learning in India

1. Vasantdada Sugar Institute, Maharashtra- Alcohol Technology

2. Indian Astrobiology Research Centre, Mumbai- Astrobiology

3. Bhavnagar University, Gujarat - Bachelor in Rural Studies

4. The Indian Institute of Carpet Technology, Allahabad - Carpet Technology

5. Indian School of Ethical Hacking, Kolkata- Ethical Hacking

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6. Mumbai University, Mumbai - Gardening Programme

7. Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik - Gandhian

Thoughts

8. National Institute of Mountaineering- Mountaineering

9. Mumbai University- Puppetry

Professional Education
"Professional studies" is a term used to classify academic programs which are applied
or interdisciplinary in focus. The term can also be used for non-academic training for a
specific profession.

Professional studies usually combine theory and practice- based professional learning,
focusing on a body of knowledge that is more strictly delineated and canonical than
non-professional studies. Students are trained to ensure expected standards and
adequate service delivery in the best practice of a profession.

Professional Education in India

• The current system of education with its western style and content was
introduced and founded by the British in the 19th century.

• Historically, we can divide the era of professional education into four periods:

• 1. First period ( from 1800 to 1857)

• 2. Second period ( from 1857 to 1902)

• 3. Third period (1902 to 1950) and

• 4. Fourth period ( from 1950 to the present day)

FIRST PERIOD (1800-1857)

The educational system of this period was influenced by the policy of the East India
Company. The company needed some Indian clerks and official for its various
departments in order to manage affairs well. The Company stood in need of doctors for
the army, judges and pleaders for the courts, and engineers for constructing roads,
canals and govt. building under the Public Works Department. Hence, these were the
 297

chief branches of technical and vocational education in the education system of that
period.

SECOND PERIOD (1857-1902)

This period is comparatively of greater importance from the viewpoint of industrial and
vocational education, though the main objective of vocational education in this period
too was to produce a number of well-trained efficient and experienced Indian officials
who might conduct efficiently the work of administration and organization under British
officials in various government departments. In 1857, with the incorporation of three
presidency universities, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, subjects such as Law, Medicine,
Engineering, Agricultural Science. Commerce and Technical Education were included in
the curriculum of Universities and special teachers were appointed to teach these
subjects. Also the system of conferring certificates and degrees in these subjects was
introduced during this period.

THIRD PERIOD (1903-1950) This period beared a unique importance in the sphere of
Indian vocational education. A marked success had been achieved in the field of
vocational education.

Formerly, the utility of such education was purely mercenary.

People received this type of education mainly to secure some employment under the
Government. But in modem times, the educated people got training in these branches
solely for the purpose of meeting the industrial and vocational requirements of the
society.

In the first instance, it was an age of growing political awakening in India, which
increased the urgency of the demand of a revolutionary change in the sphere of
education.

Department of new technical and scientific subjects were opened in colleges and
universities. Secondly, private enterprise too contributed considerably to the growth of
industrial and vocational education. Wealthy people made liberal benefactions and
helped the establishment of many industrial institutions. Thirdly, provision was made
for sending Indian students abroad, i.e. England, America, Germany and Japan for
thorough study of modern sciences, vocations arts and crafts in these countries and
 298

they developed them in India after their return from abroad. After the independence of
the country, a steady progress is being made in these directions.

FOURTH PERIOD (1950 – THE PRESENT DAY) In this period

various committee were appointed to find out number of technically trained persons
needed by country, to expand technical education, to improve the condition of existing
institutions and to establish fresh institutions so that Indian students might not feel the
necessity of education in foreign countries. Besides these the scholarships were also
awarded to students of technical and industrial branches of education. As a result of
the government’s policy, the technical education was expanded during this period.

Apart from engineering and technology requirements of scientific personnel have been
increasing since 1950. Adequate steps are being taken to encourage science education
both at secondary and higher levels including research.

Since 1950 the facilities for agricultural and veterinary education have increased
appreciatively and various new agriculture and veterinary colleges were established.

Though rapid expansion of medical education has taken place since 1950, yet there is
an acute shortage of medical personnel particularly in rural areas so that the number of
medical college was increased. At the same time facilities have also to be enlarged for
middle level personnel such as nurses, midwives, health visitors and sanitary inspector
etc.

Just like above mentioned courses the special attention was also drawn for
improvement of management.

Technical Education

Technical education, the academic and vocational preparation of students for jobs
involving applied science and modern technology.

It emphasizes the understanding and practical application of basic principles of science

and mathematics, rather than the attainment of proficiency in manual skills that is
properly the concern of vocational education.

Technical education has as its objectives the preparation of graduates for occupations
that are classed above the skilled crafts but below the scientific or engineering
professions.
 299

Technical education contributes a major share to the overall education system and
plays a vital role in the social and economic development of our nation. In India,
technical education is imparted at various levels such as: craftsmanship, diploma,
degree, post-graduate and research in specialized fields, catering to various aspects of
technological development and economic progress.

The provisions AICTE Act , “Technical Education” means programs of education,

research and training in the following fields:

• Engineering& Technology

• Architecture

• Town planning& Management

• Pharmacy& Applied Arts and crafts

Such other programmes or areas as the Central Govt. may declare in consultation with
the council by a gazette notification As per the statistics posed by department of Higher
Education, Govt. of India, around 18,000 institutions are functioning in the country with
approx 5.00lakh teachers employed under various streams.

Many technical institutions are globally acclaimed for the standards and quality they
deliver but it is a matter of concern that none among the 621 Universities in the country
features among the first 200 in the world. The main reason behind the same is the lack
of high end research facilities.

The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) has framed various norms and
standards to regulate the technical institutions in the country for maintaining quality in
these Institutions.

AICTE has various schemes for improvement of quality and standard of higher
education in the country such as

• Research Promotion Scheme (RPS) scheme for promoting research in the field of
engineering.

• Set up National Board of Accreditation to regulate and monitor the quality of

engineering education in the country.
 300

• Research and Institutional Development (RID) Schemes for improvement of

quality of Engineering Education

• Quality Improvement Programme (QIP)

• QIP Degree

• QIP Polytechnics

• Early Faculty Induction Scheme (EFIP)

• Faculty Development Programs (SDP)

• Emeritus Fellowship (EF)

• Visiting Professorship (VP)

• Career Awards (CA)

• Seminar, Symposium and Workshop Grants

• AICTE-INAE Distinguished Visiting Professorship

• National Doctoral fellowship (NDF)

• National Faculty in Engineering & Technology with Industrial Collaboration

(NAFETIC)

• Nationally Co-ordinated Project (NCP)

• Post Graduate Scholarship

• Industry Institute Partnership Programmes

• Development of Model Curriculum for different courses

• PG Programmes have been allowed to be conducted in the 2nd shift in order to

promote [Link] qualification among [Link] qualified faculty.

• In order to promote research culture amongst faculty & students, which is need
to promote quality education, the best in the world e-Journals have been made
mandatory.
 301

• All Govt & Govt aided institution have been allowed to act as QIP centers, so that
faculty & students can pursue [Link].

Skill Based Education

Skills-based learning provides classroom environments where independence, thinking
skills, collaboration and active learning are

• Skill development is key feature in every individual’s life if he/she want to be

employed. Every country needs individuals with higher level of skills and educational
qualification. We can’t say that people with good educational qualification will surely get
employment or skilled person will definitely get a job. An individual who want to get
employed will have two posses both the things together i.e. good education and higher
level of skills. What employers are looking for are individuals who have the ability to
communicate, solve problems and teamwork.

Benefits of skill based education

• If individuals get educated trough skill based learning they can produce better
results and earn more money.

• Education and training improves an individual’s employability and labour motility,

and it also increases the individual’s ability to adapt changing technologies.

• Ample education and great skills influence the path of national economic
development attract investment from abroad and promote growth.

• Countries that have a greater share of educated and very skilled workforces have
raised productivity at very higher pace.

• Education and training generate other significant and great social benefits

– reduced dependence on income support for the unemployed individual’s, reduced

incidence of crime, improved lawful behaviour and health awareness among them.

Steps need to be taken to increase employability

• Need to extend career and vocational guidance to youth.

• Developing new occupational standards for educational and training awards

through improved partnerships with different industries
 302

• Introducing National Systems of Vocational Qualification that can assure quality

of education and training delivery through competence-based training and skills
assessment.

• Making progress in industry specific training system and professionalization of

vocational education and training management.

• Expanding provision of entrepreneurial training along with trade training;

• Supporting private training institutions and overseeing their quality.

• Partnership between public and private enterprises in improving provision of

education and training.

• Development of national education and training policies.

• Setting up and composition of local and national bodies with employers and
unions as well as other stakeholders.

• Provision for on-the-job training and directly providing workplace training

facilities

Different types of Skills

• Analysing skills

• Decision making skills

• Adaptability skills

• Negotiating skills

• Organising and Planning skills

• Persuading skills

• Leadership skills

• Initiative skills

Organizations for skill development:

 303

National Skill Development Agency (NSDA). National Skill Development Corporation

(NSDC). International Training Centre (ITC).

Both NSDA and NSDC organizations come under the Ministry of Skill Development and
entrepreneurship India. The aim of National Skill Development Corporation of India is to
promote skill development by catalyzing creation of large quality, for profit vocational
institutions. NSDC provides funds to build scalable, for profit vocational training
initiatives.

National Skill Development Agency aims to co- ordinate and harmonise the skill
development activities in the country. The overall objective of ITC Academy is to
strengthen individuals capacities to improve the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency
of their skills development systems, policies, and related programmes, to respond to the
needs of the individual, society, and the economy.

