Chapter 2: Cell — The Building Block
of Life
Enhanced Revision Notes (Clean + Advanced + Exam
Ready)
BIG IDEA OF THE CHAPTER
Cells are the smallest living units capable of performing all life processes.
Every organism:
• grows because cells divide,
• survives because cells cooperate,
• reproduces because cells carry genetic information.
Cell = Structural + Functional + Genetic unit of life
ORIGIN OF LIFE — ADVANCED
UNDERSTANDING
Scientists believe life originated nearly:
3.5 billion years ago
in primitive oceans.
Chemical Evolution Theory
Life evolved gradually through chemical reactions.
Sequence:
Simple inorganic molecules
↓
Organic molecules
↓
Complex biomolecules
↓
Primitive membrane systems
↓
First living cells
HOT SPRINGS & EARLY EARTH
Places like:
Puga Valley Hot Springs
may resemble ancient Earth conditions.
Important Findings
• Thermophilic bacteria survive there
• Minerals rapidly deposit around microbes
• Organic molecules may have been protected from destruction
Advanced Insight
Such environments may have acted as:
Natural biochemical reactors
ORGANISATION OF LIFE
Cell
↓
Tissue
↓
Organ
↓
Organ System
↓
Organism
Example
Respiratory System:
• Nasal cavity
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
All organs coordinate together.
HOW DO WE STUDY CELLS?
Human eye resolution limit:
0.1 mm
Most cells are microscopic.
Hence:
Microscopes are necessary
DISCOVERY OF CELL
Robert Hooke (1665)
Robert Hooke
• Observed cork under microscope
• Saw tiny compartments
• Named them “cells”
Important
Hooke observed:
Dead plant cells
MAGNIFICATION VS RESOLUTION
Magnification Resolution
Enlarges image Improves clarity
Quantity Quality
Key Concept
A microscope may magnify highly but still produce blurry images if resolution is poor.
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Uses:
• Visible light
• Glass lenses
Main Parts
• Eyepiece
• Objective lens
• Stage
• Mirror/light source
• Coarse adjustment
• Fine adjustment
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Uses:
Electron beam instead of light
Advantages
• Extremely high magnification
• Nanometre resolution
• Reveals ultrastructure
Helped discover:
• Ribosomes
• Cell membranes
• Viruses clearly
ESTIMATING CELL SIZE
Formula
Size of cell =
Diameter of visible field ÷ Number of cells across diameter
Example
5000 µm ÷ 25 = 200 µm
CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA
MEMBRANE)
Definition
Thin living selectively permeable membrane surrounding cell contents.
FEATURES OF CELL MEMBRANE
1. Selectively Permeable
Allows selected substances to pass.
2. Flexible
Allows movement and shape changes.
3. Dynamic
Molecules continuously move.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
Proposed by:
S. J. Singer
and
Garth Nicolson
Structure
• Lipid bilayer
• Embedded proteins
Why “Fluid”?
Lipids and proteins move sideways.
Why “Mosaic”?
Proteins appear scattered like mosaic tiles.
DIFFUSION
Movement of particles:
Higher concentration → Lower concentration
Example
Perfume smell spreading in room.
Important
• No membrane necessary
• Passive process
• No energy required
OSMOSIS
Movement of water:
Higher water concentration
↓
Lower water concentration
through a selectively permeable membrane.
POTATO EXPERIMENT
Observation
• Potato in water swells
• Potato in concentrated salt solution shrinks
Reason
Water moves according to concentration gradient.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solution Effect on Cell
Isotonic No change
Hypotonic Cell swells
Hypertonic Cell shrinks
PLASMOLYSIS
Definition:
Shrinkage of cell contents away from cell wall due to water loss.
Occurs in:
Hypertonic solution
Observed in:
• Onion peel cells
• Rhoeo leaf cells
CELL WALL
Present in:
• Plants
• Fungi
• Bacteria
Absent in:
• Animal cells
FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL
• Gives shape
• Rigidity
• Mechanical support
• Prevents bursting
• Maintains turgidity
CELLULOSE
Main component of plant cell wall:
Cellulose
Extra Facts
• Strong carbohydrate fibre
• Acts as roughage
• Humans cannot digest it
Reason:
Humans lack cellulase enzyme
PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
Feature Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Nucleus Absent Present
Organelles Absent Present
DNA Naked Membrane-bound
Size Smaller Larger
Example Bacteria Plants & Animals
NUCLEOID
Prokaryotes contain DNA in:
Nucleoid
It is:
Not membrane-bound
VIRUS, VIROID & PRION
Agent Composition
Virus DNA/RNA + protein coat
Viroid Naked RNA
Prion Misfolded protein
Extra Knowledge
Prions cause:
Mad Cow Disease
CYTOSKELETON
Network of protein fibres in cytoplasm.
