ELECTRICAL & ALLIED ENGINEERING

Comprehensive Study Notes

For JE Exam Group

Easy Learning with Examples

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Basic Concepts
2. Circuit Law
3. Magnetic Circuit
4. AC Fundamentals
5. Measurement and Measuring Instruments
6. Electrical Machines
7. Synchronous Machines
8. Generation, Transmission and Distribution
9. Estimation and Costing
10. Utilization of Electrical Energy
11. Basic Electronics
1. BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Resistance
Resistance is the property of a conductor that opposes the flow of electric current through it. It is
measured in Ohms (Ω).
Formula: R = ρL/A
Where: ρ = Resistivity (Ω⋅m), L = Length (m), A = Area (m²)
Example: A copper wire of length 10m and area 2mm² has resistivity 1.7×10-8 Ω⋅m. Calculate
resistance: R = (1.7×10-8 × 10) / (2×10-6) = 0.085 Ω

1.2 Inductance
Inductance is the property of a conductor that opposes changes in electric current. It is measured in
Henry (H) or millihenry (mH).
Formula: L = µ■µ■N²A/l
Where: µ■ = Permeability of free space, µ■ = Relative permeability, N = Number of turns, A = Area, l =
Length
Example: A coil with 100 turns, area 50cm² and length 5cm (µ■ = 400) has inductance: L = (4π×10-7 ×
400 × 10000 × 0.005) / 0.05 = 0.5 H

1.3 Capacitance
Capacitance is the ability of a conductor to store electrical charge. It is measured in Farad (F) or
microfarad (µF).
Formula: C = ε■ε■A/d
Where: ε■ = Permittivity of free space, ε■ = Relative permittivity, A = Area, d = Distance between
plates
Example: Two parallel plates with area 100cm², separation 1mm, and ε■ = 8: C = (8.85×10-12 × 8 ×
0.01) / 0.001 = 708 pF

1.4 Current, Voltage, and Power

Current (I): Flow of electrons. Unit: Ampere (A)
Voltage (V): Electric potential difference. Unit: Volt (V)
Power (P): Rate of energy consumption. Unit: Watt (W)
Ohm's Law: V = IR
Power Formula: P = VI = I²R = V²/R
Example: A 100W bulb operates at 230V. Find current and resistance: I = P/V = 100/230 = 0.435 A; R
= V/I = 230/0.435 = 529 Ω
2. CIRCUIT LAW

2.1 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. Σ V = 0 around any closed
path.
Example: In a series circuit: V■ + V■ + V■ = E (battery voltage). If E = 12V, V■ = 3V, V■ = 4V, then
V■ = 12 - 3 - 4 = 5V

2.2 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of currents at any node (junction) in a circuit is zero. ΣI(in) = ΣI(out)
Example: At a node: I■ + I■ = I■ + I■. If I■ = 5A, I■ = 3A, I■ = 2A, then I■ = 5 + 3 - 2 = 6A

2.3 Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem: The response in any element of a network is the sum of responses caused
by each independent source acting alone.
Thevenin's Theorem: Any linear network can be replaced by a voltage source Vth in series with
resistance Rth.
Norton's Theorem: Any linear network can be replaced by a current source IN in parallel with
resistance RN.
Example (Thevenin): For a circuit with 10V source and 5Ω in series with a 10Ω load, Rth = 5Ω, Vth =
10V. Current in load = Vth/(Rth + Rload) = 10/(5+10) = 0.667A
3. MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

3.1 Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux is the measure of magnetism. Symbol: Φ. Unit: Weber (Wb) or Maxwell (1 Wb = 10■
Maxwell).
Formula: Φ = BA (where B = flux density, A = area)

3.2 Magnetomotive Force (MMF)

MMF is the driving force that produces magnetic flux. Unit: Ampere-turn (AT).
Formula: F = NI (where N = number of turns, I = current)
Example: A coil with 500 turns carries 2A current. MMF = 500 × 2 = 1000 AT

3.3 Reluctance
Reluctance is the opposition to magnetic flux. Symbol: S or Rm. Unit: AT/Wb.
Formula: S = l/(µ■µ■A)
Magnetic circuit analogy: F = ΦS (like V = IR in electric circuit)

3.4 Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic: Iron, cobalt, nickel (high permeability, µ■ > 1000). Used in transformer cores.
Paramagnetic: Aluminum, chromium (low permeability, µ■ ≈ 1). Weakly attracted to magnets.
Diamagnetic: Copper, bismuth (permeability < 1). Repelled by magnets.

