SCIENCE LEARNING MODULE
Thermodynamic Processes
& Laws of Thermodynamics
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• Describe thermodynamic processes in engines and refrigeration systems
• Explain factors affecting engine efficiency: working cycle, friction, and material
limitations
• Use the Laws of Thermodynamics to describe how sustainable energy technologies
work
Zeroth Law • First Law • Second Law
Introduction to Thermodynamics
Understanding Energy, Heat, and Work
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies the relationships between heat, work,
temperature, and energy. It explains how energy is transferred and transformed — from the engine in a
car to the refrigerator in your kitchen.
Key Concepts
• System: The region of interest being studied (e.g., a gas in a piston)
• Surroundings: Everything outside the system
• Thermal Equilibrium: When two objects reach the same temperature
• Internal Energy (U): The total kinetic and potential energy of particles in a system
• Heat (Q): Energy transferred due to a temperature difference
• Work (W): Energy transferred when a force acts through a distance
Thermodynamic Processes
A thermodynamic process is a change in the state of a system. The four common processes are:
Process Description Constant Property
Isothermal Temperature stays constant; heat Temperature (T = constant)
may be exchanged
Adiabatic No heat exchange with the Heat (Q = 0)
surroundings
Isobaric Pressure remains constant Pressure (P = constant)
throughout
Isochoric Volume does not change; no work Volume (V = constant)
is done
Law 1: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The Foundation of Temperature Measurement
Figure 1: Diagram illustrating the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics — thermal equilibrium between systems
Statement of the Zeroth Law
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Understanding Thermal Equilibrium
Two objects are in thermal equilibrium when no net heat flows between them — they are at the same
temperature. The Zeroth Law tells us that temperature is a transitive property: if A = B and B = C, then
A = C.
Why is it called the 'Zeroth' Law?
This law was recognized after the First and Second Laws were already established, but it is so
fundamental — a prerequisite for the others — that scientists placed it before them and called it the
"Zeroth" Law.
Real-World Application: The Thermometer
• A thermometer (System B) is placed in contact with a patient's body (System A)
• The thermometer reaches thermal equilibrium with the body
• We read the thermometer's scale (System B = System C = our reference)
• By the Zeroth Law, the patient's temperature equals the thermometer reading
Key Insight: The Zeroth Law makes the concept of temperature meaningful and
measurable. Without it, we could not consistently define or compare temperatures.
Law 2: First Law of Thermodynamics
Conservation of Energy
Figure 2: The First Law of Thermodynamics — energy is conserved in all thermodynamic processes
Statement of the First Law
Energy cannot be created or destroyed — it can only be converted from one form to
another. The total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Mathematical Expression
ΔU = Q − W
Symbol Quantity Meaning
ΔU Change in Internal Energy Positive if energy increases; negative if it
decreases
Q Heat Positive if heat flows INTO the system; negative if
heat flows OUT
W Work Positive if system does work on surroundings;
negative if work done ON system
Applications
• Steam Engine: Heat from burning fuel (Q) converts to work (W) to move pistons
• Electric Generator: Mechanical work becomes electrical energy
• Compression: Work done on gas raises its internal energy, increasing temperature
• Fuel Combustion: Chemical energy converts to thermal energy in car engines
Law 3: Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy and the Direction of Processes
Figure 3: The Second Law — entropy increases and heat flows from hot to cold regions naturally
Two Equivalent Statements
KELVIN-PLANCK: It is impossible to build a heat engine that converts ALL heat into
work. Some heat must always be rejected to the environment.
CLAUSIUS: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a cold body to a hot body without
the addition of external work.
Entropy (S)
Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. The Second Law states that the total
entropy of an isolated system always increases over time — processes naturally move toward greater
disorder.
ΔS ≥ 0 (for an isolated system)
Why is 100% Efficiency Impossible?
