Carbon Cycle

• Carbon is one of the essential components that is found in every life on Earth. Scientists
believe that the vast majority, approximately 99.9%, of all life forms on Earth are
comprised of carbon.
• The carbon content in a planet is limited (i.e., 0.03%). Therefore, to fulfill the carbon
requirement on the Earth, it is continuously used and recycled, termed the carbon cycle
by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier.
• Therefore, the carbon cycle is a bio-geo-chemical cycle in which carbon travels (in the
form of CO 2) from the atmosphere into organisms and, after their death, back to the
atmosphere.
• This cycle is essential for maintaining the Earth’s ecosystem by sustaining plants and
animals. It occurs through various processes such as; oceanic gas exchange,
photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion, rock weathering, and volcanism.

Qz: How is carbon dioxide removed from the environment

[Link] enters the atmosphere as CO 2 : Carbon enters the atmosphere through respiration
by living organisms (exhales CO 2) via industries that release CO 2.

[Link] present in the atmosphere is absorbed by autotrophs (which use CO 2 to make

their food): Autotrophs utilize the absorbed CO 2 via the process known as photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis converts atmospheric CO 2 into glucose molecules. These glucose molecules are
either converted into other substances or used to provide energy to produce other biologically
important molecules. CO 2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O 2

[Link] consume autotrophs: Carbon present in plants moves through the food chain. The
animal consumes plants as a carbon source. Animals that eat other animals also get the carbon
from their food. Furthermore, most of the carbon from animals is released into the atmosphere
through respiration in the form of CO 2.

[Link] released to the atmosphere: When these plants and animals die, and upon
decomposition by decomposers, carbon is released back into the atmosphere.

[Link] carbon becomes fossil fuel: In some cases, dead plants and animals remain on the
Earth as fossil fuel used for future combustion.
Role of Microorganisms in the Carbon Cycle
Microorganisms play an essential role in the carbon cycle. These microorganisms are involved
in various steps of the carbon cycle that include;

[Link] fixation: Some microorganisms, such as cyanobacteria and algae, can fix carbon
through photosynthesis. Such organisms capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and
convert it into organic carbon compounds.

[Link]: Microorganisms release carbon dioxide as a byproduct during the metabolic

process in order to obtain energy. Therefore, respiration helps to release carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.

[Link]: Microorganisms play a vital role in decay. They help to decay dead plants
and animals into simpler forms, such as amino acids and sugars, by secreting enzymes.

Methane production: Some microorganisms, such as methanogenic archaea and

methanogens under anaerobic conditions, decompose organic matter into methane. Thus,
released methane contributes to the carbon cycle by remaining in the soil or being released
back into the atmosphere.
 Some examples of microorganisms that are involved in the carbon cycle are
[Link]: Cyanobacteria, Diatoms, etc.
[Link]: Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas spp, etc.
[Link]: Aspergillus spp, Trichoderma, etc.
Carbon Cycle in Water
• The carbon cycle is essential not only for terrestrial life it equally plays a significant role in
aquatic life.
• The carbon cycle occurs in different ways in marine life (i.e., in low-depth rivers and the deepest
oceans).
• In normal aquatic life, the carbon cycle initiates when aquatic plants use carbon dioxide to make
food.
• Animals then eat these plants. When the animal dies, their body decomposes, and carbon is
finally returned to the atmosphere.
• Whereas, at the deepest level of the ocean, the oceanic carbon cycle occurs differently; carbon
intake is more than releasing it to the atmosphere, which is known as a carbon sink. Marine
animal utilizes carbon to calcium carbonate to build hard shells.
• When an organism with a hard shell dies, its body decomposes, but the hard shell accumulates
in sea ground, turning into limestone under high pressure.
• Thus formed limestones, when exposed to the atmosphere, get weathered. As a result, carbon
is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
 Role of Microorganisms
In the oceanic carbon cycle, microorganisms transfer and exchange carbon between the
atmosphere, ocean, and marine organisms. The primary role of microorganisms in the oceanic
carbon cycle are as follows;
[Link] fixation: Some of the phytoplanktons are microscopic that help to convert
atmospheric carbon dioxide to organic compounds through photosynthesis.
[Link]: Ocean microorganisms contribute to the carbon cycle by releasing carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere as a byproduct during the metabolic process.
[Link] of carbon: Microorganisms are also involved in carbon exportation from the surface
ocean to the deep sea.
[Link]: Majorly bacteria decompose organic matter through an enzymatic process in
the ocean. The decay helps release carbon dioxide, nutrients, and other substances that dissolve
into the water.
Some examples of microorganisms involved in the oceanic carbon cycle are;
•Algae: Diatoms, Green algae (e.g., Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra),
Coccolithophores, Red Algae (e.g., Corallina and Porphyra)
•Bacteria: SAR11 Bacteria, Prochlorococcus, Rosebacter, Thaumarchea, Sulphate
reducing bacteria, etc.
•Fungi: Aspergillus spp.
Importance
The carbon cycle plays a crucial role in the Earth’s ecosystem that is as follows;
[Link] helps to regulate the Earth’s temperature: The carbon cycle is one of the important ways of
maintaining the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Therefore, it significantly
impacts reducing global warming and the greenhouse effect on the Earth.
[Link] helps to make food to sustain us: Almost all foods (i.e., plants or animals) are the carbon
source.
[Link] helps to provide energy: Carbon is also the fuel source. Therefore, it also plays a significant
role in sustaining the global economy.
[Link] facilitates the existence of all life on Earth.
NITROGEN CYCLE
• The nitrogen cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that converts nitrogen into
various forms throughout the ecosystem.
• Nitrogen is an essential element for life that organisms use in the synthesis
of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• Yet, while the atmosphere is rich in nitrogen (about 78%), this nitrogen (N 2) is
largely inaccessible to cells in its gaseous form.
• Through the nitrogen cycle, atmospheric nitrogen undergoes various
transformations. Living organisms use nitrogen and ultimately return it back to
the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle Processes