Objectives of Skill based learning:

1. Strengthening the general education component of vocational education

programs.

2. Providing good basic knowledge in humanities and sciences, preparing students

to be able to work in different professions, teaching students to be problem solvers and
encouraging them to be lifelong learners.

3. Allowing greater cost-sharing i.e. moving from a system which is exclusively

financed by the government to a system which is increasingly financed by the private
sector who would be willing to do so if it sees the system producing relevant graduates
- and the students paying user fees. Students are unlikely to contribute if they do not
see accrual of labour market benefits from vocational education.

Skill India is a campaign launched by Prime

Minister Narendra Modi on 15 July 2015 which aims to train over 40 crore people in
India in different skills by 2022. It includes various initiatives of the government like
"National Skill Development Mission", "National Policy for Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship, 2015", "Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)" and the "Skill
Loan scheme".
 304

The National Skill Development Corporation India (NSDC) was setup as a one of its kind,
Public Private Partnership Company with the primary mandate of catalysing the skills
landscape in India. It is based on the following pillars:

[Link] large and good quality vocational institute. [Link] risk by providing patient
capital. Including grants and equality.

[Link] enable the creation and sustainability of support systems required for skill
development. This includes the Industry led Sector Skill Councils.

Schemes for the skill development launched by Government of India

[Link] dayal upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana [Link] mantri Kaushal Vikas
Yojana

3. Financial Assistance for Skill Training of Persons with Disabilities

4. National Apprenticeship Promotion Scheme [Link] Training Scheme

[Link] training

[Link] Mantri Kaushal Kendra [Link] development for minorities [Link] Skill
Development Programme

Skill Development Ecosystem in India

The skill development ecosystem in India is complex, large and diverse, providing varied
levels of skills across an extremely heterogeneous population. Skill development in
India can be broadly segmented into Education and Vocational Training. The exhibit
 305

below presents the broad framework of Skill Development in India.

Elementary, secondary and higher education is governed by the Ministry of Human

Resource Development. University and Higher Education caters to all college education
(Arts, Science, Commerce, etc.), while engineering education, polytechnics, etc. fall
under Technical Education. University Grants Commission (UGC) is the nodal body
governing funds, grants and setting standards for teaching, examination and research in
Universities, and the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is the regulatory
body for Technical Education in India.

Policy framework

The policy framework governing the skill development ecosystem in India includes the
Apprentices Act, 1961, the National Skill Policy

The Apprenticeship Act of 1961- Apprenticeship programmes in India are governed by

The Apprentice Act of 1961 and the Apprenticeship Rules of 1992 The Act regulates
programmes of training of apprentices and makes it obligatory for employers in both
public and private sector establishments to have training infrastructure as detailed in
the Act. The Apprentice Act of 1961 was recently amended in December 2014 to make
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it more responsive to industry and youth. The Apprentice Protsahan Yojana was also
launched to support MSMEs in the manufacturing sector in engaging apprentices.

The National Skill Policy- The National Policy on Skill Development was first formulated
in 2009 to create a skills ecosystem in India. It acts as a guide to formulate strategies
by addressing the different challenges in skill development. The objective is to empower
the workforce with the required skills, knowledge and qualifications to make the Indian
workforce globally competitive. The government has introduced a National Policy on
Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, 2015. The policy aims to provide an umbrella
framework to all skill related activities carried out within the country, to align them to
common standards and link skill activities with demand centres.

The National Skills Qualification Framework National Skills Qualifications Framework

(NSQF), notified on 27th December 2013, is a competency-based framework that
organizes all qualifications according to a series of levels of knowledge, skills and
aptitude. Presently, more than 100 countries have, or are in the process of developing
national qualification frameworks.

Nodal bodies for Skill Development in India

MHRD- The Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD) governs the
polytechnic institutions offering diploma level courses under various disciplines such as
engineering and technology, pharmacy, architecture, applied arts and crafts and hotel
management. MHRD is also involved in the scheme of Apprenticeship Training. Apart
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from this, MHRD has also introduced vocational education from class IX onwards, and
provides financial assistance for engaging with industry/SSCs for assessment,
certification and training.

Central Ministries- There are 21 Ministries under the central government who are also
working for the purpose of skill development. There are two approaches that these
Ministries have: one approach is setting up training centres of their own for specific
sectors like (adopted by Ministry of Labour & Employment, Ministry of Agriculture,
Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, etc.). The second approach is in the form of Public
Private Partnership (as adopted by Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Women
and Child Development, etc.).

NSDC- The National Skill Development Corporation India (NSDC) is a public private
partnership organisation (now under the Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship) that was incorporated in 2009 under the National Skill Policy. Its main
aim is to provide viability gap funding to private sector in order to scale up training
capacity. The NSDC has tied up with more than 187 training providers, many of whom
have started scaling up their operations.

Sector Skill Councils- The National Skill Development Policy of 2009 mandated the
NSDC to setup SSCs to bring together key stakeholders i.e. industry, work force and
academia. As on date, 29 SSCs are operational and 4 more SSCs have been approved
by NSDC1 . They are funded by NSDC for the initial few years and are expected to
become financially self-sustaining as they grow.

NCVT, SCVT and Quality Council of India- Established under Ministry of Labour and
Employment with a view to ensure and maintain uniformity in the standards of training
all over the country, the National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) was set up in
1956. This certifying body conducts All India Trade Tests for those who complete
training in ITIs and awards National Trade Certificates to successful candidates. The
State Council for Vocational Training (SCVT) at the state levels and the sub committees
have been established to assist the National Council.

The Quality Council of India (QCI) was set up jointly by Government of India and the
Indian industry as an autonomous body to establish a national accreditation structure in
the field of education, healthcare, environment protection, governance, social sectors,
infrastructure, vocational training and other areas that have significant bearing in
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improving the quality of life. All institutions (Government and private ITIs) seeking
formal affiliation from NCVT have to first get accreditation from the Quality Council of
India.

Industrial Training Institutes The DGET which governs Industrial Training Institutions
(ITIs) has recently been aligned with Ministry of Skill Development and
Entrepreneurship. There are more than 10,000 ITIs with a capacity of approximately 1.5
million seats. The DGET also governs RVTIs (Regional Vocational Training Institutions)
and ATIs (Advance Training Institutions) focusing on specialized and high-end skill sets
and trainers courses.

Three major skill development schemes of the DGET that are being implemented
through government ITIs and private ITCs include the Craftsmen Training Scheme, the
Apprenticeship Training Scheme, and the Modular Employability Scheme.

Value education and environmental education

Definition Of Value
‘’Value means primarily to prize, to esteem, to appraise and to estimate. It means the
act of achieving something, holding it and also the act of passing judgment upon the
nature and amount of values as compared with something else.’’- John Dewey

Value Education

Value education means inculcating in the children a sense of humanism, a deep

concern for the well-being of others and the nation.

According to Dr. Y.N. Sridhar ’it refers to the study of development of essential
values in pupils and the practices suggested for the promotion of the same.’

Value Education

• Value based education Environmental education

• Ecology

• Biodiversity Values-based education can strengthen students’:

• Optimism

• Self-esteem
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• Commitment to personal fulfilment

• Ethical judgment

• Social responsibility

Need Of Value Education

• Improve Integral growth sustainable lifestyle

• Create attitudes

• Increase awareness

a. National history

b. Environment

• Understand environment with interlinked (land ,air & water)

• Know about living & nonliving organism with Environment

• Values allow the individuals to interact harmoniously with others

• Values guide our behaviors; they are part of our identity as individuals

• They show us how to behave and how not to behave when we’re faced with
desires or impulses, whether we’re alone or with others.

• They are like a compass that helps us behave consistently, regardless of the
situation

• Values guide our actions and determine for us what’s good or bad

Classification Of Values

- Z.K. Sataranjiwallah
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Biological

Everything that is desired is desirable

Intrinsic

Intrinsic values are reflected in idealism Instrumental

The principle of utility is the guiding factor

Types of Values

• Aesthetic

• Personal

• Social

• Moral

• Spiritual

• Behavioural

• Material

• Truth

Traditional Indian Values

• Beauty

• Goodness
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• Spirituality

• Simplicity

• Tolerance

• Pursuit of truth and

• Non-violence

Constitutional Values

• Democracy

• Socialism

• Secularism and

• Equality

Universal Values

Truth

• Righteous conduct

• Non-violence

• Love

• World peace

• Human Right

• Universal Brotherhood
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Levels of Value Inculcation (Rohide Value Pyramid)

Methods And Techniques Of Value Education

• (A) Classroom Learning Activities Method

• (B) Practical Activities Method

• (C) Socialized Techniques

• (D) Incidental Learning Method

Classroom Learning Activities Method

• This may include reading, listening, discussions, narration, direct presentation of

ideas by the teacher and other strategies.

• These strategies should be used with any of the following sources of value
education

(a) Biographies

(b) Stories

(c) Extracts form essays, articles, classics and news paper

(d) Parables, proverbs, quotations and poems

(e) value/moral dilemmas

(f) classroom incidents/anecdotes/ conflicts.

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Practical Activities Method

• Provides the learners with suitable opportunities to practice and live their lives
according to the principles and values they have perceived and understood.

