MATH F102 (Linear Algebra and Complex

Variables)

Gaurav Dwivedi
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus.
Module-7 (Functions of Complex Variable)
Function of a Complex Variable

Function of a complex variable

Let S be a set of complex numbers. Then function f
defined on S is a rule that assigns to each z ∈ S, a
complex number w, and we write

f (z) = w.

The set S is called the domain of the definition of f .

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Function of a Complex Variable
S⊆C S′ ⊆ C

f
f (z) = w
z

Domain Codomain
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For each z = x + iy, let w = f (z), and write

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),

where u and v are real-valued functions, u, v : R2 → R.

Similarly, in polar form, we express f as

f (z = reiθ ) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ).

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Examples

f (z) = z 2 = (x2 − y 2 ) + i(2xy). Here

u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy.

f (z) = ex (cos y + i sin y). Here u(x, y) = ex cos y

and v(x, y) = ex sin y.

In polar form f (z) = z 2 gives

f (z) = (reiθ )2 = r2 e2iθ = r2 (cos 2θ + i sin 2θ).

Here u(r, θ) = r2 cos 2θ and v(r, θ) = r2 sin 2θ.

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 Polynomial function:

f (z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · + an z n ,

where n is zero or a positive integer and

a0 , a1 , . . . , an are complex constants and an ̸= 0.
The domain of the definition is the entire z-plane.

Rational function: the quotients P (z)/Q(z) of

polynomials. The domain of definition is
{z ∈ C : Q(z) ̸= 0}.

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Limit

Limit
Let f be a function defined at all points of z in some
deleted nbd of z0 , then

lim f (z) = w0 ,
z→z0

if given ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

|f (z) − w0 | < ϵ whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.

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Limit
That means the point w = f (z) can be made arbitrarily
close to w0 if we choose the point z close enough to z0
but distinct from it.

Note: If lim f (z) exists, then it is unique.

z→z0
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Some Theorems on Limits

Theorem 1
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), (z = x + iy), and

z0 = x0 + iy0 , w0 = u0 + iv0 ,

then
lim f (z) = w0 ,
z→z0

if and only if

lim u(x, y) = u0 and lim v(x, y) = v0 .

(x,y)→(x0 ,y0 ) (x,y)→(x0 ,y0 )

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Some Theorems on Limits

Theorem 2
If lim f (z) and lim g(z) both exist, then
z→z0 z→z0

lim [f (z) ± g(z)] = lim f (z) ± lim g(z).

z→z0 z→z0 z→z0

lim [f (z)g(z)] = lim f (z) lim g(z).

z→z0 z→z0 z→z0

h i lim f (z)
f (z) z→z0
lim g(z) = lim g(z) , provided lim g(z) ̸= 0.
z→z0 z→z0 z→z0

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Example

lim zz does not exist.

z→0
Sol. Along x-axis, we have
z x
lim = lim = 1,
z→0 z x→0 x

and along y-axis, we have

z iy iy
lim = lim = lim = −1,
z→0 z y→0 iy y→0 −iy

therefore limit does not exit.

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 iz̄
Exercise Show that if f (z) = in the open disk
2
|z| < 1, then
i
lim f (z) = .
z→1 2
2
Exercise Show that lim zz does not exist.


z→0
Sol. Use two paths test.

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Continuity

Continuous Function
A function f (z) is said to be continuous at a point z0 if
f (z0 ) is defined.
lim f (z) exists.
z→z0

lim f (z) = f (z0 ).

z→z0

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Continuity

Continuous Function
A function f (z) is said to be continuous at a point z0 if
for a given ϵ > 0, there is a δ > 0, such that

|f (z) − f (z0 )| < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ.

A function f (z) is said to be continuous in a region R if

it is continuous at all the points of the region R.

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Example
Re z
Discuss the continuity of f (z) = 1+|z| at z = 0.
Sol. We have f (0) = 0. Now
x
lim f (z) = lim p = 0 = f (0).
z→0 (x,y)→(0,0) 1 + x2 + y 2
Therefore f (z) is continuous at 0.

