A2 Physics — Circular Motion Radians & Angular Quantities

1. The Radian

1 radian = angle where arc length = radius.

r s=r Arc length Angle (rad) Full circle

1 rad
r s = rθ θ=s/r θ = 2π rad
O
2π rad = 360° | π rad = 180° | 1 rad ≈ 57.3°

2. Degree ⇔ Radian Conversions

Degrees → Radians Radians → Degrees E.g.

multiply by π/180 multiply by 180/π 65° = 1.13 rad

E.g. 3.2 rad = 3.2 × 180/π = 183.3°

3. Angular Displacement (∆θ)

Change in angle swept Units: radians (rad). Scalar quantity.

∆θ = θ■ − θ■ (radians) The angle the radius sweeps from one position to another.

4. Angular Speed (ω) and Angular Velocity

Angular speed: angle swept per unit time (scalar). SI unit: rad s■¹

Definition From period T From freq. f

ω=θ/t ω = 2π / T ω = 2πf

Angular velocity: same magnitude as angular speed but includes direction (CW or CCW).
5. Key Constants & Unit Reminders

g (gravitational field strength, Earth) 9.81 m s■² (use exactly this in calculations)
π 3.14159...
2π rad = 360° = one full revolution
T (period) time in seconds for one full revolution
f (frequency) revolutions per second (Hz). Convert rpm: divide by 60
cm → m divide by 100 | mm → m: divide by 1000

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Linear Speed & Centripetal Acceleration

6. Linear Speed v and Angular Speed ω

In time ∆t, object moves arc ∆s and sweeps angle ∆θ.

v ∆s = r∆θ ⇒ ∆s/∆t = r × ∆θ/∆t ⇒ v = rω

KEY Via period T Via freq. f

r
a
v = rω v = 2πr / T v = 2πrf

Rigid body rule:

All points share the same ω. Outer points have larger v (v = rω, bigger r).
Velocity direction is always tangential; acceleration is centripetal (inward).

7. Centripetal Acceleration

Speed is constant in uniform circular motion but direction changes continuously.

⇒ There is always an acceleration, directed towards the centre of the circle.

In terms of v In terms of ω Mixed form

a = v² / r a = rω² a = vω

Proof that a = vω:

a = v²/r and v = rω so r = v/ω
a = v² ÷ (v/ω) = v² × ω/v = vω ✓

Common exam trap: centripetal acceleration is NOT zero. The object is always accelerating even at constant speed.

8. Worked Example — Flywheel

Given: r = 20.0 cm = 0.200 m, speed = 600 rev/min

Step 1 — convert to Hz: f = 600 / 60 = 10 Hz
Step 2 — angular speed: ω = 2πf = 2π × 10 = 62.8 rad s■¹
Step 3 — linear speed: v = rω = 0.200 × 62.8 = 12.6 m s■¹
Step 4 — centripetal acceleration: a = rω² = 0.200 × 62.8² = 790 m s■²

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Centripetal Force & Applications

9. Centripetal Force

F = ma. Substitute the centripetal acceleration to get centripetal force:

In terms of v In terms of ω Mixed form

F = mv² / r F = mrω² F = mvω

CRITICAL: Centripetal force is ALWAYS the resultant force towards the centre. It is NOT a new separate force. Always identify
which real force provides it: Tension, Gravity, Friction, or Normal reaction.

Common sources of centripetal force:

Object on string: Tension T in the string

Moon / satellite orbit: Gravitational attraction
Car on a bend: Friction between tyres and road
Conical pendulum / banking: Horizontal component of Tension or Lift

10. Conical Pendulum

Mass m on string length L at angle θ to vertical,

rotating in horizontal circle of radius r = L sinθ.

θ Resolve tension T into components:

T Vertical (supports weight)

Tcosθ Tcosθ = mg

Tsinθ (centripetal)
Horizontal (centripetal)

Tsinθ = mv²/r or Tsinθ = mrω²

mg
Divide to eliminate T

tanθ = v² / (rg)
θ = tan■¹(v² / rg) | Larger ω → larger θ

θ cannot equal 90°. If θ = 90° then cos90° = 0, so Tcosθ = 0 ≠ mg: the weight would be unsupported.

