The Reneissance

Irtifa Zaman
 THE RENAISSANCE IN EUROPE
The term ‘Renaissance’ is French and derived from the Latin word, renascor,
meaning rebirth.
Historians of Europe used this term as a concept to describe the revival of
Graeco-Roman spirit of scientific enquiry and humanism which began from the
middle of the fifteenth century to A.D. 1600 in Europe.
One would say that during this period the so-called medievalism ended and
modern enquiry began.
Carlton Hayes adds that the word ‘Renaissance’ should be used in a restricted
manner, because many other characteristics during this period of transition
manifested which were not due to the revival of ancient Greek and Roman
classics. They were incidental and independent. What marked the renewed
interest in the new learning was humanism and secular spirit.
The ‘Renaissance’ was an intellectual movement and in the course of time
developed many characteristics of its own.
 Characteristics of the Renaissance
The foremost among the characteristics of the Renaissance was the admiration
and adoption of all the best features of the classical civilisations of Greece and
Rome.
Humanism was another interesting characteristic of Renaissance. Scholars and
artists paid attention to human interest and human values. The great humanist
scholar, Erasmus, laid emphasis on human values and criticised the Church for
ignoring them.
The study of old classics fostered human values, and appreciation of human
nature, interest and values. Even the medieval universities spread the gospel of
humanism through its subjects (today classified as humanities).
 Characteristics of the Renaissance
Intellectual curiosity and criticism marked the “New Learning” and those who pursued
their studies relentlessly searched for the lost manuscripts of classical writers. They
went and ransacked all the old libraries and monasteries and finally succeeded in
discovering some of the works of Roman historians, mathematical works, Cicero’s
oration and so on. Thus collection of old classical works became a passion among
research scholars. Thus classical scholarship was enriched by newly discovered source
materials which were supposedly lost for ever.
The humanist scholars and artists indulged in self-glorification and wide publicity in
contrast with “self-abnegation of the medieval monk,” who lived in humility and
obscurity. This self-assertive individualism was a marked trait found among all the
scholars, poets and artists of Renaissance. They became free from restraints and
placed man on the highest pedestal.
The “New Learning” replaced the medieval scholastic learning. Learning of Greek and
Latin assumed importance throughout the Christendom.
Even if an artist or scholar desired to attain fame, learning of Greek and Latin took
precedence over the vernacular language.
Pagan literature and profane history were studied by one and all, and subsequently
patronised by the popes and rulers of the sixteenth century.
 Factors aiding the flowering of Renaissance
A succession of events in the year 1453 led to most significant results in European
history. It was during that year that the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the
capital of the Byzantine empire, thus bringing its downfall.
Christian scholars fled the capital with the classical work and many took refuge in Italy.
The Italian city states—especially Florence and Venice—received them.
Even before their arrival, the humanist scholar, Francesco Petrarch, with his writings,
opened the eyes and minds of his men to the glories of Greek and Roman civilisation.
He was relentlessly searching for old manuscripts which would familiarise him with the
wisdom of ancient Greeks and Romans. Petrarch discovered copies of Cicero’s orations
and his joy knew no bounds. He impressed upon his followers to carry out an intensive
search for old manuscripts. He was a well known scholar of his times enjoying
patronage of European rulers and the Pope.
The scholars who settled in Italy—most of them settled in Florence—spread love for
classical learning among their students. Chrysoloras, a Greek scholar and teacher, who
had fled Constantinople, started a school in Florence for classical Greek studies and
lectured on Homer to a large number of students. Similarly the Greek scholars and
teachers opened academies on the model of Plato in important centres of Italy.
 Factors aiding the flowering of Renaissance
The patronage of great and eminent persons in power was also responsible for
the growth of Renaissance. In Italy, the Medicis and the Pope, in France it was
King Francis I, in England the famous Queen Elizabeth and Emperor Charles V all
helped the cause of “New Learning”.
What is more interesting is that even the popes like Nicholas V, Pius II and Leo X
became votaries of New Learning which was considered pagan classics. It did
not arouse any opposition from the Church.
There was a notion in Italy that one need not be born into the family of a noble
to become a noble. True nobility can be acquired by patronising classical
learning and art. Therefore the merchants in Italy, who vied with the nobles for
power and glory, easily took up the cause of “New Learning”. Hundreds of
teachers, scholars, and artists were patronised by these opulent merchants
who expected them to produce great works in literature and art.
 Factors aiding the flowering of Renaissance
Since Italy became the centre of all trade routes the spirit of Renaissance
spread to the rest of Europe quickly. Kings and merchants of Europe could
invite Renaissance scholars or artists to work in their places. Among them was
the famous French King, Francis I, and King Henry VIII.
The invention of the printing press in the middle of the fifteenth century in
Europe may be regarded as the most momentous. Had it not been for the
printing press, Renaissance would not have spread so quickly to rest of Europe.