Discuss the continuity of

(
Re z
z ̸ 0
z=
f (z) =
0 z=0
at z = 0.
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Some Results on Continuity

Theorem
f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is continuous iff both u(x, y)
and v(x, y) are continuous.

Theorem
The composition of continuous functions is continuous.

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Some Results on Continuity

Theorem
If f (z) and g(z) are continuous, then
f (z) ± g(z),
f (z)g(z), and
f (z)
g(z) , g(z) ̸= 0,

all are continuous.

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Some Results on Continuity

Theorem
Let f (z) is continuous at z0 and f (z0 ) ̸= 0. Then
f (z) ̸= 0 throughout in some nbd of z0 .
Proof. Since f (z) is continuous at z0 , therefore for each
ϵ > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that

|f (z) − f (z0 )| < ϵ whenever |z − z0 | < δ. (1)

Equation (1) is valid for all ϵ, so in particular it holds for

ϵ = |f (z2 0 )| .

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Then there exists δ > 0 such that when |z − z0 | < δ

|f (z0 )|
|f (z) − f (z0 )| < .
2
|f (z0 )|
If f (z) = 0 in Nδ1 z0 , where δ1 < δ, then |f (z0 )| < 2 ,
which is a contradiction. Therefore, we must have
f (z) ̸= 0 for all z in Nδ1 (z0 ).

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Some Results on Continuity

Theorem
Every continuous function in a closed and bounded
region R is bounded i.e.,

|f (z)| ≤ M for all z ∈ R.

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Derivatives
Differentiable Function
Let f be a function defined on S containing Nρ (z0 ). If

f (z) − f (z0 )
lim ,
z→z0 z − z0
or equivalently
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
lim ,
∆z→0 ∆z
exists then we say f is differentiable at z0 . This limit,
denoted by f ′ (z0 ), is called the derivative of f at z0 .
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Example

If f (z) = z 2 + 2, then show that f ′ (z0 ) = 2z0 .

Sol. We have
f (z) − f (z0 ) (z 2 + 2) − (z02 + 2)
lim = lim
z→z0 z − z0 z→z0 z − z0
= lim (z + z0 )
z→z0
= 2z0 .

Thus f ′ (z0 ) = 2z0 .

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Question
Show that f f (z) = |z|2 . is continuous everywhere but
differentiable only at 0.
Sol. We havef (z) = |z|2 = x2 + y 2 = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
Since both u(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and v(x, y) = 0 are
continuous everywhere, therefore f (z) is continuous
everywhere. For ∆z ̸= 0, we have
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) |z0 + ∆z|2 − |z0 |2
=
∆z ∆z
(z0 + ∆z)(z0 + ∆z) − z0 z0
=
z − z0
z0 z0 + z0 ∆z + ∆zz0 + ∆z∆z − z0 z0
=
∆z
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 f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) ∆z
= z0 + ∆z + z0
∆z ∆z
If z0 = 0,
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) f (∆z) − f (0)
lim = lim = 0.
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z
Thus f (z) is differentiable at 0 and f ′ (0) = 0.

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When z0 ̸= 0,
 
f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 ) ∆z
lim = lim z0 + ∆z + z0
∆z→0 ∆z ∆z→0 ∆z
  
∆x − i∆y
= lim z0 + ∆z + z0
∆z→0 ∆x + i∆y
(
z0 + z0 when ∆z = ∆x
=
z0 − z0 when ∆z = i∆y

Since z0 − z0 ̸= z0 + z0 for z0 ̸= 0, the function f (z) is

not differentiable at any z0 ̸= 0.

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Question
Let f (z) be a function defined by
( 2
(z̄)
f (z) = z , if z ̸= 0,
0, if z = 0.

Show that f ′ (0) does not exist.

Sol. We have
2
(z̄)
f (z) − f (0) −0
lim = lim z
z→0 z−0 z→0 z − 0
 z̄ 2  2
x − iy
= lim = lim .
z→0 z (x,y)→(0,0) x + iy

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Now, along x-axis
 2
x − iy
lim = 1,
(x,y)→(0,0) x + iy

while along the line y = x

 2
x − iy
lim = −1.
(x,y)→(0,0) x + iy

Therefore, the limit limz→0 f (z)−f

z
(0)
does not exist,
′
which implies that f (0) does not exist.

