DOI: [Link]

83
ARTICLE

Sci. and Cult. 91 (1–2) : 83-92 (2025)

AN OVERVIEW OF RADAR-ABSORBING MATERIALS AND

COATINGS FOR STEALTH APPLICATION

PARTHASARATHI BERA * , R.V. LAKSHMI * AND HARISH C. BARSHILIA

Stealth is a low observable technology which is mostly employed as a military tactic to lessen
aircraft signature and make them less apparent to enemy radars. A variety of techniques are
used to achieve stealth, including decreasing the radar cross-section, limiting the infrared signal,
camouflaging, etc. Among these techniques, decreasing radar-cross section by means of using
radar-absorbing materials and coatings has wide range applications in stealth technology.
Generally, the scattering and subsequent absorption of radar signals are accomplished primarily
by appropriately dispersing metallic, dielectric, and magnetic materials in a polymeric matrix.
Present article describes an overview of radar-absorbing materials and coatings for stealth
application. In this overview, history of stealth technology since World War II, types of stealth
technology, detailed discussion on radar stealth including materials, coatings, simulation, recent
trends regarding new generation materials, etc. have been addressed.

Keywords: Stealth technology, Radar stealth, Radar-absorbing coating, Nanomaterial, Conductive

polymer, Resin

Introduction experimental fighter plane made of transparent fiber so it

could launch an attack without the opponent noticing.

S
tealth or low-observable technology is a military
concept which lessens visibility of aircrafts and However, there were two issues. This light fighter aircraft
makes them more difficult for opponent sensors to could not carry many weapons. Additionally, it would
identify them. Aircrafts equipped with this technology are shine during daylight flying because of sunlight comes
rendered invisible to rivals. Actually, stealth just makes an from specific angles that made it easily noticeable.
aircraft look or signature smaller, which reduces visibility. Consequently, the Nazi dictator’s plan was not materialized.
The technology is mostly used for military applications. Incidentally, radar was started to be used to detect enemy
aircraft during World War II and the effort to search for
Stealth technology began with fighter jets and the technology to evade radar detection commenced,
subsequently, it has been employed in warships, wherein Germany was also a pioneer. After conducting
submarines, and even military helicopters. The haunt for tests, German aeronautical engineers discovered that radio
this technology started around eight decades ago in the wave from radar reflected off the main body of the aircraft.
time of World War II. Hitler’s Germany developed an Following this, attempts were made to increase the length
of the wings and shorten the body of the aircraft. During
the final stages of World War II, they made a fighter plane
Surface Engineering Division, CSIR-National Aerospace
known as the ‘Horten 229’ to avoid being detected by
Laboratories, Bengaluru 560017, India
* Corresponding Authors: partho@[Link] (P. Bera),
radar, but Hitler was defeated before it could be put into
lakshmi_rv@[Link] (R.V. Lakshmi) action. Fig. 1 shows image of Horten 229 aircraft.