Many religious (including the Holy Bible) and classical works came to be printed
on the movable type of printing press in Germany and England, and copies of
these works were available everywhere.
The cost of the books was reduced to one-eighth and all European countries
had the moveable type printing press by 1470. It may be no exaggeration to say
that the printing press more than anything else brought about the intellectual
quickening in Europe.
 Florence: the first home of Renaissance
Florence got fame and distinction as the first city of Renaissance.
Here the guildsmen and merchants replaced the nobles and formed a Republic in
1293. With their money they hired soldiers to protect them from other greedy city
states.
They wanted to prove that their city was in no way inferior in education, art, and
literature to other cities. For this purpose they hired the services of the best scholars,
poets and artists. They built beautiful churches, palaces, and collected ancient
manuscripts.
In 1330, the merchant rulers employed Giotto da Bondone to paint portraits and holy
scenes. He broke the old rules and made his paintings look real and lively. In fact, he
began the Renaissance painting and made Florence the city of artists. Giotto produced
a marvellous fresco called “Lamentation over the Dead Christ” in the Arena Chapel at
Padua.
Botticelli (1447–1510) gave new life to the tradition of Christian art after being
influenced by the spirit of classicism. For his paintings, he chose subjects like Birth of
Venus, Primavera, and Mars and Venus, all from Greek mythology.
The above mentioned painters—all belonging to early Renaissance period—retained
the church-prescribed form to their themes but modified the characters with secular
interest. Another gifted painter in Florence was Benozzo Gozzoli (1420–97) whose
painting “Adoration of the Magi” depicted panoramic life in Florence.
Lamentation over the Dead Christ
Birth of Venus
Primavera
Adoration of the Magi
 High Renaissance paintings
The geniuses of the age of Renaissance in Europe were Michelangelo (1475–1564), Raphael
(1483–1520), and Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and they are called the Renaissance Trinity.
Both Michelangelo and Leonardo belonged to Florence, and Raphael spent most of his life in
Rome. The first two not only excelled in painting, but also in other pursuits of art.
Leonardo da Vinci: Leonardo da Vinci did not take the usual 12 years in learning craft as other
apprentices did because the art of painting was already in his blood. He left the town of Vinci
and reached Florence where he became an apprentice of Verrocchio, a master artist,
patronized by Lorenzo de Medici. When Lorenzo did not show much interest in Leonardo’s
work, Leonardo packed his tools and went to Milan. It was here that he was patronised by the
Sforza family. Leonardo was an artist with scientific temper. His great paintings reflect not
only his exceptional mastery over light, shade and colour but a careful study of human
anatomy and problems of perspective.
His paintings The Last Supper, a fresco, and Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda) are
everlasting masterpieces. He spent the last years of his life in France where he was patronised
by King Francis I. About his work, Will Durant says, “With all his limitations and
incompleteness he was the fullest man of the Renaissance, perhaps of all time.” The Last
Supper depicts Jesus Christ announcing at his last supper meeting that one of them was going
to betray him. Mona Lisa is the painting of a merchant’s wife, Madonna Elisabetta with a most
enigmatic smile which has kept all the art-lovers wondering for centuries. Leonardo’s other
two paintings which evoke great admiration are The Virgin of the Rocks and The Virgin and
Child with Saint Anne.
The Last Supper
The Last Supper
Monalisa (La Gioconda)
Virgin of the Rocks
 High Renaissance paintings
Michelangelo: Michelangelo was a contemporary of Leonardo and Raphael.
Like Leonardo he was a Florentine and a versatile genius.
He rose to prominence as a celebrated sculptor but by no means less great in
other fields such as painting, architecture, engineering, and poetry.
He was always in need of money, and therefore shuttled between Florence and
Rome to carry out the projects of the Medici family and the successive popes of
his time. Pope Julius II preferred this great artist to Raphael to paint the curved
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the papal palace at the Vatican.
Michelangelo desired to turn down this papal request for he was no good
painter, but then the Pope forced him to accept the offer. The fresco on the
ceiling, when completed after four years of extremely hard work unfolded the
biblical drama of the story of God, creation of man, the great prophets and the
flood. At any rate it was the most superhuman and marvellous work ever
accomplished by a single artist. Michelangelo executed another fresco, the Last
Judgment which may be considered another immortal work.
The Sistine Chapel ceiling
 The Last
Judgement
 High Renaissance paintings
Raphael Sanzio: Raphael belonged to the Florentine school of
painting. He was an architect too. He was employed in the
service of Popes Julius II and Leo X.
Raphael had become famous for his lovely paintings of
madonnas. His most celebrated painting was Sistine Madonna.
He surpassed Michelangelo in painting by creating dimensions
(width, height and distance) to all his works. Pope Julius
employed him to paint the walls and ceilings of his room. In the
signature-room of the Pope he created his masterpieces which
represent the glory of Renaissance painting. He was employed
as an architect at the time of the construction of St. Peter’s
basilica.