3.5 Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's Law: e = -N(dΦ/dt)
Induced EMF is proportional to rate of change of flux.
Example: A coil of 100 turns has flux change of 0.5 Wb in 0.1s. Induced EMF = 100 × 0.5/0.1 = 500V
4. AC FUNDAMENTALS

4.1 Sinusoidal AC Wave

An alternating current varies sinusoidally with time: i(t) = Imsin(ωt + φ)
Parameters:
• Im = Peak or maximum value
• ω = Angular frequency (rad/s) = 2πf
• f = Frequency (Hz)
• φ = Phase angle

4.2 AC Values
Peak Value (Im): Maximum instantaneous value
Peak-to-Peak Value: 2Im
Average Value: (2/π)Im ≈ 0.637Im
RMS Value (Irms): Im/√2 ≈ 0.707Im
Example: If peak voltage = 230√2 V, then RMS voltage = 230V

4.3 Impedance in AC Circuits

Pure Resistance (R): Z = R, no phase difference (φ = 0°)
Pure Inductance (L): XL = ωL = 2πfL, current lags voltage by 90°
Pure Capacitance (C): XC = 1/(ωC), current leads voltage by 90°
R-L-C Series Circuit: Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²)
Phase Angle: tan(φ) = (XL - XC)/R
Example: R = 10Ω, XL = 15Ω, XC = 5Ω: Z = √(100 + (15-5)²) = √200 = 14.14Ω; φ = tan-1(10/10) = 45°

4.4 Resonance in AC Circuits

Resonance occurs when XL = XC. At resonance, impedance is minimum and current is maximum.
Resonant Frequency: fr = 1/(2π√(LC))
Quality Factor: Q = XL/R = ωL/R = fr/BW
Example: For L = 0.1H and C = 10µF: fr = 1/(2π√(0.1×10■■)) = 1591 Hz

4.5 Three-Phase AC System

Three-phase system has three sinusoidal voltages 120° apart. More efficient than single-phase.
Star (Y) Connection: VL = √3Vph, IL = Iph
Delta (∆) Connection: VL = Vph, IL = √3Iph
Three-Phase Power: P = √3VLILcos(φ)
Example: In star connection: Vph = 230V, Iph = 10A, cos(φ) = 0.8: VL = 230√3 = 398V; P = √3 × 398 ×
10 × 0.8 = 5533W
5. MEASUREMENT AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

5.1 Power Measurement

Single Phase Power: Measured using wattmeter (current and pressure coils). P = VI cos(φ)
Three Phase Power: Two wattmeter method for 3-wire system: Ptotal = P■ + P■
Example: Two wattmeters read 5000W and 1500W. Total power = 5000 + 1500 = 6500W

5.2 Voltmeter and Ammeter

Voltmeter: High impedance device, connected in parallel
Ammeter: Low impedance device, connected in series
Moving Coil Type: Measures DC, high accuracy
Moving Iron Type: Measures both AC and DC

5.3 Frequency and Phase Measurement

Frequency Meter: Measures AC frequency. Digital meters give direct reading.
Phase Measurement: Using CRO or phase meter

5.4 Energy Meter

Measures electrical energy consumed. Unit: kWh (kilowatt-hour). Used in domestic and industrial
applications.
Energy = Power × Time (E = Pt)
Example: A 1000W heater runs for 5 hours. Energy = 1000 × 5 = 5000 Wh = 5 kWh
6. ELECTRICAL MACHINES

6.1 DC Machines (Motors and Generators)

Basic Principle: When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force
(Motor) or generates EMF (Generator).
Torque in DC Motor: T = ΦZIa/60P (Nm)
Where: Φ = flux, Z = total conductors, Ia = armature current, P = poles
EMF in DC Generator: E = ΦZN/60P (Volts)
Example: Motor: Φ = 0.05Wb, Z = 180, Ia = 50A, P = 2: T = (0.05 × 180 × 50)/(60 × 2) = 7.5 Nm

6.2 DC Motor - Speed Control

Armature Control: Vary applied voltage (0-100% speed range)
Field Control: Vary field current (100-200% speed range)
Ward-Leonard Method: Most efficient control method

6.3 DC Motor - Braking

Plugging: Reverse supply, brings motor to quick stop
Regenerative Braking: Motor acts as generator, returns energy to supply

6.4 Transformers
Principle: Based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Voltage transformation ratio = turns
ratio.
Formula: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np = a (turns ratio)
Ideal Transformer: VpIp = VsIs (Power is conserved)
Example: Primary: 230V, 10A. Secondary turns = 100, Primary turns = 1000: Vs = 230 × (100/1000) =
23V; Is = 10 × (1000/100) = 100A