VOL. 91, NOS. 1–2 83

 There was a greater push to develop and combat the known as the T-50. Chinese have two stealthy aircrafts and
stealth technology after the World War II as understanding, are far ahead of the Russians. In this context, the prototype
improved knowledge, and its tactical significance had been airplanes unveiled are nearly imperceptible to radar due to
increased over time. Scientists have been investigating the unique designs, cutting-edge materials, and sophisticated
specifics of ‘radar echoes’ at a number of laboratories design procedures. The prototype stealth bomber, which
worldwide. However, the 1980s saw a major turning point redefines aerial warfare through a unique combination of
in stealth technology. Results were finally gained after engineering, science, and strategy is a symbol of the
decades of research and testing, especially in the USA achievement of the stealth technology. Subsequently,
during the Cold War with erstwhile Soviet Union. The several modern stealth aircrafts, warships, and helicopters
existence of a new technology called ‘stealth’ was have been developed in recent decades. Some examples
announced by Harold Brown, US Secretary of Defense at are the combat-ready stealth aircrafts (Northrop Grumman
a Pentagon news conference on August 22, 1980. B-2 Spirit, the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, the Lockheed
Martin F-35 Lightning II, Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, B-2
In USA, origin of stealth can be seen in the
Spirit, Chengdu J-20, Sukhoi Su-57), stealth ships (American
experimental aircraft of the 1940s, most famously in Jack
Sea Shadow (IX-529), Swedish Visby class corvette,
Northrop’s YB-49 flying wing, which had smooth surfaces,
Indonesian Klewang-class, Independence-class littoral
rounded edges, and no tail and fuselage. The YB-49 was
combat ship of US Navy, French multi-role ship design
scrapped in 1949 despite the fact that its all-wing
Gowind-class design and Chinese Type 055 destroyer),
configuration produced a relatively modest image on radar
helicopters (Hughes 500P, RAH-66 Comanche and MH-60
screens, which at the time was of little interest. In 1960s,
Black Hawk stealth helicopter) and submarines (German
in a seminal technical research paper, Pyotr Ufimtsev, a
Type 212A).
Russian (then Soviet Union) Physicist postulated that the
electromagnetic waves which reflect off a flat surface may Stealth Technologies
be computed and estimated the return on radar. Nobody
took any notice of his results, not even the Russian Fundamental stealth technology used to detect enemy
scientists. Bombers and fighters were becoming more and aircraft or warships is essentially unchanged, in fact,
more susceptible to radar-controlled air defenses by the almost decades later also. The radar emits radio waves at
1970s. The US Air Force and the Defense Advanced regular intervals in areas where there is a threat of enemy
Research Projects Agency launched an important venture invasion by air or water. When the radio waves of the
in 1974 for developing combat aircraft with minimal radar specific wavelength hit the metal wall of the warplane or
signatures. Lockheed and Northrop were tasked to develop the ship and comes back, then the position, size, direction,
stealth aircraft because two of the major aircraft and speed of the aircraft or ship can be calculated
manufacturers, McDonnell Douglas and General Dynamics, instantly. Therefore, to avoid radar surveillance, aircraft
were working on the new F-15 and F-16 fighters. In 1975, has to escape from the radio waves. Within this context,
contracts were given to both of them to construct stealth the sole goal of the anti-radar stealth technology is to
aircraft. Lockheed and Northrop used quite different prevent radio waves bouncing off aircraft or ships from
strategies when developing stealth. In 1971, Lockheed returning to radar properly. The unique benefit of stealth
engineer Denys D. Overholser developed a computer is to make radar cross-section of an aircraft resemble that
software named ‘Echo 1’ incorporating radar refraction of a bird, allowing a bomber to fly deep into enemy territory
whose calculation was given in Ufimtsev’s research paper. without being seen or intercepted. By diffusing the
This software computed the radar cross-section (RCS) from reflection of the beam rather than reflecting it back to the
various angles over a range of wavelengths. In contrast, radar receiver, stealth causes an object to appear smaller
Northrop achieved stealth by modelling compound curves on the radar screen. The objects are classified as “Target”
and shaping their edges. Finally, B-2 bomber was built and “Clutter”. Targets are the objects of interest for
which was believed to be descended directly from detection like aircrafts, missiles, and satellites while clutters
Northrop’s YB-49. are the objects like buildings that are often confused as
US continued to hold a monopoly on the technology targets. Low radar cross-section fighters and bombers can
well into the 21st century. The US monopoly on stealth approach their targets before being noticed. In a matchup
could not last forever. In 2010, experiments were conducted with stealthy rivals, non-stealthy aircraft will almost
by the Chinese and Russians using stealth warplanes. definitely be shot down. For this, materials and techniques
Russians have 10 flyable prototypes of the Su-57, also are used to absorb or deflect radio waves. Stealth aircrafts

84 SCIENCE AND CULTURE, JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 2025

 which is a form of
electromagnetic wave is used
in radar system. Radar
operates on the basic
principle of sending
electromagnetic pulses
toward a target at the speed
of light. When they come
into contact with an object
that might be a target, they
are reflected back. The time
it takes for an energy pulse
to strike a target and return
to the radar is calculated by
radar. This allows one to
estimate the distance
Fig. 1: Image of Horten 229 aircraft. [Source: Wikipedia] between the target and the
radar. Radar stealth is used
to counter this tactic. Primary
goal of this technology is to
decrease RCS. There are
basically two methods for
reducing RCS. To reach the
intended RCS level, one
method is based on vehicle
shape, frame restructuring,
and geometric design
Fig. 2: Stealthy aircrafts developed through shaping: (a) F-117 and (b) B-2 Spirit. [Source: Wikipedia]. changes. Subsequently,

made of alloy metals and carbon fiber

or stealth warships such as frigates
and destroyers can do the job, but,
this is not possible for fighter aircrafts
made of ordinary metal.
Stealth reduces exposure by a
full range of signatures such as
electromagnetic (radar), infrared, visual,
and acoustic. The goal of developing
stealth technologies has been to
render stealthy aircraft the maximum
level of invisibility possible. The five
categories of stealth are as follows:
Radar, Infrared, Visual, Sonar, and
Plasma, however, the main one is
radar. This overview is focussed on
radar stealth technology.