• A sound program of value education may include a combination of a few or all

activities mentioned below: (a) School campus/classroom maintenance activities (b)
Social forestry/community development activities

(c) Work experience related activities

(d) Organizing campaigns on community sanitation, literacy, environmental

awareness,

AIDS prevention awareness

(e) Yoga, meditation and prayer sessions

(f) eradication of social evils campaign activities (gender inequality, dowry,

alcoholism…)

(g) co- curricular/self government activities

Socialized Techniques

• The learner in socialized techniques is involved in activities and experiences

which best represent functions and problems of agents of socialization. They are the
simplified versions of real social experiences and one necessary and useful when the
reality is too abstract and obscured.

• These include social role playing enacting and modeling. Role playing activities
should be organized based on the life experiences and age level of students. Expected
role of an ideal student, teacher, parent, patriot should encourage student to take role
taking activities voluntarily. Negative precepts are to be discouraged in role playing.

Incidental Learning Method

• An incident is an episode or experience in the life of an individual or group. It

consists in identifying the wrong or right actions of an individual or group, either pre-
planned to occur or observed by accident, and reprimanding or rewarding those
concerned.
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Programmes For Developing Values

• Community prayer

• Health and Cleanliness programme

• Socially Useful Productive Work

• Special class-room situations

• Cultural and Recreational Activities

• Citizenship Training

• Social Service Programme

APPROACHES
Douglas Supreka (1976) outlines eight different approaches to value Education, which
may be briefly stated as under:

1- EVOCATION APPROACH - The students are encouraged to make spontaneously

free, non- rational choices, without thought or hesitation. It provides an environment
which allows maximum freedom for students, and provide a provocative situation for
which spontaneous reactions are elicited. Real example: The reaction to a picture of
starving children.

2- INCULCATION APPROACH - Students are

forced to act according to specific desired values. A positive and negative

reinforcement by the teacher helps value inculcation. This can be done by a teacher's
natural actions and

3- AWARENESS APPROACH - This approach helps students to become aware and

identify their own values. The students are encouraged to share their [Link]
teacher presents value laden situations or dilemmas through readings, films, role
playing, small group discussions and simulation. Students thus engage themselves in
the process of making inferences about values from the thoughts, feelings, beliefs or
behavior of themselves and others.
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4- MORAL REASONING APPROACH -Through placing themselves in a role and

experiencing the process of deciding, students can begin to see moral decisions in a
larger framework than their single point of view. It consists of the students discussing a
dilemma and by reasoning they attain a higher level of knowledge.

5- ANALYSIS APPROACH - the group or individuals are encouraged to study social

value problems. They are asked to clarify value questions, and identify values in conflict.
They are encouraged to determine the truth and evidence of purported facts, and arrive
at value decision, applying analogous cases, inferring and testing value principles
underlying the decision.

6- VALUE CLARIFICATION APPROACH - It helps students to use both rational

thinking and emotional awareness to examine personal behavior patterns and classify
and actualize values. This approach has been detailed by Raths, [Link]. (1966) and
Simon, [Link]. (1972) where the child is made to jot down a self- analysis-reaction work
sheet, consisting of drawings, questions and activities.

7- COMMITMENT APPROACH - It enables the students to perceive themselves not

merely as passive reactors or as free individuals but as inner-relative members of a
social group and system.

8- UNION APPROACH - The purpose is to help students to perceive themselves and

act not as separate egos but as part of a larger inter- related whole-the human race, the
world, the cosmos.

OTHER APPROACHES (ACCORDING TO UNESCO APIED ON EDUCATION FOR

AFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT)

1. Telling: enables a pupil to have a clear picture of a value

2. Inculcating: instilling and internalizing norms into person's own value

systems.

3. Persuading: convincing the learner to accept certain values and behave in

accordance with what is acceptable.

4. Modeling: epitomizing desirable/ideal values is presented to the learners

as a model.

5. Role playing: taking the role of another person but without the risk of reprisals.
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6. Simulating: pretend to be in a certain situation called for by the lesson and then
to portray the events and also by imitating the character's personality.

7. Problem solving: dilemma is presented to the learners asking them what

decisions they are going to take.

8. Discussing situations, stories, pictures, etc: This technique asks the learners to
deliberate on and explain the details in the lesson.

9. Studying biographies of great men: makes use of the lives of great men as the
subject matter for trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for emulation.

10. Moralizing: working out a sense of morality through active structuring and
restructuring of one's social experiences (e.g. moral reasoning and analysis)

11. Values clarification: Values clarification as a strategy for values development

may be considered as learner-centered. It relies heavily on the pupils ability to process
his beliefs, behave according to his beliefs and to make a decision whenever confronted
with a value dilemma.

Environmental Education
• Man, as a part and parcel of the environment, has to recognize the role and
importance of environment in order to protect it and to get protection from it, for this, he
needs environmental education.

• DEFINITION

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN; 1971) "... the process of
recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes
necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among men, his culture
and his biophysical surroundings. EE also entails practice in decision-making and self-
formulation of a code of behaviour about issues concerning environmental quality.”

• Environmental Education implies establishing proper ecological equilibrium

which entails proper use and conservation of resources in a sustainable manner.
Environmental Education should enable people learn how hazardous environmental
pollution, population explosion and resource depletion could be…The best place to start
such learning is “School”
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Major Environmental Problems Needing Environmental

Education
• Macro kind- Soil Erosion, Extinction of wildlife, Deforestation, Lack of water,
Energy crisis and related issues.

• Micro kind- Poor health and sanitation, Inadequate housing, Population growth.

Focal points of Environmental Education

• Concern for reality by exposing students to the real life world, natural and social
environment in which they live.

• Enable students to analyse,evaluate and draw inferences about problems and

issues related to environment.

• Enable students understand environment issues and take positive environmental

actions.

• Develop skills of environmental actions among students in order to facilitate the

journey of mankind towards sustainability

Environmental Education in curriculum process

• Learning about the Environment

• Learning through the Environment

• Learning for the Environment

Goals Of Environmental Education

• To improve the quality of environment.

• To create an awareness among the people on environmental problems and

conversation.

• To create an atmosphere so that people participate in decision- making and

develop the capabilities to evaluate the developmental programmes.

Objectives Of Environmental Education

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• Awareness

• Knowledge

• Attitude

• Skills

• Evaluation ability

• Participation

Scope Of Environmental Education

• Awareness

• Real life situations

• Conservation

• Sustainable development

Guiding Principles of Environmental Education

• Considering environment in its totally-Natural and Built, Technological and Social.

• To be a continuous life long process, beginning at the pre-school level and

continuing through all formal and non-formal stages.

• To be inter-disciplinary in its approach drawing on the specific content of each

discipline making possible a holistic and balanced perspective

• To examine major environmental issues from local,national,regional and

international point of view so that students receive the insights into environmental
conditions in other geographical areas.

• To promote the value and necessity of local, national cooperation in prevention

and solutions of environmental problems.

• To focus on current and potential environmental aspects for development and

growth.
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• Enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide
an opportunity for making decisions and accepting their consequences.

• Relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-solving skills and values

and clarification at every great level.

• To help learners discover the symptoms and the actual causes of environmental
problems.

• To emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and has the need to

develop critical thinking and problem solving skills

• To utilize diverse learning environment and a broad array of educational

approaches to teaching.

Major Environmental Issues

• Climate Change

• Environmental degradation

• Intensive farming

• Land degradation

• Nuclear issues

• Overpopulation

• Ozone depletion

• Pollution

• Resource depletion

Environmental Awareness Is Essential For

• Protection of the atmosphere

• Protection of land resources

• Conservation of biological diversity

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• Environmentally sound management of biotechnology and hazardous wastes

• Prevention of illegal traffic in toxic products and wastes

• Improvement in living and working conditions of the poor by eradicating poverty

and stopping environmental degradation.

• We should limit our off springs because too many people will overburden the
earth.

• We shouldn't waste our resources on destructive weapons.

• We shouldn't run after gains at the cost of nature, rather should strive to restore
its damaged majesty.

• We shouldn't conceal from others the effects we have caused by our actions on
earth.

• We shouldn't steal from future generations their right to live in a clean and safe
planet by impoverishing or polluting it.

• We should consume the material goods to moderate amounts so that all may
share the earth’s precious treasure of resources.

Environmental Ethics
• We should love and honour the earth since it has blessed us with life and governs
our survival.

• We should keep each day sacred to earth and celebrate the turning of its
seasons.

• We should not hold ourselves above other living things and have no right to drive
them to extinction.

• We should be grateful to the plants and animals which nourish us by giving food.

Sustainable Development
• Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present
without comprising the ability of future generations to
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The Underlying Principles Of Sustainable Development

• Symbiotic relationship between consumerist human race and producer natural
systems.

• Environmental mistakes of the past need not be repeated.

• Healthy environment is essential for sustainable development and healthy

economy.

• It should stand for broader goals of social transformation.

Providing Environmental Education At Different Levels Of

Education

Approach Of Environmental Education

• Interdisciplinary Approach

• Multidisciplinary Approach

Role Of Teachers In Environmental Education

• To arouse the children’s interest in the environment and to raise challenging
problems

• To discuss the approach to problems or topics

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• To arrange visits

• To provide materials needed for practical work

• To arrange for visiting speakers

• To initiate and develop discussion and debate; and

• To provide facilities for displays and exhibitions of the work carried out.

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
• Constitution of India is the World’s Longest written constitution of any sovereign
Country in the world

• Constitution of India contains 448 Articles in 25 Parts, 12 Schedules and 101

Amendments till date.