Sistine Madonna
St. Peter’s Basilica
 Venetian school of painting
Titian (1477–1576) and Tintoretto (1518–92) were great
painters who belonged to the Venetian school of painting.
Their paintings reflected the pleasure, pageantry, voluptuous
beauty and strong secular spirit.
Titian produced oil paintings with mythological and pastoral
themes. His skill in colouring and shading can be seen in one of
his most famous paintings, The Assumption of the Virgin.
Titian was patronised by the Emperor Charles V and Philip II of
Spain.
The Assumption of the Virgin
 Architecture and sculpture
Western Europeans were eager to follow the trend set by Italian states. The Gothic
architecture was discarded and it was replaced by the Renaissance architecture that is
the revival of ancient Greek and Roman types. The St. Peter’s Church at Rome offers a
typical Renaissance style.
Brunelleschi (1377–1466) evinced keen interest in the early Roman architecture. He
designed the Pitti palace and the dome of the Cathedral at Florence. But Rome
excelled Florence in the matter of architecture.
When Pope Julius II received news from his engineers that the ancient basilica of St.
Peter’s (highly venerated by the Christians) was in bad shape, he decided to build a
new one, this time the largest and most magnificent.
To design this new church, Pope Julius chose Donato Bramante. He had built
Belvedere, the summer palace of the Pope, known for its great beauty. The work went
on very slowly, and both Pope Julius and Bramante died.
Now it was left to Pope Leo X to collect more funds to complete the construction
work. Raphael did some work as an architect, but the lion’s share of the credit went to
Michelangelo who designed and built the dome.
The peak of the dome rose to 400 feet in height when measured from the ground. The
design and grandeur of the church has remained unsurpassed even to this day.
St. Peter’s Church
Cathedral of Florence
Belvedere
 Sculpter
The famous Medici family pioneered scientific study of sculpture, and the new sculptors followed
“closely the Greek and Roman traditions in form and often in subject as well”.
The first master-sculptor of Renaissance in Italy was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455). He was a Florentine
who worked for twenty years to make two pairs of bronze doors for the Baptistery at Florence. They
were so magnificent in design, and perfect in workmanship, that Michelangelo exclaimed that they
were “worthy of being placed at the entrance of paradise”. Ghiberti included his own portrait on one of
the bronze doors.
The High Renaissance period witnessed the sculptural works of great men like Michelangelo, Leonardo
and Cellini.
Michelangelo was better known for his work of sculpture than as an artist, and he became famous as a
sculptor when he made a statue in Rome at the instance of the French ambassador. His statue called
the Pietà, and it showed the body of Christ carried by His mother. It was the finest show-piece evoking
deep emotions.
In Florence, his home town, in 1501, he carved another great masterpiece, David, for the Council of the
Republic. He took two and half years to complete this statue which is known all over the world as a
“masterpiece of classical dignity.”
Another great masterpiece by Michelangelo was the colossal Moses which was placed in the tomb of his
patron, Pope Julius II. Michelangelo’s statues of David and Moses show the glorification of the human
body and deep anatomical study.
Benvenuto Cellini made the bust of Cosimo de Medici, the great merchant-prince of Florence, which
showed great anatomical accuracy and perfection.
Leonardo da Vinci was also a great sculptor whose horses in relief have evoked great admiration.
Bronge door of Ghiberty
Pieta
David in detail
Moses
Bust of Cosimo de Medici
 Renaissance literature
One of the triumvirates of Italy’s early literary Renaissance was Dante Alighieri (1265–1321).
He was one of those who preferred to write in Italian to Latin in expressing his passionate
feelings, and paved way for the rise of national literature. His magnum opus was Divina
Commedia (Divine Comedy). Dante describes an imaginative journey of a religious pilgrim who
goes through hell, purgatory and paradise with such an intense feeling that it set standards for
Italian classics.
He wrote another book Vita Nuova in which he tells the story of his love for Beatrice, who
died a premature death. He entered politics, but as ill-luck would have it, his career ended
with his exile.
Wars, feuds, factional politics and immorality which disturbed the stability of many an Italian
state attracted the attention of the officer of the Republic of Florence named Niccolò
Machiavelli (1469–1527). Machiavelli travelled widely and visited many courts of the most
powerful kings of his time. He came to know of many secrets and hatched to overthrow
governments. He used his knowledge and experience in writing a wonderful book entitled Il
Principe (The Prince). This book contained guidelines for most ambitious rulers who wanted to
succeed always.
Machiavelli wrote:“It is not necessary for a prince to be merciful, faithful, sincere or religious,
for that would make him dangerously weak. But it is most necessary for him to seem to be
these things.” A good prince should “know how to wrong when circumstances demand”. He
must be like a lion and a fox in order to destroy his enemies who will always be making
attempts to destroy him. To Machiavelli, a prince should be merciless, cunning, selfish and
deceitful for these qualities will enable him to succeed.