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Differentiability implies continuity
If f is differentiable at z0 then f is continuous at z0 .
Proof.
 
f (z) − f (z0 )
lim (f (z) − f (z0 )) = lim .(z − z0 )
z→z0 z→z0 z − z0
 
f (z) − f (z0 )
= lim . lim (z − z0 )
z→z0 z − z0 z→z0

= f ′ (z0 ).0 = 0.

Thus
limz→z0 f (z) = limz→z0 (f (z) − f (z0 ) + f (z0 )) = f (z0 ).
Hence f is continuous at z0 .
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Remark
If f (z) is continuous at a point z0 , it does not necessarily
imply that f (z) is differentiable at z0 .

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Differentiation Rules
d
dz (c) = 0 for a constant c.
d n
dz (z ) = nz n−1 .
[f (z) ± g(z)]′ = f ′ (z) ± g ′ (z).
[f (z)g(z)]′ = f (z)g ′ (z) + f ′ (z)g(z).
h i′
f (z) g(z)f ′ (z)−f (z)g ′ (z)
g(z) = (g(z))2 , g(z) ̸= 0.

Chain Rule: Let F (z) = g(f (z)). If f is

differentiable at z0 and g is differentiable at f (z0 ),
then F (z) is differentiable at z0 and
F ′ (z0 ) = g ′ (f (z0 ))f ′ (z0 ).
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Limit of a Quotient
Suppose that
f (z0 ) = g(z0 ) = 0
and the derivatives f ′ (z0 ) and g ′ (z0 ) exist, with
g ′ (z0 ) ̸= 0. Then show that

f (z) f ′ (z0 )
lim = ′ .
z→z0 g(z) g (z0 )
Proof.
f (z)−f (z0 )
f (z) limz→z0 z−z0 f ′ (z0 )
lim = = ′ .
z→z0 g(z) limz→z0 g(z)−g(z
z−z0
0) g (z0 )

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Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
Necessary Condition: A condition P is necessary for
Q if
Q ⇒ P.

Sufficient Condition: A condition P is sufficient for Q

if
P ⇒ Q.
Example: If f is differentiable at z0 , then f is
continuous at z0 .

Differentiable ⇒ Continuous.

Thus, continuity is necessary for differentiability, But

NOT sufficient.
Cauchy–Riemann Equations
Necessary Condition for Differentiability
Suppose
f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), z0 = x0 + iy0 .
If f is differentiable at z0 , then the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exist at (x0 , y0 ) and satisfy the
Cauchy–Riemann equations:
ux = vy , uy = −vx at (x0 , y0 ).
Moreover,
f ′ (z0 ) = ux + ivx ,
where all partial derivatives are evaluated at (x0 , y0 ).
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Proof

Since f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at

z0 = x0 + iy0 , therefore
f (z0 + △z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
∆z→0 △z

u(x0 + △x, y0 + △y) − u(x0 , y0 )
= lim
(∆x,∆y)→(0,0) △x + i△y

v(x0 + △x, y0 + △y) − v(x0 , y0 )
+i .
△x + i△y

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 u(x0 + △x, y0 + △y) − u(x0 , y0 )
= lim
(∆x,∆y)→(0,0) △x + i△y
v(x0 + △x, y0 + △y) − v(x0 , y0 )
+i lim .
(∆x,∆y)→(0,0) △x + i△y

Now along the path where ∆y = 0, we have

f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ),

and along the path where ∆x = 0, we have

f ′ (z0 ) = −iuy (x0 , y0 ) + vy (x0 , y0 ).

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Since f is differentiable at z0 , therefore, f ′ (z0 ) is unique
(limits along every path are the same) and so, on
comparing:

ux (x0 , y0 ) = vy (x0 , y0 ), uy (x0 , y0 ) = −vx (x0 , y0 ).