Radar Stealth
RADAR stands for ‘Radio Fig. 3: Total shielding effectiveness of PMCZF-PANI composites as a function of frequency.
Detection and Ranging”. Microwave (Reproduced with permission from ref. 18)

VOL. 91, NOS. 1–2 85

developed effective structures are referred to as radar- determine the particular kind of loss that is experienced.
absorbing structures (RAS). Another route is to develop Regarding this, RAMs are a unique class of materials that
radar-absorbing materials (RAM) or microwave-absorbing have been designed specifically to absorb radio frequency
materials (MAM) which can lower the reflectivity of the signals by chemical characteristics. Heat is produced from
airframe and absorb the electromagnetic pulses. RAMs are the energy of the microwave radiation and then dissipated.
typically applied as coatings to the outside or interior This affects the wavelength and weakens the reflected
reflective metal surfaces of ships, military vehicles, and radar wave. RAMs are fillers and can be classified as
airplanes to lower their RCS and impede enemy radar dielectric and magnetic. Higher the effectiveness of RAM,
detection. lower will be the resulting reflected electromagnetic radiation
level. RAM can also be applied as a coating made of
The fundamental element of every construction
magnetic and electrically conductive fillers in a polymeric
is shape of the vehicle. It turns out that low-observable
matrix which is an insulating binder. The polymers used in
technology is also greatly impacted by it. The extent of
these coatings are typically electromagnetic radiation
warfare has changed significantly since radars were
transparent. They work by diffusing the radar wave energy
developed. For instance, engineers realized during the Battle
to stop the signal from coming back to the antenna. It is
of Britain that aircraft RCS needed to be reduced. Vehicle
noteworthy that the market for radar-absorbing materials
shape has been known to alter detectability since the
was valued at $470 million globally in 2021 and is projected
1960s. Despite being huge in size, the British Avro Vulcan
to reach $630 million by 2030, growing at a compound
bomber seemed very little appearance on radar. F-117 was
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 3.8%. Rising national security
the first aircraft to implement the concept of re-entrant
demands for enhanced aerial combat capabilities and the
triangles beneath the skin as displayed in Fig. 2(a). When
production of cutting-edge electronic warfare equipment
radar waves enter an airplane through its ‘skin,’ they get
are attributed for this growth. This growth is further going
entangled and bounce within, losing energy. It has also
to see an increase because of recent rising demands for
been observed that corner reflections between them can
stealth unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in the military
be minimized by tilting the tail surface. Moreover, the most
market. In the following, section details of RAMs and their
significant result is obtained when the tail is removed
coatings will be discussed.
entirely, as exemplified by the B-2 Spirit aircraft shown in
Fig. 2(b). Further, aircraft components such as the engine
RAMs in Stealth Coatings
and fuselage must be buried in stealth-designed aircraft,
and external arsenals or fuel tanks cannot be mounted to Since the beginning of microwave absorption studies,
the undercarriage since these components strongly reflect metals have been employed because of their high dielectric
back radar radiation. permittivity and conductivity. Metal alloys can be
engineered to have desired microwave absorption
The other way to achieve radar stealth is to use characteristics. Electrical, dielectric, and magnetic
materials that absorb radar wave and then coat them on characteristics of these alloys are impacted by their
the proper places in the aircraft. Reflection, transmission, composition and microstructure that usually result in
and absorption occur when an electromagnetic wave excellent microwave absorption 1 . Due to their high
impacts on the aircraft surface. The various magnitudes of saturation magnetization values and reduced coercivity,
these quantities depend on properties of the material. It is magnetic metal composites exhibit excellent complex
to be noted that to maximize the loss of incident permeability, making them a viable option for microwave
electromagnetic wave energy, there are two ways. The first absorbing material1. Some of the examples are Fe/epoxy,
strategy focuses on reducing the quantity of energy Co/wax, Ni/SnO2, Fe and Ni, Ni/ZnO, Ni/PANI, Ni/PPy, Ni/
reflected. This can be accomplished by preventing the ZnS, etc. They do, however, have disadvantages, including
incident wave from reflecting by matching impedance and their weight, a tendency to corrode, and challenge related
instead allowing it to easily travel through the absorbing to processing. Many nanomaterials, such as spinel ferrites,
substance. Changing the electromagnetic characteristics of hexaferrites, orthoferrites, titanates, carbon materials,
incoming wave is the second strategy. The absorbing biomass, SiC, and ZnO have been developed recently as
material may cause electrical losses, magnetic losses, or potential candidates for microwave absorption
both during the interaction since the electromagnetic wave applications 1,2. Recently, light-weight materials with
consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The excellent microwave absorption capabilities including
properties of the absorbing substance during the interaction graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), CNT-based