• The Temporary Chairman of the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly held
on 9 December 1946 is Sachchidananda Sinha

• The Oldest constitution in the world known today is the constitution of United
States of America

• The Idea of Indian Constitution of was given by Dr B R Ambedkar who was the
Chairman of the Draft Commission set up by the constituent assembly in 1947 to
prepare the draft of the constitution. The Drafting Commission constituted a panel of 7
Members - Krishnaswamy Ayyar - N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi - Mohd. Saadullah -
[Link] Rao (replaced B.L. Mitter), - T.T. Krishnamachari (replaced Dr. D.P. Khaitan
after his Death) - K.M. Munshi

• The Constitution of India is adopted by the Constituent assembly on 26th

November, 1949 and the Constitution of India came into force on 26th January, 1950

• The Cabinet Mission to India in 1946 headed by Lord Pethick Lawrence was
aimed to discuss the transfer of power from the British government to the Indian
leadership and granting it independence.

• The Constitution of India which was framed by the Constituent assembly which
was set up in 1946
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• “Samvidhan Divas” or constitution day is observed every year in India on 26

November to commemorate the adoption of constitution on 26 November 1949

• Supreme Court acts as guardian of constitution by exercising Writs Jurisdiction,

Appellate Jurisdiction and Power of Judicial Review

• Pingali Venkayya designed the present day National Flag and adopted during the
constituent assembly meeting on 22 July 1947

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad is the President of the Constituent Assembly.

• The two prominent female leaders who played a key role in the drafting of the
constitution of India are Dakshayani Velayudhan and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit

• The President of India is called the First Citizen of India as per the Constitution of
India

• The Committee on Fundamental Rights and Minority Rights of the Constituent

Assembly was headed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

• For the first time in India, Indian Councils Act 1909 has legitimized the elections
of Indians to the various legislative councils in India

• Government of India Act, 1935 has given the representation to Indians for the
first time in Legislation

• The first session of the constituent assembly was held in the “Constitution Hall”
– presently “The Central Hall of the Parliament House” in New Delhi on December 9th
1946

• In June, 1948 - Clement Attlee the Prime Minister of England in 1948 announced
the transfer of Power to Indians

• Preamble was called the Soul of the Indian Constitution by Thakurdas Bhargav

• Preamble to the Constitution of India is a brief introductory statement that sets

out the guiding purpose and principles of the document is Proposed by Jawaharlal
Nehru before the Drafting Committee of the Constitution on 13 December 1946
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• Preamble was called the Political Horoscope of the Indian Constitution by K M

Munshi The strength of the constituent Assembly at the time of adoption of the
constitution of India was 299

• The members of the constituent assembly were elected Indirectly by Legislatures

of

Provincial Assemblies and nominated by the rulers of the Princely states

• The Constituent Assembly itself became the Parliament of India.

• Government of India Act is the last constitution of the British India which lasted
till 1947

• The First General Elections of Independent India were held in the Year 1952

• Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose are the one of the prominent
Artists from Shantiniketan who had Hand Written the Constitution of India.

• The British Monarch and president of India have the same constitutional
authority. The Real Powers of the state in a Parliamentary form of Government lies with
the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister of the Country

• It took 2 Year 11 Months and 18 Days to Finalize the constitution from the date
of Planning a Drafting Committee

• The Directive Principles of State Policy mentioned in the Indian Constitution are
important Principles Government has to keep

in mind while formulating a new policy

• The Parliament of India is a Bicameral Legislature with two legislatures: Rajya

Sabha and Lok Sabha

• Seven States in India have Bicameral Legislatures, they are - Andhra Pradesh -
Telangana - Bihar - Jammu-Kashmir - Karnataka - Maharashtra - Uttar Pradesh The two
State Legislatures are Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council

• The Indian Constitution has been best described as the “Lawyer’s Paradise” by
the British Lawyer” Ivor Jennings”
 325

• Idea of Preamble has been borrowed by the Indian Constitution from the
Constitution of USA

• The language of Preamble has been borrowed by the Indian Constitution from
the Constitution of Australia

• Government of India Act – 1935 which is the last constitution of British India
which lasted till 1947. All Acts before this act are called as – East India Company Acts

• The Total members of the constituent assembly were 385, after Independence
the number came down to 299.

• The Comptroller Auditor General of India controls the entire financial system of
the

Union as well as the States, though he is appointed by the President, the Comptroller
and Auditor- General can be removed only on an address from both Houses of
Parliament on the ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity.

• Comptroller Auditor General is mentioned in the Article 148-151 of the

Constitution of India

• The Original copy of the book of Constitution of India is preserved in a Helium

Filled Case of the Library of the Parliament of India

• The President is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of the

elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and the elected members of the
Legislative Assemblies of States and the Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry

• The Vice-President is elected by an Electoral College, which consists of the

members of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

• The President may also be removed before the expiry of the term through
impeachment for violating the Constitution of India by the Parliament of India. The
process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the
process by levelling the charges against the President.

• The Vice-President is elected by an Electoral College, which consists of the

members of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha

• The Constitution of India was majorly derived from Government of India Act 1935
 326

• It is mentioned in the constitution of India that the Vice-President of India can be

removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an absolute majority (more than
50% of total membership ) and agreed to by a simple majority (50% of present and
voting members) of the Lok Sabha

• The Attorney General of India is the first Law Officer of the Government of India
who gives advice on legal matters and performs other duties of a legal character as
assigned to him by the President

• Attorney General of India is mentioned in Article 76 of the Constitution of India

• The Solicitor General of India is below the Attorney General for India, who is the
Indian government's chief legal advisor, and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of
India. The Solicitor General of India is appointed for the period of 3 year

• The Post of Solicitor General is not mentioned in the constitution of India and is
merely statutory

• President is the head of both the Houses in India – Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha

• The Rajya Sabha is the upper house of the Parliament of India.

• The members RajyaSabha are elected by the members of Legislative Assembly

of respective states

• The Vice- President of India is the ex-officio of Chairman of Raja Sabha

• The maximum Strength of the of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution under
Article 79 to a maximum of 250 members

• Lok Sabha is the Lower house of India's bicameral Parliament under Article 79 of
the Indian Constitution of India

• Maximum strength of the Loksabha is 545 (543 elected + 2 Nominated from the
AngloIndian Community by the President)

• The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial forum and final court of appeal
under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional court, with the power of
constitutional review mentioned, the strength of the Supreme Court of India is 31 (Chief
Justice of India and 30 Judges.
 327

• The First Rajya Sabha MP to become the Prime Minister of the country was Indira
Gandhi

• Advocate General appointed by the Governor of the state is the highest law

officer of the State

• The Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission is appointed by the

President of India

• The National Capital Territory of Delhi is constituted by the 69th Amendment to

the Constitution of India

MAJOR features were borrowed from many Constitutions of

the World
• Constitution of USA- Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Preamble

• Constitution of Britain- Single Citizenship, Bicameral Parliamentary Procedure

• Constitution of Germany - Provisions related to Suspension of Fundamental

Rights of Citizens during Emergency

• Constitution of Ireland- Directive Principles of State Policy, Presidential Election

procedure

• Constitution of Canada- Supreme Court’s advisory Jurisdiction, The concept of

Federal System

• Constitution of Russia- Fundamental Duties

• Constitution of South Africa- amendment of the Constitution, Election of

members of Rajya Sabha

• Attorney General of India is not sacked/ impeached by the Parliament.

• During the proclamation of emergency is in operation the term of Lok Sabha may
be extended at a time for a period not exceeding for 1 year.

• 20 members are elected in the Lok Sabha from the Union Territories (according
to Constitutional provision)
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• The minimum age to become a member of Lok Sabha is 25 year

• the representative from states in Rajya Sabha is elected by the President

IMPORTANT ARTICLES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

• Article 1 – Name and territory of the union.

• Article 2 – Admission and establishment of the new state.

• Article 3 – Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries, and

name of existing states.

• Article 5 – Citizenship at the commencement of the constitution.

• Article 6 – Rights of citizenship of certain person who have migrated to India

from Pakistan.

• Article 10 – Continuance of rights of citizenship.

• Article 11 – Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

• Article 12 – Definition of the state.

• Article 13 – Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.

• Article 14- Equality Before Law

• Article 15 – Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste,

sex. Or place of birth.

• Article 16 – Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.

• Article 17- Abolition Of Untouchability

• Article 19 – Guarantees to all the citizens the six rights

• Article 20 – Protection in respect of conviction for offences.

• Article 21 – Protection of life and personal liberty.

• Article 21a- Right To Education

• Article 23- Prohibition Of Traffic In Human Beings And Forced Labour

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• Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children in factories and mines. Under

age of 14.

• Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and

propagation of religion.

• Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs.

• Article 27 – Freedom as to pay taxes for promotion of any particular religion.

• Article 28 – Freedom from attending religious instruction.

• Article 29 – Protection of interest of minorities.

• Article 30 – Right of minorities to establish and administer educational

institutions.

• Article 32 – Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights.

• ARTICLE 44- Uniform civil code for all citizens

• ARTICLE 48A- Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of

forests and wild life

• ARTICLE 50- Seperation of judiciary from executive

• ARTICLE 51- promotion of international peace and security

• ARTICLE 51- election of president

• Article 66- Election Of Vice- President

• ARTICLE 72- Power Of President To Grant Pardons, Etc. And To Suspend, Remit
Or Commute Sentences In Certain Cases

• Article 74- Council Of Ministers To Aid And Advise The President

• Article 76- Attorney General Of India

• Article 79- Constitution Of Parliament

• Article 80- rajya sabha-composition of the council of states

• Article 81- loksabha-composition of house of people

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• Article 124- establishment and constitution of supreme court of india

• Article 300a- right to property

• Article 315- public service commissions for the union and the states

Directive Principal of States Policy

• Article 36 – Definition

• Article 37– Application of DPSP (Directive Principal of States Policy)

• Article 39A – Equal justice and free legal aid

• Article 40 – Organization of village panchayat

• Article 41 – Right to work , to education, and to public assistance in certain cases

• Article 43 – Living Wages, etc. for Workers.