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C-R Equations: Not Sufficient
For the function
(
(z̄)2
z , if z ̸= 0
f (z) =
0, if z = 0.

u, v satisfy C-R equations at (0, 0) but f (z) is not

differentiable at z = 0.
Sol. For z ̸= 0, we have

(z̄)2 x3 − 3xy 2 y 3 − 3x2 y

f (z) = = 2 +i 2 .
z x + y2 x + y2

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Continued

Therefore
x3 − 3xy 2 y 3 − 3x2 y
u(x, y) = , v(x, y) = .
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
Now, we have
u(h, 0) − u(0, 0) h−0
ux (0, 0) = lim = lim = 1.
h→0 h h→0 h
u(0, k) − u(0, 0) 0−0
uy (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
k→0 k k→0 h

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Continued

Similarly,
v(h, 0) − v(0, 0) 0−0
vx (0, 0) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
v(0, k) − v(0, 0) k−0
vy (0, 0) = lim = lim = 1.
k→0 k k→0 k
Thus ux = vy and uy = −vx at (0, 0). Hence C-R
equations are satisfied at (0, 0) but f is not differentiable
at (0, 0) (already proved previously).

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Sufficient Condition for Differentiability

Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be defined in a

neighbourhood Nε (z0 ), where z0 = x0 + iy0 . Suppose:
1 The first-order partial derivatives ux , uy , vx , vy
exist in Nε (z0 ).
2 These partial derivatives are continuous and satisfy
the Cauchy–Riemann equations at (x0 , y0 ).

Then f is differentiable at z0 , and

f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ).

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Example
Use the sufficient condition for differentiability to show
that f (z) = z 2 is differentiable at every point in C and
f ′ (z0 ) = 2z0 .
Sol. f (z) = z 2 = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy. Thus
u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy. Therefore

ux = 2x, uy = −2y, vx = 2y, vy = 2x.

Clearly ux , uy , vx , vy all are continuous everywhere. Also

ux = vy and uy = −vx hold for all z, therefore f is
differentiable for all z and

f ′ (z0 ) = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) = 2x0 + i(2y0 ) = 2z0 .

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Question
Show that the function
f (z) = x3 + i(1 − y)3 ,
is differentiable only at z = i and f ′ (i) = 0.
Sol. Here u = x3 , v = (1 − y)3 and so
ux = 3x2 , uy = 0, vx = 0, vy = −3(1 − y)2 .
C-R equations gives 3x2 = −3(1 − y)2 which gives
x = 0, y = 1. By using the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the differentiability (How?), we conclude
that f is differentiable only at z = i and
f ′ (i) = ux (0, 1) + ivx (0, 1) = 0.
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Exercises

Find the points where the following functions are

differentiable
f (z) = |z|2 .
Ans. differentiable only at 0.

f (z) = z̄.
Ans. nowhere differentiable.

f (z) = ex cos y + iex sin y.

Ans. differentiable everywhere.

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Question

Exercise Let f (z) be a function defined by

( 3
x −3x(y+1)2 +i{(y+1)3 −3x2 (y+1)}
x2 +(y+1)2 , if z ̸= −i,
f (z) =
0, if z = −i.

Show that f ′ (−i) does not exist but C-R equations are
satisfied at (0, −1).

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Differentiability in Polar Coordinates
Let
f (z) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ), z = reiθ .
Suppose f is differentiable at
z0 = r0 eiθ0 .

Then the first-order partial derivatives exist and satisfy

the polar Cauchy–Riemann equations:
1
ur = vθ , uθ = −rvr at (r0 , θ0 ).
r
Moreover,
f ′ (z0 ) = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) (r0 ,θ0 )
.
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Sufficient Condition: Polar Coordinates
Let
f (z) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ), z0 = r0 eiθ0 ̸= 0,
defined in a neighbourhood of z0 , say Nϵ (z0 ).
Assume:
1 ur , uθ , vr , vθ exist in Nϵ (z0 ),
2 these partial derivatives are continuous at (r0 , θ0 ),
3 the polar C–R equations hold at (r0 , θ0 ).