86 SCIENCE AND CULTURE, JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 2025

Fig. 4: Contour maps of thickness-depended reflection loss over the frequency of 2–18 GHz for resulted MWCNTs-NR/MoS 2-NBR
composites: (a–c) direct compounding and (a′–c′) masterbatch compounding. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 23)

microwave-absorbing applications have

been used in various forms like sheets,
paints, coatings, tiles, powders, and loads
in matrix composites or mixed with
conducting materials.
Many efforts have been made to
develop polymer materials and
composites because of their easy
processability, flexibility, low specific
weight, chemical and corrosion
resistance, or tunable structural and
mechanical properties, in an attempt to
overcome the limitations of metal-based
microwave-absorbing materials. Applying
paint coatings using RAMs is a viable
method to meet stealth requirements.
Paint coatings are thin layers of polymer-
Fig. 5: Reflection loss curves of as-prepared MWCNTs-NR/MoS2-NBR composites at based composite coatings that offer the
the optimal thickness. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 23) needed functionality and excellent surface
adhesion. Here, the main function of
composites, doped CNTs, CNT networks have been polymer is to serve as a binder, keeping the pigment or
studied. It should be mentioned that a number of novel filler elements firmly in place on the surface. Polymeric
materials have been researched as microwave absorbers, resins such as epoxy, polyurethane, nitrile, polyalkene,
including MXene, SiC nanowires, high temperature acrylic, and silicone systems are frequently utilized in paint
materials, carbon cages, carbon hollow microspheres, carbon coating applications. They are applied to the substrate in
derived from cellulose, glass microspheres, conducting several layers. The base layer, also known as the
polymers, oxides, sulfides, phosphides, nitrides, metal undercoat, is applied to cover up small surface
organic frameworks (MOF), etc1,2. These materials for imperfections and create a surface that is appropriate for
the chemical anchoring of the upper layers that come after.

VOL. 91, NOS. 1–2 87

In order to provide sufficient strength, flexibility, and and engineered metamaterials due to their unique
functionality, fillers and pigments are packed into the top microwave-absorbing properties1,8.
layer, also known as the top coat. The performance
Recently, Kruželák et al. provided insight into
characteristics are usually caused by organic or inorganic conductive polymers and polymer composites filled with
particles which are mainly fillers and pigments. In order to various inorganic metallic and magnetic fillers, as well as
add electrical conductivity to paint, conducting polymers organic carbon-based fillers and their combinations for MW
are another type of polymers that are utilized as fillers3,4. absorption application9. They discussed about conductive
Conductive polymers such as polyaniline, polypyrrole, polymers and their composites, metallic fillers, magnetic
polyacetylene, polythiophene, polydopamine, etc. are fillers, MXene, carbon-based fillers like carbon fibers,
widely utilized in stealth paints. carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene,
Aherrao et al. gave description of microwave- graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, hybrid inorganic
absorbing materials based on ferrites, their preparation and carbon-based fillers, multicomponent polymer
routes, their working principles and mechanism related to composites.
microwave absorption5. It also summarized the explanation Sista and coauthors highlighted the process for
of how the ferrite composition, morphology, doping, producing carbonyl iron powder (CIP) and the range of
reflection loss peaks, and ferrite composition were studies that were conducted with pure CIP as a microwave-
accounted for the optimization of the performance of the absorbing material10. Furthermore, the modification of the
absorbers. There was discussion of the background, CIP in terms of particle size, shape, aspect ratio, and
provenance, and traditional use of microwave absorbers morphology and impact of powder characteristics on the
as well as how ferrites have advanced due to technological EM properties of CIP was discussed. It was also explained
demands. the compounding of CIP by coating or combining it with
Carbon-based materials are frequently employed as other possible dielectric materials such as SiO2, MnO, ZnO,
efficient MAMs because of their superior dielectric SnO 2 , graphite, carbon black, carbon fiber, carbon
qualities1,6. These materials are also low in density, which nanotubes, etc. and how this affected overall shielding
makes them inexpensive, lightweight, simple to work with, performance of the material.
and mechanically stable for use as microwave absorbers. BiFeO3 thin films on Kapton sheets were developed
Through conduction, polarization (dipolar and interfacial), by Andriyanti et al. for electromagnetic wave-absorbing
and relaxation losses, they lose microwave energy. Several application. BiFeO3 thin films were fabricated by DC
carbonaceous materials such as carbon black (CB), carbon sputtering under Ar gas with varying lengths of time, and
fiber (CF), carbon nanotube (CNT), and conducting Ar ion implantation was used to modify the surface11.
polymers have been extensively studied as fillers for Crystallite sizes and thicknesses of the films were in the
MAMs. range of 39–55 nm and 44–110 µm, respectively. The
reflection loss value was observed to be of 40.6 dB at a
Because of the superior mechanical, chemical, and
frequency of 9.98 GHz in the frequency range of 8–12 GHz
physical properties, 2D materials such as graphene,
which is equivalent to 99.9% elecromagretic wave
MXene, MoS2, WS2, and others have been seen to be a
absorption. This indicates that BiFeO3 film is a potential
great option for microwave absorption applications1,7.
candidate as an electromagnetic wave absorber.
These materials undergo a variety of surface modifications
and structural assemblies during synthesis, which Choi et al. developed high temperature microwave
invariably lead to defects that cause induced polarization absorbing coating with cobalt coated quartz fiber and
effects, beneficial dielectric losses, magnetic losses, aluminosilicate matrix in the frequency range of 8.2–12.4
conductivity losses, etc. GHz12. Co was deposited on the quartz fiber by Direct
current (DC) sputtering having a layer thickness of 256.7
High entropy (HE) materials have gained notable nm. At room temperature, coating showed a maximum
interest in the field of microwave absorption due to their absorption of -48.94 dB at 8.99 GHz. At 1200 °C, the
unique characteristics1. Five or more primary elements, each maximum absorption -45.05 dB was observed at 8.36 GHz.
with a concentration of five to thirty-five atomic percent, The microwave absorption performance of the coating was
make up the constitution of these materials. observed to decrease from room temperature to 600 °C
Aside from all of these conventional absorbing and then increased with increasing measurement
materials, a recent area of research is artificially designed temperature up to 1200 °C.