Because of the Second Law, every real engine must reject some heat to a cold reservoir. The
maximum theoretical efficiency is given by the Carnot efficiency:
η_max = 1 − (T_cold / T_hot) [temperatures in
Kelvin]
• Higher T_hot (hotter source) → higher efficiency
• Lower T_cold (colder sink) → higher efficiency
• A 100% efficient engine would require T_cold = 0 K (absolute zero), which is unattainable
Engine Efficiency
Factors That Limit Real-World Performance
Figure 4: Engine efficiency formulas and key factors limiting real-world heat engine performance
Thermal Efficiency Formula
η = W_net / Q_H = 1 − (Q_C / Q_H)
Factor 1: Working Cycle
The type of thermodynamic cycle determines the theoretical maximum efficiency:
• Carnot Cycle: Theoretical maximum efficiency between two temperatures (ideal, not achievable
in practice)
• Otto Cycle: Used in gasoline engines — compression ignition determines efficiency
• Diesel Cycle: Used in diesel engines — higher compression ratio gives slightly better efficiency
• Rankine Cycle: Used in steam power plants — water/steam is the working fluid
Factor 2: Friction
Friction between moving engine parts (pistons, bearings, valves) converts useful mechanical energy
into waste heat, reducing efficiency. Mitigation strategies include:
• Lubrication with engine oil to reduce friction
• Precision machining of parts for tighter tolerances
• Using low-friction materials such as ceramic coatings
Factor 3: Material Limitations
Higher combustion temperatures increase theoretical efficiency, but engine materials have temperature
limits. Beyond these limits, metals warp, weaken, or melt. Engineers use:
• High-temperature alloys (nickel superalloys in jet engines)
• Ceramic thermal barrier coatings on turbine blades
• Active cooling systems (water jackets, oil coolers)
Real engines typically achieve 25–40% efficiency. A modern diesel truck engine can
reach about 45%, while a combined-cycle natural gas plant can exceed 60%.
Refrigeration Systems
Applying Thermodynamics in Reverse
Figure 5: The refrigeration cycle — heat is moved from cold to hot using external work input
How Refrigeration Applies the Laws
A refrigerator does NOT create cold — it moves heat from inside the cabinet (cold) to the room outside
(warm). This requires external work (electric power), consistent with the Second Law.
The Four Steps of the Refrigeration Cycle
1. EVAPORATION: Liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils inside the fridge. It
absorbs heat from the food and air inside, evaporating into a gas. The inside gets cold.
2. COMPRESSION: The compressor (powered by electricity) compresses the refrigerant gas,
raising its pressure and temperature significantly.
3. CONDENSATION: The hot, high-pressure gas flows to the condenser coils (outside/back of
fridge). It releases heat to the room and condenses back into liquid.
4. EXPANSION: The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve, dropping in pressure
and temperature, ready to evaporate again. The cycle repeats.
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
COP = Q_C / W = Heat Removed / Work Input
A higher COP means a more efficient refrigerator. Modern refrigerators have COPs of 2–6, meaning
they can remove 2–6 Joules of heat for every 1 Joule of electrical energy consumed.
Sustainable Energy Technologies
Thermodynamic Laws in Action
Solar Thermal Power Plants
Solar thermal plants concentrate sunlight to heat a fluid to high temperatures, then use a heat engine
(Rankine cycle) to generate electricity. The First Law governs energy conversion, and the Second Law
sets the efficiency limit based on the temperature difference.
Technology Thermodynamic Principles Applied
Solar Thermal First Law: solar heat → steam → electricity. Second Law:
efficiency limited by sun/ambient temperature ratio
Wind Turbines First Law: kinetic energy of wind → mechanical → electrical. No
heat engine — not limited by Carnot efficiency
Geothermal First Law: Earth's heat energy → work. Second Law: efficiency
depends on geothermal fluid temperature vs. atmosphere
Heat Pumps Second Law applied in reverse: moves heat from cold
ground/air into buildings using electrical work (COP > 1)
Ocean Thermal Second Law: exploits temperature difference between warm
surface water and cold deep water (OTEC technology)
Heat Pumps: A Closer Look
A heat pump is essentially a refrigerator in reverse — instead of cooling a space, it heats one. By using
the Second Law cleverly, heat pumps can deliver more energy as heat than they consume as
electricity, making them one of the most efficient sustainable heating technologies.
COP_heating = Q_H / W = T_hot / (T_hot − T_cold)
[Carnot]
Module Summary
Review of Key Concepts
Law Core Statement Key Application
Zeroth Law Thermal equilibrium is transitive; Thermometers — all temperature
temperature is well-defined measurement
First Law Energy is conserved: ΔU = Q − W Engines, generators, all energy
conversion devices
Second Law Entropy increases; no engine is Engine efficiency limits,
100% efficient; heat flows from hot refrigerators, heat pumps
to cold
Review Questions
5. Define thermal equilibrium and explain how the Zeroth Law makes thermometers work.
6. A gas absorbs 500 J of heat and does 200 J of work on its surroundings. What is the change in
its internal energy?
7. Explain why a refrigerator releases heat to the room, and which law of thermodynamics this
relates to.
8. A heat engine operates between 600 K and 300 K. What is its maximum (Carnot) efficiency?
9. List three factors that reduce real engine efficiency below the theoretical Carnot maximum.
10. How does a heat pump use thermodynamic principles to heat a building more efficiently than
direct electric heating?
Challenge: Research one renewable energy technology and explain in detail how
each of the three Laws of Thermodynamics applies to its operation.