• Several processes play a role in the nitrogen cycle, including
both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.
• These processes include nitrogen fixation, assimilation,
ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.
• Nitrogen fixation is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle, converting inert
atmospheric nitrogen (N 2) into a bio-available form, ammonia (NH 3).

•Biological Fixation: Some types of bacteria convert nitrogen gas into ammonia.
In symbiotic associations, bacteria like Rhizobium colonize the root nodules of
legumes, converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia.
•Similarly, non-symbiotic bacteria like Azotobacter and cyanobacteria, especially
those in aquatic systems, perform nitrogen fixation.
•The enzyme central to this process is nitrogenase, which facilitates the reduction
of N2.
•Physical Fixation: Atmospheric processes, such as lightning, also convert
atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen oxides (NO x).
•These oxides subsequently react with water, forming nitrates that can be
absorbed by plants.
Assimilation
In assimilation, plants take up ammonia and incorporate nitrogen into amino acids, nucleic acids, and
other vital organic molecules. Plants predominantly assimilate nitrogen through their roots in the
form of nitrates (NO 3–) and ammonium ions (NH 4+).

Ammonification
As organisms die and waste products accumulate, decomposers—specifically fungi and certain types
of bacteria—break down the organic nitrogen within these materials and convert it back into
ammonia. This process ensures that nitrogen trapped within organic matter returns to the soil in a
form that plants can reuse.
Nitrification
This aerobic process involves the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.
•First, bacteria like Nitrosomonas oxidize ammonia to nitrite (NO 2–).
•Following this, Nitrobacter takes over, oxidizing the nitrite to nitrate (NO 3–). Nitrification is a critical
step of the nitrogen cycle because most plants predominantly utilize nitrates for their nitrogen needs.

Denitrification
Denitrification is essentially the reverse of nitrogen fixation. Here, the nitrates in the soil transform
back into atmospheric nitrogen. Anaerobic bacteria, such
as Pseudomonas and Clostridium, reduce nitrates and nitrites to gaseous nitrogen, releasing it back into
the atmosphere. This process prevents the accumulation of excess nitrates in terrestrial systems.
Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction
• Unlike denitrification, this process doesn’t return nitrogen to the atmosphere.
• Instead, certain bacteria reduce nitrates to nitrites or ammonia for energy, especially under
anaerobic conditions. However, the nitrogen remains in the ecosystem.

Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation (Anammox)

• In an anaerobic environment, specialized bacteria like Brocadia oxidize ammonia using nitrite as
the electron acceptor, producing nitrogen gas.
• Anammox is particularly relevant in aquatic systems, contributing significantly to the removal of
fixed nitrogen from the oceans.

Marine Nitrogen Cycle

• The marine environment offers unique niches for nitrogen transformation. While many processes
mirror their terrestrial counterparts, the deep-sea regions offer unique conditions, such as
oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) where processes like anammox and denitrification are
prevalent.
• The ocean floor acts as a nitrogen sink in that organic debris falls and deposits as sediments.
Over time, compression converts these particles into sedimentary rock.
• Geological uplifting eventually returns these rocks to the surface, where weathering releases the
nitrogen compounds back into the cycle.
Human Impacts and Consequences
Human activities significantly impact the nitrogen cycle. From agriculture to industry,
anthropogenic nitrogen dramatically increases the flux of reactive nitrogen in the
environment.

•Agriculture: The synthesis and widespread use of nitrogen-based fertilizers increase crop
yields, but at the cost of nitrogen runoff that causes eutrophication and acidification in
aquatic systems.
•Inorganic nitrogen in water systems also poses toxicity issues for humans and other
animals.

•Burning of Fossil Fuels: Burning fossil fuels releases NOx into the atmosphere, which
returns to the earth’s surface as acid rain or contribute to smog and greenhouse
gas accumulation.