• Article 43A – Participation of workers in management of industries.

• Article 44 – Uniform civil code. ( applicable in Goa only)

• Article 45 – Provision for free and compulsory education for children.

• Article 46 – Promotion of educational and economic interest of scheduled

castes (SC), scheduled tribes (ST), and OBC.

• Article 47– Duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of
living and to improve public health.

• Article 48 – Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry.

• Article 49 – Protection of monuments and places and objects of natural

importance.

• Article 50 – Separation of judiciary from executive.

• Article 51 – Promotion of international peace and security

• Article 52 – The President of India

• Article 53 – Executive Power of the union

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• Article 54 – Election of President

• Article 61 – Procedure for Impeachment of the President

• Article 63 – The Vice–president of India

• Article 64 – The Vice–President to be ex–officio chairman the council of States

• Article 66 – Election of Vice–president

• Article 72 – Pardoning powers of President

• Article 74 – Council of minister to aid and advice President

• Article 76 – Attorney–General for India

• Article 79 – Constitution of Parliament

• Article 80 – Composition of Rajya Sabha

• Article 81 – Composition of Lok Sabha

• Article 83 – Duration of Houses of Parliament

• Article 93 – The speakers and Deputy speakers of the house of the people

• Article 105 – Powers, Privileges, etc. of the House of Parliament

• Article 109 – Special procedure in respects of money bills

• Article 110 – Definition of “Money Bills”

• Article 112 – Annual Financial Budget

• Article 114 –Appropriation Bills

• Article 123 – Powers of the President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of

parliament

• Article 124 – Establishment of Supreme Court

• Article 125 – Salaries of Judges

• Article 126 – Appointment of acting Chief justice

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• Article 127 – Appointment of ad–hoc judges

• Article 128 –Attendance of retired judge at sitting of the Supreme Court

• Article 129 – Supreme Court to be court of Record

• Article 130 – Seat of the Supreme Court

• Article 136 – Special leaves for appeal to the Supreme Court

• Article 137 – Review of judgment or orders by the Supreme Court

• Article 141 – Decision of the Supreme Court binding on all the courts

• Article 148 – Comptroller and Auditor– General of India

• Article 149 – Duties and Powers of CAG

• Article 153 – Governors of State

• Article 154 – Executive Powers of Governor

• Article 161 – Pardoning powers of the Governor

• Article 165 – Advocate–General of the State

• Article 213 – Power of Governor to promulgate ordinances

• Article 214 – High Courts for states

• Article 215 – High Courts to be court of record

• Article 226 – Power of High Courts to issue certain writs

• Article 233 – Appointment of District judges

• Article 235 – Control over Sub–ordinate Courts

• Article 267 – Contingency Fund of India

• Article 312 – All– India–Service

• Article 325 – No person to be ineligible for inclusion in or to claim to be included

in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste, or sex
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• Article 338 – National Commission for the SC & ST

• Article 352 – Proclamation of emergency (National Emergency)

• Article 356 – State Emergency (President’s Rule)

• Article 360 – Financial Emergency

• Article 368 – Powers of Parliaments to amend the constitution

• Article 370 – Special provision of J&K

• Fundamental Rights are written in Part III and Articles 12-35 of the Indian
Constitution

• Fundamental Duties are written in Part IV-A and Article 51-A of the Indian
Constitution

Fundamental Rights
• Right to freedom

• Right against exploitation

• Right to freedom of religion

• Right to constitutional remedies

• Cultural and educational rights

• Right to freedom of religion

FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
• To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem

• To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom

• To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India

• To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so
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• To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the
people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women

• To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture

• To protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers,
wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures

• To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform

• To safeguard public property and to abjure violence

• To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity, so

that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement

• Who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child, or

as the case may be, ward between the age of six to fourteen years

• We the people of India hereby adopt that to make India a safer place to live we
had to be clean and make our surrounding clean and not to hurt anybody physically and
mentally

First of Independent India

• President-Dr Rajendra Prasad

• Prime Minister- Jawaharlal Nehru

• Education Minister - Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad

• Home Minister - Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

• Foreign Minister - Jawaharlal Nehru

• Commerce and Industry Minister- Syama Prasad Mukherjee

• Finance Minister- Shanmukham Chetty

• Health Minister - Amrit Kaur

• Indian Governor General- C Rajagopalachari

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Current Office holders of India

• President of India - Ram Nath Kovind

• President of India and Chairman of the Rajya Sabha - Muppavarapu Venkaiah

Naidu

• Prime Minister of India - Narendra Damodardas Modi

• Chief Justice of India - Ranjan Gogoi

• Speaker of the Lok Sabha - Om Birla Kota

• Chief Election Commissioner - Sunil Arora

• Comptroller and Auditor General of India - Rajiv Mehrishi

• Chairman of Union Public Service Commission - Arvind Saxena

• Attorney General of India - Kottayan Katankot Venugopal

Unit - 6 Pramana
Pramana Pमाण literally means ‘proof’ and ‘means of knowledge’

It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and is one of the key, much debated
fields of study in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, since ancient times.

It is a theory of knowledge, and encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by
which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge.

The focus of Pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how
one doesn't, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can
be acquired.

Types of Pramana

Ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate
knowledge and to truths:

1. perception (pratyakṣa),
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2. inference (anumāna),

3. comparison and analogy (upamāna),

4. postulation, derivation from circumstances (arthāpatti),

5. non-perception, negative/cognitive proof (anupalabdhi) And

6. word, testimony of past or present reliable experts (Śabda).

The science and study of Pramanas is called Nyaya Pramāṇa literally means "proof"
and is also a

concept and field of Indian philosophy. The

concept is derived from the Sanskrit root, prama (Pमा) which means "correct notion,

true knowledge, basis, foundation, accurate notion". Thus, the concept Pramana implies that

which is a "means of acquiring prama or certain, correct, true knowledge".

Vedant darshan has given six pramanas.

Pratyaksa

Pratyaksa Pƶााय “that which is before one’s eyes”, perception, is of two types

external — that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, and

internal — perception of inner sense, the mind.

In Indian philosophy, perception, the first of the five means of knowledge, or pramanas,
that enable a person to have correct cognitions of the world.

Pratyaksha is of two kinds, direct perception (anubhava) and remembered perception

(smriti).

Anumana

• Anumana अनुमान “measuring along some other thing” or “inference” literally

translated the word anumana means ‘knowing after’.

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• It means the method by which knowledge is derived from another

knowledge. It is an indirect, mediate knowledge.

• We have knowledge of an invariable relationship between two things and on that

basis while seeing one we deduce the presence the other.

• Thus anumana refers to the logical process of gaining knowledge.

• The knowledge thus gained is called inferential knowledge or the logical

deduction.

Upamana

• Upamana (उपमान “comparison”) as the process by which the knowledge of

A’s similarity to B is gained from the perception of B’s similarity to A, which has been seen

elsewhere.

• This methodology is seen as distinct from mere inference, and is thus accepted
as a valid mediate method of

knowledge. Upamana is a distinct means of knowledge, and cannot be clubbed under

Anumana (अनुमान), because we cannot have a universal proposition that a thing is similar

to whatever is similar to it.

• Such a knowledge cannot be gained without the observation of the two

similar things together.

Arthapatti

• Arthapatti (अथा´पपK “the incidence of a case”) this means postulation

(assume to exist), supposition or presumption of a fact.

• It is a distinct valid method of mediate knowledge. It is in fact a method of

assumption of an unknown fact in order to account for a known fact that is otherwise
inexplicable.

• Arthapatti by which one obtains accurate knowledge of the world.

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• Arthapattiis knowledge arrived at by circumstantial implication.

Sabda

• Sabda (श “sound”) Sabda pramana is verbal testimony. It is also called ‘apta-

vakyas’ (statement of a trust-worthy person, and agama (authentic word).

• A verbal statement, uttered or written, is man’s most potent instrument for

transmitting knowledge. We learn mostly by means of words. An oral or written
message is a universal mode of communication. We constantly get various information,
direction & knowledge through words.

• Shabda, verbal testimony as a means of obtaining knowledge. In the

philosophical systems (darshans), shabda is equated with the authority of the Vedas
(the most-ancient sacred scriptures) as the only infallible testimony, since the Vedas
are deemed to be eternal, authorless, and absolutely infalliable.

Anupalabdi or Abhava

Anupalabdi (अअअअअ£ɩ) to be a separate independent pramana. It literally means non-

apprehension. Non-existence of a thing is apprehended by its non-perception. By not
seeing a jar in a place one knows that it is not there.

Anumana
Anumana Pramana is a means of knowledge, here knowledge is acquired through
guessing, interpretation and analysis.

Structure of Anumana

1) the proposition (pratijna, literally “promise”)

2) the ground (hetu),

3) the illustration (udaharana),

4) the application (upanaya), and

5) the conclusion (nigamana).