88 SCIENCE AND CULTURE, JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 2025

 hollow multi-cavity carbon
spheres. Outstanding
electromagnetic wave
attenuation capability of -
51.1 dB was observed with
optimal Fe 3 O 4 -based
absorber having a thin
thickness of 2.7 mm that
extends the entire X-band.
It showed effective
absorption bandwidth of
7.7–13.4 GHz.
Fig. 6: Shielding performances of EPDM-LLDPE-VCB composites (ELV): (a) Variation in the total Wang et al
EMI shielding efficiency of ELV and (b) influence of filler content on the total shielding effectiveness
(SE T), shielding effectiveness due to absorption (SEA), and shielding effectiveness due to reflection synthesized the CoxFey@C
(SER) at a frequency of 10 GHz. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 24) nanocomposite fibers with
different Co/Fe atomic
In a work of Lu et al., calcination of MOF precursors ratios 15 . Bimetallic organic precursors of Co/Fe
resulted in 3D flower-shape Co/Cu bimetallic nitrilotriacetic acid chelate nanowires were prepared by
nanocomposites 13 . Nanocomposites with different hydrothermal self-polymerization method. Then, CoxFey@C
morphology, size, and pore structure were achieved by nanocomposite fibers were synthesized by calcining Co/
tuning the ratio of Co and Cu salts. Impedance matching Fe nitrilotriacetic acid chelate nanowires precursors. The
was observed to be enhanced by controlling the
sample containing 1:1 Co/Fe atomic ratio showed excellent
synergistic effect of dielectric loss and magnetic loss. The
microwave absorption performance with the minimum
best electromagnetic wave absorption performance of the
reflection loss (RLmin) of -117.8 dB and effective absorption
samples was obtained with the sample consisting of Co
bandwidth (RLmin ≤ -10 dB) moved up to 12.6 GHz (5.4–18
and Cu salts molar ratio of 4:1 because of the improved
GHz) at the same thickness. Its RCS values were all less
attenuation ability and good impedance matching. With a
than -10 dBm2 in the -60° < θ < 60° range, allowing for
2.7 mm thickness RLmin of this sample reaches to -51.7 dB
nearly full-angle coverage in practical scenarios.
at 12.6 GHz in 2–18 GHz
frequency band, and its
effective absorption
bandwidth spans up to 6.4
GHz (9.7–16.1 GHz).
Liu et al. developed
hierarchically porous
MAMs containing magnetic
crystallite-decorated hollow
multi-cavity carbon
nanosheet spheres by salt
template-assisted spray
drying which consisted of a
solution of magnetic metal
salts and ammonium citrate,
followed by thermal
pyrolysis and template
removal14. This method is
generally applicable and can
integrate various magnetic
crystallites such as Fe3O4,
Fig. 7: Reflection loss of Co-functionalized composites with different thicknesses (mm) for (a) 5% Co,
Ni, FeCo, and CoFe2O4 into (b) 10% Co, (c) 20% Co. (Reproduced with permission from ref. 25)

