Discourse Analysis
?What is discourse
A continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often“
constituting a coherent unit, such as sermon, argument, joke or narrative.”
(Crystal:1992)
stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified and purposive.”“
Cook (1989)
Common Features
It is a stretch of language longer than a sentence
It is meaningful and coherent
It communicates and has a purpose
It maybe spoken or written
Discourse Analysis
?When did the study of discourse begin
.In the 1970s
?What is the difference between text and discourse
Some linguists define discourse as “the study of texts in contexts”. In this view,
discourse is language in action (or interaction) and the text is the grammatical
.and meaningful record of that interaction
?What is the context
The context of a text is the information needed to interpret the text and make
sense of it. This includes information about the interlocutors (speaker and
listener), the setting (time and place) of the speech event, and the purpose of the
.interaction
Discourse Analysis
Example
.A: That’s the telephone
B: I’m in the bath
.A: O.K
How do both the speakers manage to make sense of what the other
?says
The 1st speaker makes a request for the 2nd speaker to *
.perform action
The 2nd speaker state reason why he cannot comply *
.with the request
.The 1st speaker undertakes to perform the action *
Thus language users must have a lot of knowledge *
(non-linguistic) of how conversation works that is not
.simply ‘linguistic’ knowledge
Discourse Analysis
Examples of Discourse
Spoken Discourse
Conversations
Lectures
Sermons
Interviews
Jokes
Speeches
Written Discourse
Reports
Political texts
Legal texts
Literature
Newspaper articles
Newspaper headlines
Discourse Analysis
The speech event
:is described in terms of six components
Setting: the place and time at which the event takes place
Participants: traditionally speech is described in terms of speaker and hearer
.Purpose: all speech acts have a purpose – to give information, express emotions, etc
.Key: is the tone in which an event is performed – serious, joyful, sad, sarcastic, etc
Channel: the choice of oral or written communication
Message content: the topic of the speech event
Discourse Analysis
Conversation Analysis
.Conversation is organized in and through turns – one person speaking at a time
:Conversations are structured in the following ways
An Adjacency Pair .1
An adjacency pair has two utterances produced successively and in order by two different
speakers. The first part of the adjacency pair often includes a question, a greeting, an offer, a
request, a complaint, an invitation, or an announcement. The second part is reciprocal, i.e.,
offers the answer, greeting, justification, apology, etc. Adjacency pairs are the basic structural
.units in conversation
Examples
.Hi there
.Hi
?Why did you come late
.I am sorry
Discourse Analysis
An Insertion Sequence .2
.In an insertion sequence, one pair is embedded in (occurs inside) another pair
Example
?A: Do you know where pizza hut is
?B: Well, where do you live
.A: I live on Ashti road
.B: It is not far from you
A Side Sequence .3
.In a side sequence, one pair which is irrelevant, is embedded in (occurs inside) another pair
Example
?A: Do you know where pizza hut is
.B: Let me take this call and I will get back to you
.A: Sure
.B: It is on Ashti road
Discourse Analysis
An Opening Sequence .4
?An adjacency pair used to open a conversation. Ex. Nice weather, isn’t it
A Pre-closing Sequence .5
An adjacency pair used before closing a conversation. Ex. Before we finish, is there any
?question
A Closing Sequence .6
An adjacency pair used to close a conversation. Ex. Good luck
Discourse Analysis
Features of Conversations
Pauses .. a very short period of silence (e.g., I went to [silence] London.)
Pause Fillers .. sounds or words used to avoid silence in conversations, such as um, er, uh, I
mean, y’know, like (e.g. I went to um London.)
False starts … a start that a speaker realizes is wrong and amends or repairs (e.g., I went ..um..
Indeed my wife and I went to London.)
Back channel support … a word or an expression the listener uses to indicate they are
,.following or indicate interest in the conversation (e.g
… A: I went to London
.B: Ok
.A: … and had a lot of fun
,.Interruption … to stop a speaker from finishing their turn (e.g
… A: I went to
.B: I have to go now. Bye
Discourse Analysis
Cohesion in English
Cohesion is a property of a text by means of which different
parts of a text are linked and connected. Halliday and Hasan
(1976) distinguish five major types of grammatical cohesive
ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical
.ties
Discourse Analysis
Reference .1
Pronouns, demonstratives, and comparatives may be used as
.cohesive links
Examples
.If a student needs help, he can always meet me in office .1
This is why John is the best footballer in town. Anaphorics .2
If you are buying a car, you should know this. Cataphoric
.This car is good but that one is better .3
Discourse Analysis
Substitution .2
Substitution is the process of replacing a lexical item with
.another at the nominal, verbal and clausal levels
Examples
.Nominal Do you want the apples? Yes, I’ll take one
.Verbal Did you go? Yes, I did
.Clausal The apples are getting back. Yes, they are
Discourse Analysis
Ellipsis .3
Ellipsis is the process of replacing a lexical item with a “zero”
.tie at the nominal, verbal and clausal levels
Examples
.Nominal They are small. Take two (apples)
.Verbal Were you reading? No, I wasn’t (reading)
Clausal I don’t know how to drive a car. I’ll have to learn
.how (to drive a car)
Discourse Analysis
Conjunction .4
These are linkers used to indicate a relationship between
.sentences or parts of a sentence
Examples
.Contrast I bought ten apples. However, I didn’t eat any
.Causal Her work was finished, so she turned off the laptop
.Temporal After the prayer, we went home
.Logical sequence I lost all my money. Then, I sold my house
Discourse Analysis
Lexical Ties .5
This involves the use of lexical items to link different parts of
the text via repetition, synonymy, superordinate, and general
.words
.Repetition Sue is in the race. I believe Sue will win the race
Synonymy I saw a young boy. The lad was wearing a T-shirt.
.Superordinates I bough carrot. It’s my favorite vegetable
.General word She’s a single mom but a great parent indeed
Discourse Analysis
Coherence
My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by
the police was red. That color doesn’t suit her. She consists
of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as a telephone
call.
What is wrong with this text?
Discourse Analysis
Coherence
Coherence means the connection of ideas at the idea
level (whereas cohesion is the connection of ideas at the
sentence level).
Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical *
relationships that hold a text together. It involves the use of
cohesive devices like pronouns, conjunctions, and lexical
choices to link sentences and ideas. Cohesion ensures that
the text flows smoothly and is easy to follow. Here are
:some examples
Original: The weather was terrible. We decided to stay *
.home
:Revised (with cohesion) *
Original: The company's sales are up. The company's profits *
.are up as well
:Revised (with cohesion) *
Coherence refers to the overall clarity and logical flow of *
ideas within a text. It involves the organization and
structuring of content to make sure that the information
makes sense and is easy for the reader to understand.
Coherence focuses on the global aspects of text, not just the
:individual sentences. Here are some examples
Original: This paragraph discusses various aspects of *
.climate change
:Revised (with coherence) *
Original: First, I will discuss the benefits of recycling. Then, *
.I'll talk about the challenges
:Revised (with coherence) *
In summary, cohesion focuses on the internal *
relationships within a text, ensuring that sentences and
ideas are linked together smoothly. Coherence, on the
other hand, focuses on the overall organization and
structure of the text to make sure that it is clear, logical,
and easy for the reader to follow. Both cohesion and
coherence are essential for effective communication and
.writing