•1. पर्वत में आग है (प्रततज्ञा)।

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•2. क्योंकि उसमें धुआँ है (हेतु)।

•3. जहाँ जहाँ अअअअ अअअअ अअ अअअअ अअअअ अअ अअअअ अअ, अअअअ अअअअ

अअअ (अअअअअअ)अ

•4. इस पर्वत में जो अअअअ अअ अअ अअ अअ अअअ अअअअअअअ अअ (अअअअ)अ

•5. अत: पर्वत में अअ अअअ (अअअअअ)।

Kind of Anumana
As per Nayaya Darshan the Anumana is of three types

1- Purvatva Anumana

2- Sheshavat Anumana

3- Samanyato Drushta Anumana

Purvatva Anumana

Purvatva refers to the reasoning obtained from cause to effect, inferring an unperceived
effect from a perceived cause

Example- clouds leads to rain. Seeds leads to fruits.

Sheshavat Anumana

Inferring an unperceived cause from a perceived effect

Samanyato Drushta Anumana

Refers to the inferential knowledge obtained through ‘generalization of a

particular matter’

when inference is not based on causation but on uniformity of co-existence

Vyapti

Vyapti refers to the state of pervasion. It is considered as the logical ground of

inference which is one of the means to knowledge.
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No conclusion can be inferred without the knowledge of vyapti. Vyapti guarantees the
truth of conclusion.

It signifies the relation of invariable concomitance between "hetu" and "sadhya" and is
of two kinds.

Hetvabhasa

A syllogism is vitiated by a fallacious ground; this is called hetvabhasa “the mere

appearance of a ground”. A number of types of invalid grounds are distinguished:
simple error, contradiction, lack of proof for the ground, and inopportunity.

•अअअअअअ अअअअअअअअअअ (अअअअअअअअअअअ) अअअ हहहहहहहहह उस अवस्था

को कहते हैं जिसमें वास्तपवक हेतु का अभाव होने पर या पकसी अवास्तपवक असद् हेतु के वततमान रहने

पर भी वास्तपवक हेतु का आभास पमलता या अजस्तत्व पिखाई िेता है और उसके फल-स्वरूप भ्रम होता

या हो सकता हो।

'हेत्वाभास' िो शब्दों 'हेतु' और 'आभास' की सपि से बना है। 'आभास' का मतलब है 'िो नहीं है वह

िीखना' या 'िो नहीं है वैसा िीखना'। हेतु का आभास तब होता है िब हेतु के पाँचों लक्षणों (पक्षसत्व,

सपक्षसत्व, पवपक्षासत्व, अवाधितत्व और असत् प्रधतपक्षतव) का अभाव होअ

Formal and Informal fallacies

• Formal and Informal fallacies

• Fallacy- Defect in Reasoning, either intentionally or unintentionally.

• Formal- Defect in form of the argument

• Informal Fallacy- Defect in the content of argument

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• Formal and Informal fallacies

• A formal fallacy, is a pattern

of reasoning rendered invalid by a flaw in its logical structure that can neatly be
expressed in a standard logic system.

• It is defined as a deductive argument that is invalid.

• The argument itself could have true premises, but still have a false conclusion.

• Thus, a formal fallacy is a fallacy where deduction goes wrong, and is no longer a
logical process.

• However, this may not affect the truth of the conclusion since validity and truth
are separate in formal logic.

• An informal fallacy originates in a reasoning error other than a flaw in the logical
form of the argument.

• A deductive argument containing an informal fallacy may be formally valid, but

still remain rationally unpersuasive.

• Nevertheless, informal fallacies apply to both deductive and non-deductive

arguments.

• Though the form of the argument may be relevant, fallacies of this type are the
"types of mistakes in reasoning that arise from the mishandling of

the content of the propositions constituting the argument".

1. Ad Hominem- Ad hominem is Latin for “against the man.” Instead of advancing

good sound reasoning, ad hominems replace logical argumentation with attack-
language unrelated to the truth of the matter.

ad hominems are a fallacy of relevance where someone rejects or criticizes another

person’s view on the basis of personal characteristics, background, physical
appearance, or other features irrelevant to the argument at issue.

Example-

That face cream can't be good. Kim Kardashian is selling it.

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Don't listen to Dave's argument on gun control. He's not the brightest bulb in the
chandelier.

2. Straw Man - In the straw man fallacy,

someone attacks a position the opponent doesn’t really hold. Instead of contending
with the actual argument, he or she instead attacks the equivalent of a lifeless bundle of
straw, an easily defeated effigy, which the opponent never intended upon defending
anyway.

Straw man fallacies are a cheap and easy way to make one’s position look stronger
than it is.

Using this fallacy, opposing views are characterized as “non-starters,” lifeless, truthless,
and wholly unreliable. By comparison, one’s own position will look better for it.

Example-

President Trump doesn't have middle class Americans in mind. He's part of the upper
echelon of America.

3. Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)

These fallacies occur when someone asserts a claim that must be accepted because
no one else can prove otherwise.

Any time ignorance is used as a major premise in support of an argument, it’s liable to
be a fallacious appeal to ignorance.

Ignorance isn’t proof of anything except that one doesn’t know something. If no one has
proven the non-existence of ghosts or flying saucers, that’s hardly proof that those
things either exist or don’t exist. If we don’t know whether they exist, then we don’t know
that they do exist or that they don’t exist. Ignorance doesn’t prove any claim to
knowledge.

Example-

People have been praying to God for years. No one can prove He doesn't exist.
Therefore, He exists.

4. False Dilemma/False Dichotomy-

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This fallacy has a few other names: “black-and-white fallacy,” “either-or fallacy,” “false
dichotomy,” and “bifurcation fallacy.” This line of reasoning fails by limiting the options
to two when there are in fact more options to choose from. Sometimes the choices are
between one thing, the other thing, or both things together (they don’t exclude each
other). Sometimes there are a whole range of options, three, four, five, or a hundred and
forty-five. However it may happen, the false dichotomy fallacy errs by oversimplifying
the range of options

Dilemma-based arguments are only fallacious when, in fact, there are more than the
stated options.

Example-

In Latin America, only two countries offer travel and tourism options: Mexico and
Guatemala.

[Link] Slope

The slippery slope fallacy works by moving from a seemingly benign premise or starting
point and working through a number of small steps to an improbable extreme.

This fallacy is not just a long series of causes.

Some causal chains are perfectly reasonable. There could be a complicated series of
causes which are all related, and we have good reason for expecting the first cause to
generate the last outcome.

The slippery slope fallacy, however, suggests

that unlikely or ridiculous outcomes are likely when there’s just not enough evidence to
think so.

Example-

If we teach Tanmay how to drive the car, he'll want to learn how to fly helicopters next!

[Link] Argument (petitio principii)

When a person’s argument is just repeating what they already assumed beforehand, it’s
not arriving at any new conclusion. We call this a circular argument or circular
reasoning.
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Circular arguments are also called Petitio principii meaning “Assuming the initial [thing]“
(commonly mistranslated as "begging the question").

Example- If someone says, “the Bible is true because the Bible says it’s true"—that’s a
circular argument.

One is assuming that the Bible only speaks truth, and so they trust it to truthfully report
that it speaks the truth.

Another example of circular reasoning is, "According to my brain, my brain is reliable.”

[Link] Generalization- Hastygeneralizations are general statements without sufficient

evidence to support them. They are general claims too hastily made, hence they commit
some sort of illicit assumption, stereotyping, unwarranted conclusion, overstatement, or
exaggeration.

Hasty generalization may be the most

common logical fallacy because there’s no single agreed-upon measure for “sufficient”
evidence.

Example- Some teenagers in our community recently vandalized the park downtown.
Teenagers are so irresponsible and destructive

[Link] Herring (ignoratio elenchi)

A “red herring” is a distraction from the argument typically with some sentiment that
seems to be relevant but isn’t really on-topic. Typically, the distraction sounds relevant
but isn’t quite on-topic. This tactic is common when someone doesn’t like the current
topic and wants to detour into something else instead, something easier or safer to
address.

These fallacies occur when someone uses irrelevant information to distract from the
argument.

Example- There are starving children in Africa. Eat your carrots.

[Link] Quoque Fallacy-

The “tu quoque,” Latin for “you too,” is also called the “appeal to hypocrisy” because it
distracts from the argument by pointing out hypocrisy in the opponent. This tactic
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doesn’t solve the problem, or prove one’s point, because even hypocrites can tell the
truth. Focusing on the other person’s hypocrisy is a diversionary tactic.

In this way, the tu quoque typically deflects

criticism away from one’s self by accusing the other person of the same problem or
something comparable.

Example-“But, Dad, I know you smoked when you were my age, so how can you tell me
not to do it?”

[Link] Causal Fallacy-

is any logical breakdown when identifying a cause. You can think of the Causal Fallacy
as a parent category for several different fallacies about unproven causes.

One causal fallacy is the False Cause or non causa pro causa ("not the-cause for a
cause") fallacy, which is when you conclude about a cause without enough evidence to
do so.

Example- “Since your parents named you

‘Harvest,’ they must be farmers.”

It’s possible that the parents are farmers, but that name alone is not enough evidence to
draw that conclusion. That name doesn’t tell us much of anything about the parents.
This claim commits the False Cause Fallacy.

2- Jimmy isn’t at school today. He must be on a family trip.

[Link] of Sunk Costs

“Sunk cost” is an economic term for any past expenses that can no longer be recovered.

Sometimes we invest ourselves so thoroughly in a project that we’re reluctant to ever

abandon it, even when it turns out to be fruitless and futile. It’s natural, and usually not a
fallacy to want to carry on with something we find important, not least because of all
the resources we’ve put into it.