VOL. 91, NOS. 1–2 89

 Li et al. prepared dual-shelled and hollow Fe@C polyaniline (PMMF-PANI) nanocomposites 19 . When
microspheres by an efficient and scalable approach16. A MnFe2O 4 was chemically modified using polymethyl
ferric precursor on sulfonated polystyrene (PS) methacrylate, the 8–12 GHz frequency band experienced
microspheres in a buffer solution was coated and a thin 3.6 times increase in total electromagnetic interference
layer of polydopamine (PDA) followed by annealing at shielding (SET). In the X-band region, the PMMF–PANI
600 °C to decompose the internal PS cores and carbonize 37 composite (30 wt.% PMMF and 70 wt.% PANI) showed
the external PDA shell. The carbon layers and the a SET value of 44 dB. The absorption component (SEA)
produced iron nanoparticles combined the dielectric and was the primary shielding mechanism in the PMMF–PANI
magnetic losses together, improving the impedance optimized composites, according to a comparison of
matching and, consequently, the microwave absorption absorption component (SEA) and reflection component
performances over a wide frequency range. The hollow (SE R) values. Authors also developed a microwave-
microspheres cover showed a minimum reflection loss of - absorbing multilayer coating consisting of iron powder,
54.4 dB at 8.8 GHz at a thickness of 4.5 mm in the whole PMMA-modified MnFe2O4, multi-walled CNT (MWCNT),
X-band frequency range with an effective absorption and conducting polymer (polyaniline) in an epoxy resin,
bandwidth of 8.1 GHz at a thickness of 3 mm. fabricated by a simple and cost-effective spray coating
method 20,21. The multilayer coating comprised three
In a research work of Yuan et al., FeCoCr/silicone
reflecting layers arranged in descending order of their
coatings were developed and subjected to examine for
combined reflection. Multilayer coating was designed
microwave absorption behaviour after heat treatment at
keeping reflecting materials in descending order of their
400 °C17. Spray coating method was employed to prepare
combined reflection from the substrate so that transmission,
the FeCoCr/silicone resin composite coatings, wherein
reflection, and absorption of microwave radiation would
weight ratio of 4:1 between FeCoCr powder and silicone
occur inside the multilayer coating. Electromagnetic
resin was used. After spray coating, the FeCoCr/silicone
simulation was carried out to predict the sequence,
resin coatings were cured at 80 °C for 1 h and subsequent
thickness, and concentration ratios of the above materials
at 180°C for 3 h. The microwave absorption properties of
for possible layers. The multilayer coating with a thickness
the coatings were simulated for the frequency range of 2–
of ~2.1 mm and density of ~1.1 g cm-3 showed absorption
18 GHz. The peak value of reflection loss of the coating
of around 75–91% in the entire 8–12 GHz frequency range.
with a thickness of 1 mm decreased to 6.18 dB after 10 h
of heat treatment from 4.75 dB at room temperature, Wei et al. developed a single- and double-layer wave-
indicating a significant improvement in the absorption absorbing coating technique that used intricate microwave
capacity of the coating and its ability to tolerate high absorbers made of a composite of doped barium ferrite
temperatures. The reflection loss values obtained through and helical carbon nanotubes with epoxy resin serving as
simulation with coatings of varying thicknesses suggested the matrix22. Using an adaptive genetic algorithm and
that coatings could be a viable option for use in low simulation, the coating’s concentration and thickness were
frequency regions. accustomed. The developed wave-absorbing composites
with doped barium ferrite and helical carbon nanotubes
In a recent work, Bera et al. reported electromagnetic
featured a porous reticular structure with many of tiny
interference (EMI) shielding properties of
voids and a suitably conductive network. The optimized
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)-modified Co0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4
wave-absorbing coating had the highest absorptivity, the
and polyaniline (PANI) composites (PMCZF-PANI) in
largest reduction in RCS, the smallest input reflection
different weight ratios18. They prepared Co0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4
coefficient, and the most uniform scattering pattern. With
by solution combustion synthesis (SCS) method which is
a low reflection loss of -17.22 dB at 16.66 GHz, it thereby
very fast, economical, and simple method of preparation.
displayed the finest overall microwave absorption
Composites with PMMA-modified ferrite and PANI having
capability. Specifically, the coating had an absorption
50:50 and 10:90 weight ratios demonstrated excellent
bandwidth of up to 9.16 GHz.
performances among all the composites in 2–20 GHz
frequency range. Optimized PMMA-modified Huang et al. reported microwave-absorbing materials
Co0.5Zn0.5Fe2O4 and PANI composite with the ratio of 10:90 that were composed of blends of natural rubber and nitrile
showed SET values of -16.6 to -24.1 dB in 2–20 GHz butadiene rubber (NR/NBR) with molybdenum disulfide and
frequency region as shown in Fig 3. Lakshmi et al. MWCNTs23. It was discovered that in NR/NBR blends,
demonstrated enhanced microwave absorption properties interfacial differences between the fillers and matrix
of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)-modified MnFe2O4– enhanced the development of MWCNTs and MoS 2