•Deforestation and Land Use Changes : Deforestation alters the natural nitrogen balance,
leading to soil degradation and other ecological shifts.
The repercussions of these impacts are multi-fold, affecting air and water quality,
disrupting natural ecosystems, and posing direct and indirect health risks to humans.
SOAP & DETERGENTS
 Soap Preparation - Saponification
• Soap is now an essential everyday item and finds its importance in everyday life. But, how is
soap made? The process of making soap is called saponification.
• Saponification is the hydrolysis of an ester with NaOH or KOH to give alcohol and sodium or
potassium salt of the acid.

Sodium salt
fatty acid

Ester Base alcohol

Soap structure

Ionic part (Water soluble)

oil soluble
Cleansing action
QZ:
a

c
Qz:
What is Detergent
• Any cleaning agent that is not a soap is a detergent.
• Detergent are usually made from synthetic resources such as petroleum fractions.
• Detergents are usually sodium salts of sulphonic acid

Preparation
Toilet Soaps (Personal Care)
•Purpose: Handwashing, bathing, face washing.
•pH Level: Neutral or slightly acidic, gentle on skin.
•Ingredients: Fatty acids, moisturizers (glycerin, oils), fragrances, antibacterial agents, colorants.
•Characteristics: Mild lather, low skin damage, often moisturizing.

Laundry Soaps (Fabric Care)

•Purpose: Cleaning clothes, removing tough stains.
•pH Level: Alkaline, effective for lifting dirt.
•Ingredients: Surfactants, builders, enzymes, bleaches, brighteners, fragrances (for clothes).
•Characteristics: Strong cleaning power, may be harsher on skin, designed for fabric performance.

Key Differences Summarized

•Gentleness vs. Strength: Toilet soap prioritizes skin softness, while laundry soap prioritizes stain
removal.
•Additives: Toilet soaps add skin-beneficial ingredients; launry soaps add fabric-enhancing and stain-
fighting agents.
•Formulation: Toilet soaps are often lower in alkali and higher in oils, while laundry soaps use stronger
detergents and enzymes.
Soda Ash
• Soda ash, the common name for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), has significant economic importance
because of its applications in manufacturing glass, chemicals, paper, detergents and many other
products
Physical Properties
•It is a powdered or granular substance that is white and anhydrous.
•Soda ash has a molecular mass of 105.99 g/mol.
•It has a boiling point of 1600°C
•It has a melting point of 851°C
•It has a density of 2.54g/cm3
•It has no smell.
Chemical Properties
•Soda ash is an alkali with a high pH.
•Heat has no effect on anhydrous Soda ash.
•In water, it dissolves freely but is insoluble in ethanol.
•Aqueous sodium carbonate solutions absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere ,
producing sodium hydrogen carbonate as a result.
• Sodium carbonate molecule has 3 oxygen atoms, 2 sodium atoms, and 1 carbon atom. It is
known that each sodium cation can contain a charge of +1.
• The polyatomic carbonate anion, on the other hand, is known to have a net charge of
magnitude -2.
• Soda ash is a molecule with a neutral charge.

Solvay process
• The main industrial method for producing soda ash is the Solvay process, commonly known
as the ammonia-soda process.
• By using limestone as a supply of calcium carbonate and brine as a source of sodium
chloride, the Solvay process creates soda ash.
Raw materials

Overall reaction
Can be classified as Heavy or Light

Qz: Why is soda ash used in glass making

Slaked lime
• meaning refers to the product obtained when calcium oxide (quicklime) reacts with water.
• This reaction is highly exothermic and is represented by a simple chemical equation.
• The resulting compound, slaked lime powder, is widely used for its alkaline nature and
chemical reactivity.

Slaked lime is a key inorganic compound, scientifically known as calcium hydroxide.

• This versatile material finds widespread application in construction, agriculture, and
chemical processes.
• Also recognized as hydrated lime, slaked lime is produced by reacting quicklime with
water—a reaction that yields a fine, white powder.
• Understanding slaked lime’s properties, formula, and main uses helps highlight its
significance across various fields and industries.
Physical Properties of Slaked Lime
Calcium hydroxide, or slaked lime, appears as a soft, white powder or crystal. Its
solubility and alkaline nature are central to many of its uses.

Color: White
State: Powdery solid (sometimes in suspension as "milk of lime")
Solubility: Sparingly soluble in water; forms an alkaline solution called limewater
Odor: Odorless
Taste: Alkaline, bitter
Major Uses of Slaked Lime
The utility of slaked lime is evident in multiple sectors due to its unique chemical behavior and
cost-effectiveness.

Key Applications
Construction: Used in making slaked lime paint and lime mortar for masonry and plastering

Agriculture: Neutralizes acidic soils and provides calcium nutrients; commonly applied as
slaked lime for trees to prevent fungal infections

Water Treatment: Softens water and removes impurities

Chemical Industry: Key role in manufacturing bleaching powder, caustic soda, and as a
neutralizing agent

Sanitation: Used to treat industrial and domestic wastewater

Food Industry: Serves as a food additive for pickling and processing sugar
Study the lime circle to complete the
following reaction equation