However, this kind of thinking becomes a fallacy

when we start to think that

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we should continue with a task or project because of all that we’ve put into it, without
considering the future costs we’re likely to incur by doing so. There may be a sense of
accomplishment when finishing, and the project might have other values, but it’s not
enough to justify the cost invested in it.

Example- “I’m halfway done with college.

This is so tough, and It’s not nearly as fun as I thought it would be, but I don’t know. I
guess I’ll finish it and get my degree.”

[Link] to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam)

This fallacy happens when we misuse an authority. This misuse of authority can occur
in a number of ways. We can cite only authorities — steering conveniently away from
other testable and concrete evidence as if expert opinion is always correct. Or we can
cite irrelevant authorities, poor authorities, or false authorities.

Like many of the other fallacies in this list,

the argumentum ad verecundiam (“argument from respect”) can be hard to spot. It’s
tough to see, sometimes, because its normally a good responsible move to cite relevant
authorities supporting your claim. It can’t hurt. But if all you have are authorities, and
everyone just has to “take their word for it” without any other evidence to show that
those authorities are correct, well then you have a problem.

•These fallacies occur when someone accepts a truth on blind faith just because
someone they admire said it.

Example- Katherine loves Tom Cruise. One day, she meets Tom Cruise and he tells her
unicorns live in New York City. Without searching to find out if fairy tales have sprung to
life in the midtown Manhattan, she believes it to be true.

[Link] (ambiguity)

Equivocation happens when a word, phrase, or sentence is used deliberately to confuse,

deceive, or mislead by sounding like it’s saying one thing but actually saying something
else. Equivocation comes from the roots “equal” and “voice” and refers to two- voices; a
single word can “say” two different things. Another word for this is ambiguity.

Example- replacing "fired from my job" with

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"early retirement.

When these replacement words are used to mislead people they become an
equivocation fallacy.

[Link] to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam)

a fallacy of relevance. Personal attacks, and emotional appeals, aren’t strictly relevant
to whether something is true or false. In this case, the fallacy appeals to the
compassion and emotional sensitivity of others when these factors are not strictly
relevant to the argument. Appeals to pity often appear as emotional manipulation. For
example,

Example - “How can you eat that innocent little potato? He was plucked from his home
in the ground at a young age, and violently skinned, chemically treated, and packaged,
and shipped to your local grocer and now you are going to eat him into oblivion when he
did nothing to you. You really should reconsider what you put into your body.”

These fallacies occur when someone seeks

to gain acceptance by pointing out an unfortunate consequence that befalls them.

If we don't adopt that puppy today, they might put him down. Do you want to be
responsible for that?

[Link] Fallacy

The bandwagon fallacy assumes something is true (or right, or good) because other
people agree with it.

These fallacies occur when a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because
many people believe it to be so.

Example-

Everyone on campus is wearing Adidas. I need to buy those sneakers.

All my friends are doing a keto diet. That must be the only way to lose weight.

Types of Fallacies with Short Explanation

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•Ad Hominem- to prime the audience with adverse information about the opponent from
the start, in an attempt to make your claim more acceptable, or discount the credibility
of your opponent's claim.

•Straw Man- Attack a view similar to the one you wish to rebut. Divert attention away
from difficult issues by setting up easier issues that you may 'knock down'.

•Appeal to Ignorance- using an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as prood of

the conlcusion's correctness

•Red Herring- attempts to hide weakness by drawing attention away from the real issue

•Tu Quoque Fallacy- Claiming the argument is flawed by pointing out that the one
making the argument is not acting consistently with the claims of the argument

•The Causal Fallacy- The questionable cause— also known as causal fallacy, false
cause, or non causa pro causa ("non-cause for cause" in Latin)—is a category of
informal fallacies in which a cause is incorrectly identified.

•Overgeneralization/ Hasty Generalization- Conclusions is not justified due to

insufficient/biased evidence.

•Loaded Question- An unanswerable, biased question--sometimes only allowing two

possible answers (yes or no).

•Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (False Causation)- Arguing that because Event B

occurred after Event A, Event A caused Event B.

•Ignoring the Question- Avoiding countering an opposing argument directly by

introducing a new or non-issue to the argument.

•Appeal to Authority/ Ad Vericundiam- Assuming the authority of a figure establishes

the truth of the argument.

•False Analogy- Basing an argument in a poor comparison of two things, ideas, events
or situations.

•Begging the Question- Loading the conclusion in the claim; assuming that something
is true before it is proven.
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•Appealing to Tradition/ Scholasticism- Using historical preferences of the people

(tradition), either in general or as specific as the historical preferences of a single
individual, as evidence that the historical preference is correct.

•bandwagon appeal- belief that something should be done because the majority or
people do it

•Slippery Slope- The argument that one thing inevitably leads to another. A simplistic
reduction of a possible chain of events.

•Circular Argument- is a logical fallacy in which the reasoner begins with what they are
trying to end with

1. An argument can contain both a formal and an informal fallacy.

A- True B- False

Ans- A TRUE

2. An argument with good form can still contain an informal fallacy.

A. True

B. False

Ans- True

3. Why is it important to be able to understand and identify fallacies?

A. So that we can win arguments.

B. So that we can correct any defects in our reasoning.

C. So that we can coerce others into believing our claims.

D. None of these Ans- B

4. A fallacy is...

A. An unintentional defect in reasoning.

B. An intentional defect in reasoning.

C. An unintentional or intentional defect in reasoning.

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D. None of these

Ans- C

5. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

(1) If Ravi will pass the test, then he will have studied for the test;

(2) Ravi studied for the test;

(C) So, Ravi will pass the test.

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None of these

ANS- A

6. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

(1) If Maya goes to the party, then Ram will make dinner; (2) Maya won't go to the party;
(C) So Ram won't make dinner.

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None

Ans- A

7. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

(1) A foot is 12 inches;

(2) Most people have feet;

(C) Most people's feet are 12 inches.

A. Formal
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8. An argument with good content can still

contain a formal fallacy.

A. True

B. False

C. Both

D. None Ans- A true

9. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

(1) Most people who buy lottery tickets won't win the lottery;

(2) Mahendra bought a lottery ticket;

(C) So, Mahendra won't win the lottery.

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None Ans- A formal

10. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

(1) All Arabs are Muslims.

(2) All Iranians are Muslims.

(C) All Iranians are Arabs.

A. Formal

11. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

• P1: if someone is allergic to sunlight he won’t go outside in sun

• P2: Neha doesn’t go outside

• C: Neha is allergic to sunlight

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A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None

Ans- A Formal Fallacies

12. Determine what kind of fallacy is exemplified by the following argument:

• P1: A feather is light

• P2: What is light cannot be dark

• C: therefore a feather can not be dark

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None

Ans-B Informal fallacy

Q: 13) "You claim atheists can be moral - yet I happen to know you abandoned your wife
and children."

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (A)

Q: 14) "Of course psychic phenomena do not exist. Nobody has shown any proof that
they are real.“

A. Ad hominem
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B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalizatio

AnNS- (B)

Q: 15) "It rained yesterday and today I have a cold. Therefore, the rain gave me a cold.“

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. Hasty generalization

D. False analogy

ANS- (C)

Q: 16) "If we legalize marijuana, then more people would start to take crack and heroin,
and we'd have to legalize those too. Before long, we'd have a nation full ofdrug addicts
on welfare."

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (C)

Q: 17) Tall men like chocolate ice cream.

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (D)
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Q: 18) "Guns are like hammers

- both are tools that can be used to kill somebody. But it would be ridiculous to outlaw
the purchase of hammers; so it would be ridiculous to outlaw the purchase of guns,
too."

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. False Analogy

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (C)

Q: 19) "I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do
pleases you."

A. Ad hominem

B. Red herring

C. False Analogy

D. hasty generalizatio

AnNS- (B)

Q: 20) "Sam Smith divorced his loving wife of ten years. How could he be qualified to be
mayor?"

A. Ad hominem

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalizatioAnNS- (A)

Q: 21) "I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment."

A. Ad hominem
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B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (A)

Q: 22) "I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I
will vouch for him."

A. Ad hominem

B. Circular argument

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (B)

Q: 23) "The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax
specifically to support the poor.“

A. Straw man

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalizatioAnNS- (A)

Q: 24) "If we let students wear sleeveless shirts, then before your know it, they will be
wearing no shirts at all.“

A. Straw man

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalizatioAnNS- (C)

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Q: 25) "The level of mercury in seafood may be unsafe, but what will fishers do to
support their families."

A. Straw man

B. Red herring

C. False Analogy

D. hasty generalizatioAn

NS- (B)

Q: 26) "I drank bottled water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick."

A. Straw man

B. Red herring

C. Post hoc, Ergo Proptor Hoc

D. hasty generalizatio

AnNS- (C)

Q: 27) "Either we ban boxing or hundreds of young men will be senselessly killed."

A. Straw man

B. Appeal to Ignorance

C. False Dichotomy

D. hasty generalization

ANS- ©

Q: 28) "God exists because the Bible says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know
that God exists."

A. Straw man

B. Begging the question

C. slippery slope
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D. hasty generalizatio

AnNS- (B)

Q: 29) Deaths from drug overdoses in Metropolis have doubled in the past three years.
Therefore, more Americans than ever are dying from drug abuse.

A. Straw man

B. ad ignorantium

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (D)

Q: 30) If we can put humans on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for the
common cold.

A. Straw man

B. False analogy

C. slippery slope

D. Either or

ANS- (B)

Q: 31) Either learn how to program a computer or you won't be able to get a decent job
after college.