90 SCIENCE AND CULTURE, JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 2025

networks, improving the blends’ capacity to absorb Co-decorated MWCNTs-PU composite. In case of 5% and
microwave radiation. Masterbatch-based two-step blending 10% CoFe, 4.5 GHz bandwidth was obtained in the
was more favourable to the formation of interpenetrating frequency between 25 and 35 GHz.
networks of MWCNTs/MoS2 than direct compounding,
which improved the microwave attenuation capacity of the Conclusions
final composite. The reflection losses (RL) of each Research on stealth technology dates back to World
composite were determined at various thicknesses ranging War II and this technology has widely been employed in
from 1.0 to 5.5 mm with a step of 0.1 mm in order to both military and civil applications. Among several stealth
assess the microwave-absorbing properties. Two-
technologies, radar stealth technology has been the subject
dimensional contour maps of RLs of composite material as
of considerable research in recent days in the view of
a function of thickness and frequency are shown in Fig.
filler materials, matrices, easy processibility, manufacturing,
4. It is evident that the calculated RLs of as-prepared
weight penalty, durability, stability, etc.
composites exhibited variation with both the electromagnetic
wave frequency and absorber thickness, suggesting an Metals are frequently utilized as radar-absorbing
irregular electromagnetic loss network within the composite. materials and related coatings because of their high
RL curves of as-prepared composites at the optimal electrical conductivities and dielectric permittivities. Metals
thickness are displayed in Fig. 5. Composites with do have certain disadvantages, though, like their weight,
MWCNTs in NR and MoS2 in NBR showed the highest rustiness, rigidity, and processing challenges. The
microwave-absorbing capability, with an effective development of composite materials especially polymer-
absorption bandwidth of 3.60 GHz and a minimum reflection based composites has received a great deal of attention
loss of ~44.54 dB. Analysis of morphology-associated due to their easy processability, high flexibility, low density,
electromagnetic behaviors indicated that such enhanced excellent chemical and corrosion resistance, and tunable
microwave attenuation capacity of MWCNTs-NR/MoS2- structural and mechanical properties, all of which assist to
NBR was stemmed from conduction loss, interfacial overcome the limitations of metal-based radar absorbing
polarization, and multiple scattering reflections. materials. Consequently, a wide range of materials and their
Choudhury et al. studied EMI shielding properties of composites have been studied for use in radar absorbing
thermoplastic elastomeric (TPE) blend consisting of applications in recent years. These materials include
ethylene propylene diene rubber (EPDM) and linear low- dielectric and semiconducting materials like BaTiO3, ZnO,
density polyethylene (LLDPE) incorporated with conductive and SiC, magnetic materials like spinel ferrites and
Vulcan carbon black (VCB) prepared by conventional melt hexaferrites, carbonyl iron paint (CIP), extremely thin sheets
blending method24. It was noticeable from the extensive of metal, etc. They also include different carbon materials
evaluation of experimental results that producing EPDM- like graphite, carbon black, carbon carbon fibers, and single
LLDPE-VCB composites (ELV) by melt blending was an or multi-walled carbon nanotubes and conductive polymers
efficient technique to make an EMI shielding material that like polyaniline, polypyrrole, polyacetylene, polythiophene,
was flexible, lightweight, long-lasting, and inexpensive. In polydopamine. Various cutting-edge materials such as
Fig. 6, SE values of ELV composites in 8.2–12.4 GHz sulfides, phosphides, nitrides, metal organic frameworks
frequency range are presented, wherein SE value of -33.5 (MOF), carbon hollow microspheres, glass microspheres,
dB is achieved for 2 mm thickness composite sample with ferrite hollow microspheres and nanospheres, FeCoCr/
a VCB content of up to 50 parts per hundred rubber (phr). silicone coatings, PMMA-modified Co 0.5 Zn 0.5Fe 2O 4 –
The microwave-absorbing characteristics of polyaniline (PMCZF-PANI) nanocomposites, PMMA-
composites containing MWCNTs surface functionalized modified MnFe 2 O 4 –polyaniline (PMMF-PANI)
with metallic oxide were examined by Kallumottakkal25. nanocomposites, Co-decorated MWCNTs-PU composite,
Three concentrations (5%, 10%, and 20%) of metallic oxides natural rubber and nitrile butadiene rubber (NR/NBR)-MoS2
such as cobalt, iron, and cobalt ferrite were evaluated for and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)
absorption properties in the broad frequency range of 5- composites, BiFeO3 film, Co/Cu bimetallic nanocomposites,
50 GHz. The surface decorated MWCNTs were embedded CoxFey@C nanocomposite fibers, etc. have been studied
in polyurethane (PU) matrix. Fig. 7 represents RL values for electromagnetic wave-absorbing application. Recently,
of Co-functionalized composites with different thicknesses 2D materials such as graphene, reduced graphene oxide,
and Co concentrations. A minimum reflection loss of -43 MXene, MoS2, WS2, etc. are found to be potential materials
dB at 8 GHz with a thickness of 3.5 mm was achieved for for radar-absorbing applications. Numerous novel materials