Then f is differentiable at z0 , and

f ′ (z0 ) = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) (r0 ,θ0 )

.
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Example
Show that the function f (z) = z1 is differentiable
everywhere except at z = 0.
Sol. Clearly the function is not defined at z = 0 and so
can’t be differentiable there.
Now for z ̸= 0, we have
1 1 cos θ − i sin θ
f (z) = = iθ = .
z re r
cos θ
Thus, we have u(r, θ) = r and v(r, θ) = − sinr θ . It
gives
cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ
ur = − , u θ = − , vr = , v θ = − .
r2 r r2 r
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Clearly (How?), all three conditions for differentiability
are satisfied, and so f is differentiable for all z ̸= 0. Also
f ′ (z) is given by
 
cos θ sin θ 1
f ′ (z) = e−iθ (ur + ivr ) = e−iθ − 2 + i 2 = − 2.
r r z

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Analytic Function
Analytic Function
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if it is
differentiable not only at z0 but also at every point in
some neighbourhood of z0 .
A function f (z) is said to be analytic in a domain D if it
is differentiable at all points in D.

Entire Function
A function f (z) is said to be entire if it is analytic in the
whole complex plane.

For example, polynomials are entire functions.

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Few Questions

Question: Is there a function which is analytic at

exactly one point?
Answer: No.
Reason: If f is analytic at z0 , then by definition, it is
differentiable in some neighbourhood of z0 .
Question: Is there a function which is analytic at
finitely many points?
Answer: No.

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Analyticity ⇒ Differentiability
Theorem
If f is analytic at z0 , then f is differentiable at z0 .
Proof
If f is analytic at z0 , then by definition it is differentiable
at every point in some neighbourhood of z0 .
In particular, it is differentiable at z0 .
Important: The converse is false.
Example:
f (z) = |z|2
Differentiable only at 0, hence, not analytic at 0.
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Algebra of Analytic Functions

Theorem: Let f and g be analytic in a domain D, and

let c ∈ C. Then the following functions are analytic in D:
cf (scalar multiple)
f ±g (sum and difference)
fg (product)
f
, provided g(z) ̸= 0 in D (quotient)
g
f ◦ g (composition), where defined.

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Exercises

For each of the following functions:

(i) Find the points where the function is differentiable.
(ii) Determine where it is analytic.

1 f (z) = x2 y 2 + i 2x2 y 2
2 f (z) = 3x2 y 2 − 6i x2 y 2
3 f (z) = (x3 + 3xy 2 − x) + i (y 3 + 3x2 y − y)
4 f (z) = (x2 − x + y) + i (y 2 − 5y − x)

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Singular Point
Definition
Let a function f (z) be not analytic at a point z0 , but
analytic at some point in every neighbourhood of z0 .
Then z0 is called a
singular point or singularity
of f (z).
Examples
1
If f (z) = , then z = 0 is a singularity of f (z).
z
If f (z) = |z|2 , then it has no singular points since it
is nowhere analytic.
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Theorem
If f ′ (z) = 0 everywhere in a domain D then f (z) is
constant throughout in D.

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Some Results

Let f be analytic in a domain D. Then f is constant if

any of the following conditions hold:
Re f (z) is constant.
Im f (z) is constant.
imaginary part of f is the square of the real part of
f.
f and f¯ both are analytic everywhere in D.
|f (z)| is constant in D.
arg(f (z)) is a constant in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 57 / 84

Question

Let a function f be analytic everywhere in a domain D.

Prove that if f (z) is real valued for all z in D, then f (z)
must be constant throughout D.

Sol. Let f (z) = u(x, y) (a real number). Then since f is

analytic in D so ux = 0 and uy = 0 [using C-R equations
(as vx = vy = 0)] throughout D and so u is a constant
throughout D and hence f is a constant throughout D.

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Harmonic Function

Harmonic Function
A real-valued function H(x, y) is said to be harmonic in
a given domain D if
1 first and second order partial derivatives of H exist
and are continuous in D and
2 H satisfies the Laplace equation

Hxx + Hyy = 0.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 59 / 84

Example

Example
H(x, y) = x2 − y 2 is harmonic in every domain D.
Sol. Since

Hxx = 2, Hyy = −2, Hxy = Hyx = 0,

all are continuous everywhere and

Hxx + Hyy = 0.

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Theorem
If a function f is analytic at a given point, then its
derivatives of all order are analytic there too.