6.5 Losses in Transformers

Core Losses (Iron Losses): Hysteresis and eddy current losses (in iron)
Copper Losses: I²R losses in windings
Efficiency: η = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100%

6.6 Three-Phase Induction Motors

Working: Rotating magnetic field induces current in rotor, creating torque.
Slip: s = (Ns - N)/Ns
Where: Ns = synchronous speed, N = actual speed
Rotor Speed: N = Ns(1 - s) = (120f/P)(1-s) RPM
Torque: T ∝ sΦ2/Rr
Example: 4-pole motor at 50Hz, running at 1440 RPM with slip 0.04: Ns = (120 × 50)/4 = 1500 RPM; s
= (1500-1440)/1500 = 0.04
7. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

7.1 Synchronous Motor

Principle: Motor runs at synchronous speed Ns = 120f/P. Rotor locks with rotating field.
EMF Equation: E = KΦZN/60
Key Feature: Constant speed regardless of load (0-100%)
Power Factor: Can operate at leading, unity, or lagging power factor

7.2 Synchronous Generator (Alternator)

Working: Prime mover rotates field coils. Induced EMF in armature coils.
Advantages: Higher efficiency, constant speed, can generate 3-phase AC
Voltage Regulation: VR = (Eoc - VL)/VL × 100%

7.3 MMF and Voltage Regulation

Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC): Voltage vs. field current with no load
Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC): Current vs. field current with short circuit

7.4 Parallel Operation of Alternators

Conditions for Parallel Operation:
1. Same voltage magnitude
2. Same frequency
3. Same phase sequence
4. Phase angles in synchronism

7.5 Synchronization
Synchronizing Voltage: Vsync = √3EaEbsin(θ)/Xs
Synchronizing Torque: Tsync ∝ Pin × sin(δ)
Where: δ = angle between field and resultant MMF
8. GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION

8.1 Power Generation

Types of Power Stations:
• Thermal: Uses coal, natural gas, or fuel oil. Most common.
• Hydro: Uses water from dams. Renewable, low operating cost.
• Nuclear: Uses nuclear fission. High initial cost but efficient.
• Wind: Uses wind turbines. Renewable, pollution-free.
• Solar: Uses photovoltaic cells. Renewable, maintenance-free.

8.2 Load Factor and Diversity Factor

Load Factor: LF = Average Load / Peak Load
Diversity Factor: DF = Sum of Individual Peak Loads / Maximum Demand
Example: Average load = 500MW, Peak load = 1000MW: LF = 500/1000 = 0.5 or 50%

8.3 Power Transmission

Voltage Levels: Power increases voltage to reduce losses during transmission.
• EHV (Extra High Voltage): > 230 kV
• HV (High Voltage): 66-230 kV
• MV (Medium Voltage): 11-66 kV
Transmission Loss: Ploss = I²R, reduces with higher voltage
Example: For same power, if voltage doubles, current halves: Loss ∝ I², so loss becomes 1/4

8.4 Power Distribution

Distribution Levels:
• Primary Distribution: 11-33 kV (subtransmission)
• Secondary Distribution: 230-440V (local area)
Distribution Systems: Radial, Ring, Mesh

8.5 Protection and Switchgear

Circuit Breaker: Automatically isolates faulty section
Fuse: Melts and breaks circuit when current exceeds rating
Earth Leakage: Protects against shock from leakage current
Buchholz Relay: Protects transformers from internal faults
Merz-Price System: Differential protection for generators and transformers

8.6 Cables and Derating

Types of Cables: PVC (low voltage), XLPE (high voltage), Paper (underground)
Cable Rating: Maximum current cable can carry safely
Derating Factor: Reduces rating based on installation conditions (temperature, grouping)
Example: Cable rating 100A at 30°C. At 45°C with 0.8 derating factor: Actual rating = 100 × 0.8 = 80A
9. ESTIMATION AND COSTING

9.1 Lighting Scheme Estimation

Steps: 1. Calculate illumination requirement (lux). 2. Determine lumens needed. 3. Select suitable
lamps.
Formula: Lumens = Illumination (lux) × Area / CU × MF
Where: CU = Coefficient of utilization, MF = Maintenance factor
Example: Room area 100m², required 300 lux, CU = 0.6, MF = 0.8: Lumens = (300 × 100) / (0.6 × 0.8)
= 62,500 lumens

9.2 Electrical Installation Costing

Components: Wiring, switchgear, conduits, junction boxes, earth electrodes, labor
Material Rate: Per unit length or per point
Labor Rate: Per point or per hour
Total Cost = Material Cost + Labor Cost + Overhead

