📘 Chapter 8: Thermal Physics
As per AKU-EB SSC I Physics Syllabus 2025
✅ Knowledge-Based (R)
8.1 Kinetic Theory of Matter
Definition: The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) explains the behavior of matter based on
the motion of its particles.
Postulates of KMT:
All matter is made up of tiny particles.
These particles are in continuous random motion.
They possess kinetic energy.
The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of its
particles.
There are spaces between the particles and intermolecular forces act between them.
States of Matter Based on KMT:
State Particle Motion Particle Arrangement
Solid Vibrate about fixed positions Closely packed in fixed shape
Liquid Slide over each other Loosely packed
Gas Free to move in all directions Widely spaced
Plasma (Fourth State of Matter):
Ionized gas with free electrons and positive ions.
Found in lightning, fluorescent tubes, and stars.
8.2 Temperature and Particle Motion
Increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the particles.
Temperature rise causes particles to move faster, leading to expansion.
8.3 Heat and Internal Energy
Internal Energy: The total energy (kinetic + potential) of all the particles in a
substance.
Heat is a form of energy that increases internal energy.
8.4 Thermal Expansion
In Solids:
Solids expand in length when heated (linear expansion).
Formula: ΔL = L₀ × α × ΔT
Where:
ΔL = increase in length
L₀ = original length
α = coefficient of linear expansion
ΔT = temperature change
In Liquids:
Expansion is measured as:
Apparent Expansion = Real Expansion – Expansion of container
8.5 Specific Heat Capacity
Specific Heat Capacity (c): Heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1°C (or 1 K).
Formula: Q = m × c × ΔT
Units: J/kg·K
Where:
Q = heat energy
m = mass
c = specific heat
ΔT = change in temperature
8.6 Latent Heat
Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): Heat required to convert 1 kg of solid into liquid without
temperature change.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv): Heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid into gas at
constant temperature.
Formula:
Q=m×L
Where Q = heat energy, L = latent heat constant
✅ Understanding-Based (U)
Heat vs Temperature
Heat Temperature
Form of energy Measure of average kinetic energy
Depends on mass, type, temp Independent of mass
Measured in joules Measured in °C, K, or °F
Evaporation vs Boiling
Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at any temperature Occurs at boiling point
Takes place at surface only Occurs throughout liquid
Causes cooling Does not cause cooling
Factors affecting evaporation:
Surface area ↑ → evaporation ↑
Temperature ↑ → evaporation ↑
Humidity ↓ → evaporation ↑
Wind speed ↑ → evaporation ↑
Cooling by Evaporation
During evaporation, the more energetic particles escape, leaving the remaining
particles with lower average kinetic energy → cooling effect.
Example: Sweating cools the body.
Changes of State
Melting, Boiling, Freezing, Condensation involve energy exchange without temperature
change (latent heat involved).
Graph of temperature vs time during phase change shows plateaus at melting and boiling
points.
✅ Application-Based (A)
Example 1: Convert Celsius to Kelvin
Given: Temperature = 27°C
Solution: K = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Example 2: Calculate Heat Absorbed
A 2 kg copper block is heated from 20°C to 50°C.
Specific heat of copper = 390 J/kg·K
Q = m × c × ΔT = 2 × 390 × (50 - 20) = 2 × 390 × 30 = 23,400 J
Example 3: Calculate Latent Heat
1 kg of ice melts at 0°C.
Latent heat of fusion = 334,000 J/kg
Q = m × Lf = 1 × 334,000 = 334,000 J
Example 4: Expansion of Solid
A 2 m long brass rod expands by 2 mm when temperature rises by 100°C.
Find linear expansion coefficient (α).
ΔL = L₀ × α × ΔT
0.002 = 2 × α × 100 → α = 0.002 / 200 = 0.00001 /°C
Example 5: Real and Apparent Expansion
Real expansion of a liquid is observed only after subtracting expansion of the
container (usually glass or metal).
✅ Temperature Scales and Conversion
Scale Freezing Point Boiling Point Zero Point
Celsius 0°C 100°C 0°C
Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F -459°F
Kelvin 273 K 373 K 0K
Conversion formulas:
°F = (9/5 × °C) + 32
°C = (5/9) × (°F - 32)
K = °C + 273
✅ Thermometers and Their Use
Common thermometer types:
1. Liquid-in-glass
2. Thermocouple
3. Digital
Performance Characteristics:
Feature Liquid-in-glass Thermocouple
Range Limited Very wide
Sensitivity High Moderate
Linearity Good Less linear