Remark
If a function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic at a
point z = (x, y), then the component functions u and v
have continuous partial derivatives of all orders at that
point.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 61 / 84

Theorem
Theorem
If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in domain D then
u and v are harmonic in D.
Proof. Since f (z) is analytic in D, the component
functions u and v have continuous partial derivatives of
all orders in D. Moreover, since f is analytic in D,
u(x, y) and v(x, y) will satisfy Cauchy Riemann
equations throughout D, i.e.,
ux = vy , uy = −vx .
Differentiating both sides of these equation w.r.t. ‘x’:
uxx = vyx , uyx = −vxx . (2)
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Likewise, differentiation w.r.t ‘y’ yields:
uxy = vyy , uyy = −vxy . (3)
Since second order partial derivatives of u and v are
continuous,
uxy = uyx , vxy = vyx . (4)
Now (2), (3), (4), we obtain
uxx + uyy = 0 and vxx + vyy = 0.
Thus u and v are Harmonic in D.
Note: The converse of the above theorem is not true,
i.e., if u and v are harmonic, u + iv is not necessarily
analytic.
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Example
Since f (z) = ex (cos y + i sin y) is entire (and so analytic
everywhere) so u(x, y) = ex cos y and v(x, y) = ex sin y
are harmonic in whole plane.

Remark
The converse of the above theorem is not true.
u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v = xy are harmonic in D (an
open disc of radius 1 and center at origin) (Why?) but
u + iv is not analytic in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 64 / 84

Harmonic Conjugate

Let u and v be two functions defined on a domain D.

Then v is said to be harmonic conjugate of u if:
1 u and v are harmonic in D and
2 their first order partial derivatives satisfy C-R
equations
ux = vy , uy = −vx ,
throughout in D.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 65 / 84

Theorem
A function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a
domain D iff v is harmonic conjugate of u.

Proof. If v is harmonic conjugate of u in D, then f is

analytic in D. (Why?) Conversely, if f is analytic in D,
then we know that u and v are harmonic in D and
Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied in D.
Theorem
If a harmonic function u is defined in a simply connected
domain D, it always has a harmonic conjugate v in D.

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Remarks

If v is a harmonic conjugate of u in some domain

D, then it is not true, in general, that u is harmonic
conjugate of v there.
For example,

u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy.

If v is harmonic conjugate of u, then u is harmonic

conjugate of −v.

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Finding Harmonic Conjugate
Problem. If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic and u
is given then how to find v?
Steps to find v.

Since f (z) is analytic so

ux = vy , uy = −vx .

On integrating first one w.r.t. y:

Z
v = ux dy + ϕ(x) = g(x, y) + ϕ(x).

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Finding Harmonic Conjugate
On differentiating w.r.t. x

vx = gx (x, y) + ϕ′ (x).

Using uy = −vx :

uy = −[gx (x, y) + ϕ′ (x)]

⇒ ϕ′ (x) = −[uy + gx (x, y)].

On integrating:
Z
ϕ(x) = − (uy + gx (x, y)) dx + constant.

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Question
Show that u(x, y) = sinh x sin y is harmonic in some
domain D and find a harmonic conjugate v(x, y) of
u(x, y) in D.
Sol. Using first C-R equation, we have
vy = ux = cosh x sin y.
On integrating w.r.t. y:
v = − cosh x cos y + ϕ(x).
On differentiating w.r.t. x:
vx = − sinh x cos y + ϕ′ (x).
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Now using second C-R equation vx = −uy , we get

− sinh x cos y + ϕ′ (x) = − sinh x cos y,

which gives:

ϕ′ (x) = 0 and so ϕ(x) = c.

Hence
v = − cosh x cos y + c.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 71 / 84

Question

Show that if v1 and v2 are harmonic conjugates of

u(x, y) in a domain D, then v1 (x, y) and v2 (x, y) can
differ at most by an additive constant.
Sol. Since v1 is harmonic conjugate of u, so u + iv1 is
analytic in D. Similarly, since v2 is harmonic conjugate
of u, so u + iv2 is analytic in D. Since difference of two
analytic function is analytic so i(v1 − v2 ) is analytic in
D. Hence v1 − v2 is a constant in D (Why?).