9.3 Earthing Practices

Importance: Safety from electric shock and equipment protection
Methods: Plate earthing, Rod earthing, Strip earthing, Pipe earthing
Resistance Requirement: < 5Ω for equipment, < 1Ω for power systems

9.4 IE Rules (Indian Electricity Rules)

Purpose: Ensure safety in electrical installations and distribution.
Key Rules: Wire size selection, earthing, spacing, voltage drop limits
Voltage Drop: Should not exceed 3% for distribution, 5% for branch circuits
10. UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

10.1 Electric Lighting

Types: Incandescent (old, 5-10 lumens/watt), CFL (15-20 lumens/watt), LED (80-100 lumens/watt)
Illumination: Measured in lux (lumens/m²)
Example: Office requires 500 lux. Area 50m². Using LED (100 lm/W): Lumens = 500 × 50 / 0.8 =
31,250 lumens; Power = 31,250/100 = 312.5W

10.2 Electric Heating

Applications: Water heater, space heater, oven, furnace
Heat Generated: Q = I²Rt = Pt (Joule's law)
Efficiency: Usually 90-95% (high efficiency)
Example: 2000W heater runs for 2 hours. Heat = 2000 × 2 = 4000 Wh = 1.44 MJ

10.3 Electric Welding

Principle: Electrical energy melts metal at joint. Creates strong connection.
Types: Arc welding (high current), Resistance welding (spot welding)
Power Required: Typically 10-50 kW per welding point

10.4 Electroplating
Principle: Electrolysis deposits metal on object surface for protection/decoration.
Examples: Chrome plating, Nickel plating, Copper plating
Process: Object made cathode, pure metal as anode, in metal salt solution

10.5 Electric Motors and Drives

Applications: Pumps, fans, compressors, conveyors, lifts, industrial machinery
Selection Criteria: Speed, torque, efficiency, starting characteristics
Efficiency: 85-98% depending on size and type
11. BASIC ELECTRONICS

11.1 P-N Junction Diode

Structure: Formed by joining P-type (hole majority) and N-type (electron majority) semiconductor.
Forward Bias: Positive to P, negative to N. Conducts current. Threshold voltage ≈ 0.7V for Si.
Reverse Bias: Negative to P, positive to N. Blocks current (few µA leakage).
Characteristics: I-V curve shows exponential conduction in forward, breakdown in reverse

11.2 Transistors (Bipolar Junction)

NPN Type: Emitter (source of electrons), Base (control), Collector (drain)
PNP Type: Emitter (source of holes), Base (control), Collector (drain)
Amplification: Small base current controls large collector current. β (beta) = Ic/Ib
Example: NPN transistor with β = 100, Ib = 10µA: Ic = 100 × 10µA = 1mA

11.3 Transistor Configurations

Common Emitter (CE): High gain, phase shift of 180°. Used for amplification.
Common Collector (CC): Voltage follower, low output impedance. Used for impedance matching.
Common Base (CB): High frequency response. Used in RF circuits.

11.4 JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)

Principle: Voltage applied to gate controls depletion region, controlling current between drain and
source.
Gate Current: Nearly zero (advantage over BJT)
Characteristics: High input impedance, voltage-controlled device

11.5 Simple Electronic Circuits

Rectifier: Converts AC to DC using diodes (Half-wave or Full-wave)
Filter: Smooths rectified DC using capacitor or inductor
Amplifier: Increases signal magnitude using transistor
Oscillator: Generates AC signal. Uses feedback and resonant circuit.
Example Circuit: Bridge rectifier (4 diodes) + Filter capacitor provides smooth DC. Output = Vpeak -
Vdiode ≈ Vrms × √2
SUMMARY OF KEY FORMULAS AND CONCEPTS

Topic Key Formula Unit

Resistance R = ρL/A Ω (Ohm)

Inductance L = µ■µ■N²A/l H (Henry)
Capacitance C = ε■ε■A/d F (Farad)
Power P = VI = I²R W (Watt)
AC Impedance Z = √(R² + (XL - XC)²) Ω
Resonance fr = 1/(2π√(LC)) Hz
Transformer Vs/Vp = Ns/Np Ratio
Motor Torque T = ΦZIa/60P Nm
Flux Φ = BA Wb (Weber)
3-Phase Power P = √3VLILcos(φ) W
Induction Motor N = (120f/P)(1-s) RPM

END OF NOTES

Best of Luck for Your JE Exam! ■■