VOL. 91, NOS. 1–2 91

are being found as a result of intensive study in this field 11. W. Andriyanti, M.A.C.H. Nur, D.L. Puspitarum, T. Sujitno,
H. Suprihatin, S. Purwanto and E. Suharyadi, Physica B
of study, which will meet essential requirements for stealth
676, 415690 (2024).
technology. As a result, several developed nations in the
12. W. Choi, S. Mallesh, H. Ko, M. Kim, J. Shin, K. Kim and
world are ramping up their research and development Y. Nam, Ceram. Int. 49, 13586–13600 (2023).
efforts in the areas of radar absorbing materials and
13. C. Lu, H. Geng, Y. Zhu, J. Ma, R. Wang, X. Liu and G. Tu,
coating for stealth technology. Appl. Surf. Sci. 615, 156219 (2023).
14. Z. Liu, H. Tian, R. Xu, W. Men, T. Su, Y. Qu, W. Zhao
Acknowledgments
and D. Liu, Carbon 205, 138–150 (2023).
The authors thank the Director, CSIR–National 15. B. Wang, M. Ding, C. Shao, J. Yu, H. Kong, D. Zhao and
Aerospace Laboratories for his encouragement.  C. Li, Chem. Eng. J. 465, 142803 (2023).
16. X.-P. Li, Z. Deng, Y. Li, H.-B. Zhang, S. Zhao, Y. Zhang,
References X.-Y. Wu and Z.-Z. Yu, Carbon 147, 172-181 (2019).
17. D. Yuan, Z. Chen, C. Cai, B. Yang, Y. Wang and Z. Chen,
1. S. Sharma, S.R. Parne, S.S.S. Panda and S. Gandi, Adv. Colloid
Interface Sci. 327, 103143 (2024). Front. Mater. 10, 1168418 (2023).

2. R.V. Lakshmi, P. Bera, E.V. Bhavya, B. Choudhury, N.K. 18. P. Bera, R.V. Lakshmi, R.P.S. Chakradhar, S. Bose and H.C.
Namdeo, A.K. Kundu and H.C. Barshilia, J. Electron. Mater. Barshilia, Funct. Compos. Mater. 5, 11 (2024).
52, 6492–6502 (2023). 19. R.V. Lakshmi, P. Bera, R.P.S. Chakradhar, B. Choudhury,
3. R. Peymanfar, H. Dogari, E. Selseleh-Zakerin, M.H. S.P. Pawar, S. Bose, R.U. Nair and H.C. Barshilia, Phys.
Hedayatzadeh, S. Daneshvar, N. Amiri-Ramsheh, H. Ghafuri, Chem. Chem. Phys. 21, 5068–5077 (2019).
A. Mirkhan, G. Ji and B. Aslibeiki, Front. Mater. 10, 1133287 20. P. Bera, R.P.S. Chakradhar, R.V. Lakshmi, B. Choudhury,
(2023).
K.S. Venu, R.U. Nair and H.C. Barshilia, Indian Patent
4. B.G. Soares, G.M.O. Barra and T. Indrusiak, J. Compos. Sci. 513068 (2024).
5, 173 (2021).
21. P. Bera, R.V. Lakshmi, R.P.S. Chakradhar, B. Choudhury, S.
5. D.S. Aherrao, C. Singh and A. K. Srivastava, J. Appl. Phys. Jaikesh, R.U. Nair and H.C. Barshilia, Indian Patent 490560
132, 240701 (2022). (2023).
6. M. Saeed, R.S. Ul Haq, S. Ahmed, F. Siddiqui and J. Yi, J.
22. S. Wei, X. Wang, B. Wang, Y. Wang, Y. Liang, Z. Liu, H.
Alloys Compd. 970, 172625 (2024).
Zhang, Q. Xu and H. Mou, Mater. Res. Bull. 179, 112928
7. X. Wang, C. Zhao, C. Li, Y. Liu, S. Sun, Q. Yu, B. Yu, M. (2024).
Cai and F. Zhou, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 180, 207–225
(2024). 23. L. Huang, J. Chen, B. Liu, P. Zhao, L. Liao, J. Tao, Y.
Wang, B. Wang, J. Deng and Y. Zhao, Nanomaterials 13,
8. B. Gao, M.M.F. Yuen and T.T. Ye, Sci. Rep. 7, 45108
1644 (2023).
(2017).
9. J. Kruželák, A. Kvasnièáková, K. Hložeková and I. Hudec, 24. S.N. Choudhury, J. Nayak, P. Das, A. Pal, A. Katheria, P.
Nanoscale Adv., 3, 123–172 (2021). Banerji and N.C. Das, Funct. Compos. Mater. 5, 4 (2024).

10. K.S. Sista, S. Dwarapudi, D. Kumar, G.R. Sinha and A.P. 25. M. Kallumottakkal, M.I. Hussein, Y. Haik, and T.B.A. Latef,
Moon, J. Alloys Compd. 853, 157251 (2021). Polymers 13, 3907 (2021).

92 SCIENCE AND CULTURE, JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 2025