11. Horizontal Circle — Ball in Bowl / Banked Road

Normal reaction R acts at angle θ to the vertical. Resolving R into components:

Vertical (= weight) Horizontal (centripetal) Divide

Rsinθ = mg Rcosθ = mv²/r tanθ = rg/

Banking aircraft: Lcosθ = mg (vertical), Lsinθ = mv²/r (horizontal), L = lift force.

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 A2 Physics — Circular Motion Motion in a Vertical Circle

12. Tension in a Vertical Circle

Resultant inward force = centripetal force.

B
: T_B min At angle θ measured from BOTTOM of circle:

General formula

T = mv²/r + mgcosθ

At BOTTOM (A), θ = 0°, cos0° = 1:

O Max tension — string most likely to break here

C
C: T_C
T_A = mv²/r + mg

At TOP (B), θ = 180°, cos180° = −1:

Min tension — T and mg both point inward

T_B = mv²/r − mg
: T_A max
A At SIDE (C), θ = 90°, cos90° = 0:
Weight perpendicular to T — no effect

T_C = mv²/r

Common mistake at the TOP: T and mg both point INWARD, so T + mg = mv²/r, giving T_B = mv²/r − mg. At the BOTTOM T
points inward but mg points outward, so T − mg = mv²/r, giving T_A = mv²/r + mg.

13. Minimum Speed to Complete a Vertical Circle

A string (or track contact) can only pull — tension T ≥ 0.

Set T = 0 at the top (critical/minimum condition):
T + mg = mv²/r ⇒ 0 + mg = mv²/r ⇒ v² = rg

Min speed (string / inside loop) Equivalent condition

v_min = √(rg) a_c ≥ g at the top

Applies to: ball on a string, car inside a loop, roller-coaster loop.

14. Car over a Hill (outside of circle)

Normal reaction R acts upward; mg acts downward. Centripetal direction: downward.

mg − R = mv²/r ⇒ R = mg − mv²/r

Loses contact when R = 0 To stay on road: v < √(rg), i.e. F_c < mg

v_max = √(rg) Centripetal force < Weight

If R < 0 the car leaves the road. The condition to stay on: centripetal acceleration < g.

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A2 Physics — Circular Motion Energy Conservation & Full Formula Summary

15. Energy Conservation in Vertical Circles

In a vertical circle the speed varies with height. Use conservation of mechanical energy:

Conservation of energy (no friction)

E_kA + E_pA = E_kB + E_pB i.e. (1/2)mv_A² + mgh_A = (1/2)mv_B² + mgh_B

Set h_A = 0 (bottom) and h_B = 2r (top):

(1/2)mv_A² = (1/2)mv_B² + mg(2r) ⇒ v_A² = v_B² + 4gr
Then substitute v_B into T_B = mv_B²/r − mg to find tension at the top.

9702 exam technique: step 1 use energy to find v, step 2 use F=ma to find T or R.

16. Complete Formula Reference Table

Radians & Arc Angular Speed Linear Speed Acceleration Force

arc length from angle & time key relation centripetal centripetal
s = rθ ω=θ/t v = rω a = v²/r F = mv²/r

angle in rad from period from period centripetal centripetal

θ=s/r ω = 2π / T v = 2πr/T a = rω² F = mrω²

angular displacement from frequency from frequency centripetal centripetal

∆θ = θ■−θ■ ω = 2πf v = 2πrf a = vω F = mvω
Vertical Circle Formulas

General tension (θ from bottom) Bottom — MAXIMUM tension Top — MINIMUM tension
T = mv²/r + mgcosθ T_A = mv²/r + mg T_B = mv²/r − mg

Side (θ=90°) Min speed at top to complete circle

T_C = mv²/r v_min = √(rg)
17. Top 8 Exam Tips for 9702

1 Centripetal force = RESULTANT inward force. Name the real force(s) providing it.
2 Tension is GREATEST at the bottom and LEAST at the top of a vertical circle.
3 v_min = √(rg) at the top — used for string problems (T=0) and loop problems (R=0).
4 rpm → Hz: divide by 60. cm → m: divide by 100. Check units before every calculation.
5 Multi-step: use energy conservation to find v, then use F=ma to find T or R.
6 Conical pendulum: θ cannot be 90° — weight unsupported. Larger ω gives larger θ.
7 In uniform circular motion: speed constant, velocity NOT constant (direction changes).
8 At 90° (side): T_C = mv²/r only — weight is perpendicular and has no centripetal effect.

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