A. Straw man

B. Either or

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (B)
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Q: 32) Students should not be allowed to park in lots now reserved for faculty, because
those lots should be for faculty only.

A. False analogy

B. Circular argument

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalizatio

AnNS- (B)

Q: 33) "If you don't agree with me, I'll punch you in the face.“

A. False analogy

B. Appeal to pity

C. Appeal to force

D. Appeal to authority

ANS- (C)

Q: 34) "This man is wrong because he's Asian, and Asians are always wrong.“

A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. ad hominem

D. abusive ad hominem

ANS- (B)

Q: 35) "Lance Armstrong isn't a great athlete; he's a fraud, a cheat and a liar.“

A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. ad hominem
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D. Straw Man

ANS- (C)

Q: 36) "Everyone is doing it, therefore it's the right thing to do.“

A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. Straw Man

D. Band wagon

ANS- (D)

Q: 37) "A true American would never argue that beer should be banned.“

A. Patriotic Approach

B. Appeal to pity

C. Appeal to force

D. Appeal to authority

ANS- (A)

Q: 38) Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course.

A. False analogy

B. Circular argument

C. slippery slope

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (D)

Q: 39) The Volkswagen Beetle is an evil car because it was originally designed by
Hitler's army.

A. False analogy
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B. genetic fallacy

C. Straw Man

D. Band wagon

ANS- (B)

Q: 40) We can either stop using cars or destroy the earth.

A. Straw man

B. Appeal to Ignorance

C. False Dichotomy

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (C)

Q: 41) My philosophy class was hard, and your philosophy class was hard, therefore all
philosophy classes must be hard

A. Straw man

B. Appeal to Ignorance

C. False Dichotomy

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (D)

Q: 42) You used the telephone and then it stopped working. You broke the phone.

A. Straw man

B. Red herring

C. Post hoc, Ergo Proptor Hoc

D. hasty generalizatioAnNS- (C)

Q: 43) Premise: All black bears are omnivores.

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Premise: All raccoons are omnivores.

Conclusion: All raccoons are black bears.

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

Q: 44) If someone owns Fort Knox, then he is rich.

Bill Gates is rich. Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox.

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None of the above

ANS- (A)

Q: 45) “Ram is different from Shyam."

"Shyam is a man." "Therefore, Ram is

different from a man

A. Formal

B. Informal

C. Both

D. None of the above

ANS- (B)

Q: 46) Person A: I think that India will come out of this recession quickly. Person B:
What do you know about economics? You don't even have a job!
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A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. ad hominem

D. Straw Man

ANS- ©

Q: 47) A commercial comes on the TV asking for money to help remove animals from
abusive homes and shows a slide show of cute kittens and puppies.

A. False analogy

B. Appeal to Emotions

C. ad hominem

D. Appeal to Authority

ANS- (B)

Q: 48) "You're not cool unless you wear this brand of clothing“

A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. Straw Man

D. Band wagon

ANS- (D)

Q: 49) "If you vote for this candidate, then your children's lives will be at stake!”

A. False analogy

B. genetic fallacy

C. Straw Man

D. Scare Tactic
 363

ANS- (D)

Q: 50) Person A: What about

Christmas? Person B: Well, my aunt is coming next week.

A. Straw man

B. Red herring

C. Post hoc, Ergo Proptor

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (B)

Q: 51) The theory that witches and demons cause disease is far older than the theory
that microrganisms cause diseases. Therefore, the theory about witches and demons
must be true.

A. Straw man

B. Red herring

C. Traditional wisdom

fallacy

ANS- ()D. hasty generalization

Q: 52) "I am the new candidate for CHANGE." or "It's NEW“

A. Glittering Generality

B. Red herring

C. Traditional wisdom fallacy

D. hasty generalization

ANS- (A)
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Use of Language
Introduction
• We use language in many different ways and for many different purposes. We
write, speak, and sign it. We work with language, play with language, and earn our living
with language. In doing so, it is important that we not forget the complexity behind what
we are doing.

• Logic is one, but only one, approach to the study of language.

• The purpose of logic is to improve our critical thinking.

• To think critically is to recognize, construct, analyze, and evaluate arguments.

• Doing these things requires that we be able to separate the argumentative uses
of language from the other uses

Categories of Use of Language

• For analyzing the uses of language it is divided in five broad categories:

• the informative,

• the evocative,

• the expressive,

• the evaluative, and

• the performative.

•These categories are not mutually exclusive. A sentence may be used in more than one
way on any given occasion.

The Informative Use

•What we express, when using language informatively, can be judged true or false.
 365

•We may not know which it is, but we know it is one or the other. For example, consider
the sentence, "There are intelligent life forms on other planets." It may be the case that
there are no life forms of any kind in any other galaxy.

•If so, the sentence expresses something false. There may be myriad forms of life
throughout the universe, many of which are far beyond us in intelligence. If so, the
sentence expresses something true.

•Either way, it is an informative use of language because the sentence expresses

something that is either true or false.

•A sentence used informatively is usually, but not always, a declarative sentence.

•If we wish not only to inform, but also to add emphasis to the information, we might
use an exclamatory sentence. A rhetorical

question may be used informatively.

•A student might say to the teacher, "Is it already noon?" The purpose is not to inquire,
but to tell the teacher that it is time to stop for a lunch break.

•As we shall see, not all declarative sentences are informative.

•There are many other ways to use declarative sentences. The informative use of
language itself has many uses. Included are reports, descriptions, analyses,
explanations and arguments. In this book, the primary concern is with arguments. Much
of what is covered will bear upon other uses as well.

The Evocative Use Language

•when used evocatively, serves to bring about a response, usually from another person.

•Commands are one large group of evocative expressions.

•If I use the sentence, "Close the door," presumably there is an open door and someone
present whom I want to close it. The sentence is used to evoke the action of door
closing.

•There are ways of getting that door closed besides commands. One can request it.
"Please close the door." It can be put in the
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form of a question. "Would someone mind closing that door?" As a last resort one might
say, "I beg and beseech you to close the door."

•Questions, like commands, are an evocative use of language.

•The function of a question, in normal cases, is to elicit an answer. Rhetorical questions

are used evocatively, though the point of using them is not to evoke answers.

•If your instructor asks, "Are you sure you've studied enough?" she probably is
encouraging you to study more.

•Feelings or emotions, as well as actions, may be evoked by language. One of the things
we must be cautious of is language that pretends to be informative, but is actually
evocative. A sentence such as "Joe Jones, who incidentally is a member of an all white
country club, was appointed to the Civil Rights Commission," not only informs, but also
evokes our feelings regarding racial exclusiveness.

The Expressive Use

•The expressive use of language is best characterized by its lack of other directedness.

•We can express our joy, sadness, or pain privately or publicly. Expressions such as
"Oh," "Wow," and "Ouch," curses and cheers are typical of the expressive use.

•Because we are social beings, and language is a primary vehicle of our social
interaction, it is frequently the case that language is

simultaneously used to express and evoke.

•We have empathy with others. When they express joy through laughter, we laugh with
them. When they cry, we cry with them.

The Evaluative Use

•Language is used evaluatively to express ethical, aesthetic, or functional judgments.

•Terms like "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "beautiful," "ugly," "efficient," and "inefficient"
are clues to the evaluative use of language.
 367

•Evaluative language falls into three major areas: ethical, aesthetic, and technical.
Ethical language is about right and wrong, duties and obligations, rights and
responsibilities.

•Aesthetic language is about beauty and ugliness, the pleasing and displeasing.
Technical language is about what is useful and useless, efficient and inefficient,
functional and disfunctional.

•The evaluative category has been the most controversial in philosophy. Various
attempts have been made to reduce it to one or another of the other categories. While
important issues arise here, they belong in a value theory course. For the sake of initial
clarity, it is best to separate evaluative uses of language from the others.

The Performative Use

•A performative expression is one used to accomplish some social act, in contrast to
reporting, evaluating, provoking, or reacting to it.

•To say, "I apologize for my offensive behavior," is to apologize for that behavior.

•It is not to report an act, which has been performed or will be performed. It is the
performance of apologizing.

•When the minister or justice of the peace, in performing a wedding, asks, "Do you
take..." and you reply, "I do," you've done it.

•Both the recognition and the execution of performatives require knowledge of social
roles and actions.

•Certain kinds of performatives can only be executed by socially authorized persons.

Marriages are performed by priests, ministers, judges, and captains of ships at sea.

•They are not performed by electricians or retail store managers.

•Voting is done by citizens or by members of organizations.

•Promises are generally binding only on those who make them.

Q: 1) Statue of unity is not situated in Delhi

A. Informative use of language

 368

B. Evocative use of language

C. Expressive use of language

D. Performative use of language

ANS- (A)

Q: 2) Is it holiday tomorrow?

A. Informative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Expressive use of language

D. Performative use of language

ANS- (A)

Q: 3) Fetch me a glass of water

A. Informative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Expressive use of language

D. Performative use of language

ANS- (B)

Q: 4) Are you sure you are prepared for your net exam?

A. Informative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Expressive use of language

D. Performative use of language

ANS- (B)

Q: 5) Yes! I am very happy today.

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A. Informative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Expressive use of language

D. Performative use of language

ANS- ©

Q: 6) You have made many wrong choices in life

A. Informative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Aesthetic Evaluative use of language

D. Ethical Evaluative use of language

ANS- (D)

Q: 7) This fan is not working properly

A. Technical Evaluative use of language

B. Evocative use of language

C. Aesthetic Evaluative use of language

D. Ethical Evaluative use of language

ANS- (A)