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 72 / 84

Question
Suppose that v is a harmonic conjugate of u in a domain
D and also that u is a harmonic conjugate of v in D.
Show that both u and v must be constant throughout D.
Sol. Since v is a harmonic conjugate of u in D so

u + iv is analytic in D.

Also since u is a harmonic conjugate of v in D so

v + iu is analytic in D,

and so
iv − u is analytic in D.
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 73 / 84
Since the sum and difference of two analytic functions is
also analytic, therefore u and v both are analytic in D.
Thus f is constant.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 74 / 84

Exercises I
1 Is the product of two harmonic functions harmonic?
2 Does there exist a function f that is analytic for
Re(z) ≥ 1 and is not analytic anywhere else?
3 Show that if u(x, y) is harmonic in D and v(x, y) is
its harmonic conjugate in D, then uv is harmonic in
D.
4 Find an analytic function f (if exists) whose real
part is xy 2 .
5 Does there exist an analytic function on the
complex plane whose real part is given by
u(x, y) = 3x2 + xy + y 2 ?
Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 75 / 84
Exercises II

6 Does there exist an analytic function

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) for which
u(x, y) = y 3 + 5x.
7 Does there exist an analytic function
f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) for which
u(x, y) = e4x cos 2y?
8 Is f (z) = (x + αy)2 + 2i(x − αy) analytic for
α ∈ R?
9 Can you determine the analytic function
f (z) = u + iv for which u + v is known?

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 76 / 84

Exercises III
10 Does there exist a function f that is analytic for
Re(z) ≥ 1 and is not analytic anywhere else?
11 If u(x, y) and v(x, y) are harmonic functions in a
domain D, then is the function
   
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
f (z) = − +i + ,
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y

analytic in D?
12 Find harmonic conjugate of following functions (if
exists):
i u(x, y) = 2x − x3 + 3xy 2
y
ii u(x, y) = x2 +y 2

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 77 / 84

Exercises IV

iii u(x, y) = xy
iv u(x, y) = y 3 − 3x2 y
v u(x, y) = x3 − 3xy 2 + y
13 Find an analytic function f (z) for which
Im f (z) = ex sin y − x.

Gaurav Dwivedi (BITS Pilani) Complex Variables March 6, 2026 78 / 84

Stereographic Projection
☞ View the complex plane as passing through the equator of the
unit sphere S centered at the origin.
☞ For each point z in the complex plane, draw the line joining z and
the north pole N . This line meets the sphere at a unique point P .
☞ Thus each z corresponds to a unique point P on the sphere, and
each point P ̸= N corresponds to a unique z in the plane.
☞ If the north pole N is identified with the point ∞, we obtain a
one–to–one correspondence between

S and C̃ = C ∪ {∞}.

☞ This correspondence is called stereographic projection. The

sphere S is called the Riemann sphere.

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Stereographic Projection and
the Riemann Sphere

Figure: Stereographic Projection

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Point at Infinity

Point at Infinity
The point at infinity is denoted by ∞, and the complex
plane together with ∞ is called the extended complex
plane.
For each small ϵ > 0, the set
 
1
S = z : |z| > ,
ϵ

is called an ϵ neighborhood of ∞.

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Definition of lim f (z) = f0
z→∞
Let f (z) be a complex function of the complex variable
z, and f0 be a complex constant. If for every real
number ε, there exists a real number r such that
|f (z) − f0 | < ε for every |z| > r, then we say that

lim f (z) = f0 .
z→∞

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Definition of lim f (z) = ∞
z→z0
Let f (z) be a complex function of the complex variable
z, and z0 be a complex constant. If for every real
number ε, there exists a δ > 0 such that |f (z)| > ε for
every 0 < |z − z0 | < δ, then we say that

lim f (z) = ∞.
z→z0

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Theorem Related to ∞
1
lim f (z) = ∞ ⇔ lim f (z) = 0.
z→z0 z→z0

1


lim f (z) = w0 ⇔ lim f z = w0 .
z→∞ z→0

1
lim f (z) = ∞ ⇔ lim f = 0.
z→∞ z→0 ( z1 )
Proof. Proofs are exercise.

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