Functions
• Maintains shape
• Cell movement
• Intracellular transport
• Mechanical support
Types
• Microtubules
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
NUCLEUS — CONTROL CENTRE
Functions
• Controls activities
• Stores DNA
• Regulates protein synthesis
• Controls heredity
DNA → GENE → CHROMOSOME
DNA
↓
Genes
↓
Chromosomes
↓
Inheritance
Key Points
• DNA stores genetic information
• Genes are functional DNA segments
• Chromosomes package DNA tightly
CHROMATIN VS CHROMOSOME
Chromatin Chromosome
Loose threads Condensed structures
Non-dividing cell Dividing cell
RBC SPECIALISATION
Human RBCs:
• Lack nucleus
• Contain haemoglobin
• Carry oxygen efficiently
Lifespan
120 days
RIBOSOMES
Known as:
Protein factories
Function
Protein synthesis
Important
• Non-membranous
• Made of rRNA + proteins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Rough ER (RER)
• Ribosomes present
• Protein synthesis
Smooth ER (SER)
• Lipid synthesis
• Steroid hormone synthesis
• Detoxification
Advanced Fact
Liver cells contain abundant SER.
GOLGI APPARATUS
Discovered by:
Camillo Golgi
Functions
• Modifies proteins
• Packages materials
• Forms vesicles
• Secretion
Known as:
Cell’s post office
LYSOSOMES
Contain:
Digestive enzymes
Functions
• Intracellular digestion
• Waste removal
• Destruction of damaged organelles
Why called “Suicide Bags”?
Bursting lysosomes may digest cell contents.
MITOCHONDRIA
Known as:
Powerhouse of cell
Function
Cellular respiration
Produces:
ATP
ATP
Full form:
Adenosine Triphosphate
Known as:
Energy currency of cell
Important
Breaking phosphate bond releases energy.
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Proposed by:
Lynn Margulis
Theory
Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria.
Evidence:
• Own DNA
• Own ribosomes
• Independent division
PLASTIDS
Present only in plant cells.
Plastid Function
Chloroplast Photosynthesis
Chromoplast Colour
Leucoplast Storage
CHLOROPLAST
Contains:
Chlorophyll
Function:
Photosynthesis
Structure
Part Function
Grana Absorb light
Stroma Sugar synthesis
CHROMOPLASTS
Provide:
• Yellow
• Orange
• Red colours
Importance:
• Attract pollinators
• Aid seed dispersal
LEUCOPLASTS
Store:
• Starch
• Oils
• Proteins
Example:
Potato stores starch
VACUOLE
Functions:
• Storage
• Maintains turgidity
• Waste accumulation
WHY PLANTS WILT?
Less water
↓
Vacuole loses water
↓
Turgor pressure decreases
↓
Plant wilts
SYNTHETIC CELL
Scientist:
J. Craig Venter
Achievement
Artificial DNA inserted into bacterium.
Importance
Proved:
DNA controls cellular activities
CELL DIVISION
Necessary for:
• Growth
• Repair
• Reproduction
MITOSIS
Produces:
2 genetically identical daughter cells
Functions
• Growth
• Repair
• Asexual reproduction
MEIOSIS
Produces:
4 daughter cells
Each contains:
Half chromosome number
Occurs in:
• Testes
• Ovaries
CROSSING OVER
During meiosis:
Chromosomes exchange DNA.
Called:
Crossing over
Importance
• Genetic variation
• Evolution
MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Divisions One Two
Daughter cells 2 4
Chromosome number Same Half
Variation No Yes
CELL CULTURE
Definition:
Growing cells outside body under controlled conditions.
Conditions Needed
• Nutrient medium
• Sterility
• Proper temperature
• Moisture
Uses
• Vaccines
• Medicines
• Tissue engineering
• Research
ERRORS IN CELL DIVISION
Errors in Mitosis
May cause:
• Tumours
• Cancer
Errors in Meiosis
May cause:
• Genetic disorders
• Infertility
CELL THEORY
Scientists:
• Matthias Schleiden
• Theodor Schwann
• Rudolf Virchow
CELL THEORY STATES
1. All living organisms are made of cells
2. Cell is basic structural and functional unit
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells
CONTACT INHIBITION
Normal cells:
Stop dividing after contact
Cancer cells:
Lose this control
Result:
Uncontrolled growth
PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
(PCD)
Also called:
Apoptosis
Importance
• Removes unwanted cells
• Shapes developing organs
• Prevents damaged cell accumulation
Example
Cells between fingers die during embryo development.
TOTIPOTENCY
Definition:
Ability of a plant cell to form complete plant.
Important in:
• Tissue culture
• Cloning
• Agriculture
Scientist:
Gottlieb Haberlandt
HIGH-YIELD EXAM POINTS
• Ribosomes are non-membranous
• Mitochondria + chloroplast have own DNA
• Osmosis requires membrane
• Diffusion does not
• Plant cells undergo plasmolysis
• ATP stores energy
• Meiosis creates variation
• Cell wall prevents bursting
• RBCs lack nucleus
• Viruses are acellular
MOST IMPORTANT TERMS
• Cell
• Plasma membrane
• Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Plasmolysis
• Nucleus
• DNA
• Gene
• Chromosome
• Ribosome
• ER
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosome
• Mitochondria
• ATP
• Plastid
• Vacuole
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
• Cell theory
• Apoptosis
• Totipotency